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In these free GATE Study Notes, we introduce a new topic in Control Systems
Introduction to State Space Analysis. In the previous few GATE Preparation Notes, all
the analysis techniques studied had a requirement that the physical system should be in
transfer function form. Although a powerful and simple tool, transfer function methods
have certain draws backs. They are only defined for LTI systems. Also, a transfer
function comes from assuming zero initial conditions. It is also restricted to only single
input output systems and provides no insight about the internal state of the system.
Thus we require a more general mathematical representation of systems which can
yield information about state of systems variables along with the flow the signals. For
this purpose, we use state space analysis. It eliminates all the disadvantages of transfer
function approach. There are tools like controllability and observability to check the
validity of state variables.
These GATE Notes can be downloaded in PDF for your preparation of GATE EE and
GATE EC. They are also useful for other exams like IES, BSNL, DRDO, BARC. But before
you get started, here are some articles you must read.
Recommended Reading
State Variable
1
These are the set of variables which along with input define the behaviour of the system
(i.e. future values).
Number of state variable in a system should be minimum equal to the order of the
system. Also, the system output and its derivatives can be considered as state variables.
State Space
Set of possible values that the state variables can assume is called state space.
Now, suppose we have a multi input multi output system with m number of inputs, n
number of state variables and p number of output variables. The systems will be
represented through state equations as follows
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
Hence u is m 1 input vector, x is n 1 state variable vector and y is p 1 output
vector.
y!
u!
x!
y!
u!
x!
u = : ,x = : ,y = :
y!
u!
x!
A, B, C, D are matrices with their dimensions as A n n, B n m, C p n,
Dpm
!!!
a!!
a!"
= :
:
a!"
a!"
a!!
..
..
..
a!" x!
b!!
a!" x!
..
..
: + b!"
:
..
..
:
b!"
. . a!! x!
c!!
y!
c!"
y!
: = :
:
y!
c!"
c!"
c!"
..
..
c!"
!"
!!!
!"
!!!
!"
x!
d!!
x!
d
x! + !
:
:
b!"
x!
b!"
..
..
..
d!"
..
..
..
u
b!" u!
!
..
..
:
..
..
:
. . b!" u
!
d!"
..
..
..
..
. . d!"
u!
u!
:
:
u!
State models can be derived from the physical system itself or from differential equation
form (phase variable method).
First, we will take a look at physical system itself. Suppose we have a system with circuit
given as follows.
In the above circuit E is the input variable. It has three energy storage elements L1, L2
and C. The state variables of the system are x1(t) = v, x2(t) = I1, x2(t) = I2. If we have
knowledge of initial conditions for v(0), I1(0), I2(0) and input signal E for t 0, then the
behaviour of the network is completely specified for t 0
Now, applying KVL is the circuit, we get
I! + I! +
L!
!!!
L!
!!!
!"
!!
!"#
!"
=0
+ R! I! + E v = 0
+ R ! I! v = 0
!!
!
!
I! ! I!
!
= ! v ! ! I! ! E
!
!!!
!"
!!
= ! v ! I!
x!
!
x! = !
!
x!
!
!!
!!
!!
0
x!
!
x! +
u
!!
x!
0
For y! = I! R ! , y! = I!
x!
y!
0 0 R! x
!
y! = 0 0 1
x!
In this way, we derive state equation from the physical systems.
Now, if we look at phase variable method, suppose we have a system represented in the
form of equation as
!! !
!!!
!!!! !
!"
Let x! = y, x! = x! , x! = x! , , x!!! = x!
Now the above equation can be written as
x! + a! x! + a! x!!! + + a!!! x! + a! x! = bu
x! = a! x! a!!! x! a! x!!! a! x! + bu
Writing is state equation form, we get
x!
0
0
x!
=
0
:
a!
x!
1
0
a!!!
1
a!
0
x!
0
x!
: + 0 u
:
x!
b
x!
x!
y= 1 0 0 0 : + 0u
x!
This form of matrix is also called Bush form or companion form or controllable
canonical form. Now, instead of being a constant; if the input is also varying, then we
will get transfer function in the form of
! !
! !
! !! !! !! !!!!
!
= !! !!! !!!! !!!
!
!!! !!!!
(In this example we are considering numerator and denominator having equal degree).
! !
!(!)
! !
=
!(!)
y(s) = b! + b! s !! + b! s !! X s
u s = 1 + a! s !! +. . . a!!! s ! !!! + a! s !! X(s)
X s = u s a! s !! + a! s !! a!!! s ! !!! + a! s !! X(s)
x! = u a! s !! + a! s !! +. . a!!! s ! !!! + a! s !! x!
x! = u a! x! a! x!!! a!!! x! a! x!
Now, y = b! + b! s !! + b! s !! x!
= b! x! + b! x! + b! x!!! + b! x!
y = b! x! + b!!! x! + + b! x! + b! u a! x! a! x!!! a!!! x! a! x!
y = b! b! a! x! + b!!! b! a!!! x! + b! b! a! x! + b! u
x!
0
0
x!
=
:
:
a!
x!
1
0
0
1
0
0
a!!!
..
..
a!
x!
0
x!
0
: + : u
x!
1
y = b! b! a! b!!! b! a!!! b! b! a!
x!
x!
: + b! u
x!
T s = !(!) =
T s =
!
!
!
!! ! ! ! !! ! !!
! !
!
!
!
!
!! ! ! ! !! ! !!
! !
!
Above transfer function can lead to a signal flow graph with four forward paths and
three loops all touching each other
x!
a!
x! = a!
a!
x!
x!
x
y = 1 0 0 ! + b! u
x!
Apart from these, we can also represent system in diagonal canonical form
If the system is
! !
=
!(!)
= b! +
!(!)
!!
!
!!! !!!
y = c! x! + c! x! + + c! x! + b! u
x! = ! x! + u
x! = ! x! + u
Here i are the poles of transfer function and ci are the respective residue of the poles.
6
0
!
0
0
0
0
y = c! c! c!
x!
1
x!
1
: + : u
x!
1
x!
x!
: + b! u
x!
0
!
0
0
0
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