Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Application Guide
This Guide contains a summary of information for the protection of various types of electrical
equipment. Neither Basler Electric Company nor anyone acting on its behalf makes any warranty or
representation, express or implied, as to the accuracy or completeness of the information contained
herein, nor assumes any responsibility or liability for the use or consequences of use of any of this
information.
Revised 5/99
Transformer Protection
Application Guide
This guide focuses primarily on electrically
actuated relays for the more prevalent applications. Principles are emphasized. The references provide a source for additional information. Reference 1 includes extensive references
and bibliographies. References 2 & 3 contain a
chapter on transformer protection.
This guide was prepared to assist in the selection of relays to protect power transformers. The
purpose of each relay is described and related
to one or more power system examples.
1. Failure Statistics
The engineer must balance the expense of
applying a particular relay against the consequences of relying on other protection or sacrificing the transformer. Allowing a protracted fault
would increase the damage to the transformer
and the possibility of tank rupture with a consequent oil fire. An increase in damage would not
necessarily have significant economic impact,
depending upon whether the initial damage can
be repaired on site. For example, a tap changer
flashover can ordinarily be repaired in the field,
but if this fault is allowed to evolve into a winding
fault, the economic impact can be substantial.
Transformers used in a unit-connected generator unit are particularly critical, since the unavailability of the transformer can create large
generation-replacement costs. Similar economic
impacts may also exist at industrial sites. This
explains why the MVA rating of the transformer
may not be the pivotal aspect in choosing the
appropriate protection.
Description
Legend
Thermal
CS Circuit Switcher
Instantaneous & Time
Rg Grounding Resistor
Overcurrent
Time Overcurrent
Transformer
Ground Time Overcurrent
Bushing
Neutral Time Overcurrent
N.C. Normally Closed
Ground Time Overcurrent OP Operating Coil
Sudden Pressure
Pol Polarizing Coil
Directional Overcurrent
Directional Ground Overcurrent
Lockout Auxiliary
Phase Differential, 3 Phase
Ground Differential
1955 - 1965
Description
Winding failures
Number
1975-1982
Typical Settings &
Remarks
% of
Total
Number
% of
Total
134
51
615
51
Tap changer
failures
49
19
231
19
Bushing failures
41
15
114
Terminal board
failures
19
71
Core failures
24
Miscellaneous
failures
12
72
13
262
100
1217
100
4. Differential Relaying
Differential relays sense the unbalance in the
flow of currents in various apparatus or busses.
In the absence of a fault in the protected zone,
this unbalance tends to be small because the
FIGURE 2.
FIGURE 3.
FIGURE 4.
FIGURE 5.
FIGURE 7.
FIGURE 6.
FIGURE 8.
Note in Fig. 7 that the delta CTs are on the wyegrounded side of the transformer. The phase
shift can be accommodated with the delta CTs
on either side. However, it is essential to put the
FIGURE 9.
FIGURE 11.
FIGURE 10.
FIGURE 13.
as the remanence, the core is driven into saturation, creating peak exciting currents that can
exceed ten times rated peak. This compares with
a normal steady-state exciting current of 0.01 to
0.02 times rated. Inrush current appears as relay
operating current.
FIGURE 12.
4.5 Overexcitation
FIGURE 14.
However, this dead spot disappears on subsequent cycles because of CT saturation (Reference 5). In extreme cases the CT can saturate
during the first cycle, eliminating the dead spot.
The decay rate of successive primary-current
peaks depends upon the amount of resistance in
the source and the non-linear inductance of the
transformer. In Fig. 14, the negative peaks are
reduced further by CT saturation. The primary
current peaks will not decay as fast as indicated
by the CT output of Fig. 14.
4.4.2 Recovery Inrush
A recovery inrush occurs at the clearing of an
external fault as a result of the sudden increase
in voltage from the depressed level during the
fault. This voltage transient causes a flux
transient, with accompanying abnormally high
exciting current. The current level will be less
than that of an energizing case.
4.4.3 Sympathetic Inrush
Current Ip in Fig. 15 shows sympathetic inrush
current in transformer T1, resulting from the
energization of an adjacent transformer T2. The
decaying dc component of current Ie flowing in
T2 develops a drop in the source resistance Rs,
producing pulses of inrush current Ip on the
alternate half cycles. Note the delayed buildup of
Ip. The severity of the sympathetic inrush is a
function of the level of dc voltage drop across
the source resistance. A common set of differential relays should not be used to protect both T1
and T2 transformers in Fig. 15 if they can be
switched separately. The sum of the two transformer currents, Is, may not contain sufficient
harmonics to restrain the relays once transformer T1 saturates severely.
FIGURE 15.
FIGURE 16.
FIGURE 17.
current flowing in the transformer ground connection will unbalance the differential relay. This
current is not measured and inputted to the
relay. The relay Fig. 18(c) protects the combination of a bus and transformer.
A transformer differential relay can be applied
for bus or combination bus/transformer protection. CTs can be paralleled and connected to a
common restraint input. Radial feeder CTs can
be paralleled as long as the continuous rating of
the relay winding is not exceeded. Source circuit
CTs can also be paralleled, but it must be done
judiciously. Fig. 19 shows the use of a tworestraint relay for the bus/transformer combination. Here four sets of source CTs are paralleled
and connected to a common restraint winding
R1. Such paralleling might produce a current in
excess of the continuous rating of the restraint
winding. Also, incorrect operation may occur
during an external fault as illustrated in Fig.
19(a) and (b), where the faulted-circuit CT
saturates severely. The secondary current on
circuit 2 should be 70A, but is only 50A due to
CT saturation. The CT deficiency of 20A causes
the flow in restraint winding R1 and in the
operating circuit. Since no current flows in R2,
the relay is operating along the single-feed line
in Fig. 19(b). This is an operating condition,
even though the fault is external to the relay
zone of protection.
Paralleling of CTs on non-source circuits can be
safe, within the thermal limitations of the relay. In
this case there is no loss of restraint for external
faults, since these circuits contribute no fault
current. Again, source CTs can also be paralleled, but it must be done judiciously. For
example, in Fig. 19(a), if CTs 1 and 2 were
paralleled on R1 and CTs 3 and 4 on a third
input R3, the 40A flow in R3 would be sufficient
to prevent incorrect tripping if the relay is set
with a 60% slope.
FIGURE 18.
coil to measure the sum of the relay input currents or electronically as is the case in the BE187T. A three-input relay protects the autotransformer in Fig. 18(b). All CTs must be connected in
delta (or equivalent electronic differencing with a
3 phase relay), since the autotransformer is a
zero-sequence current source. Otherwise, any
10
A)
B)
FIGURE 20.
FIGURE 19.
11
FIGURE 21.
FIGURE 22.
5. Turn-to-Turn Faults
Phase differential relays may not detect a turnto-turn fault and ground differential relays do not
respond to such faults. A neutral overcurrent
relay will see fault current if an external ground
source exists. However, for an impedance
grounded system most of the fault current
probably will be contributed by the delta-side
source. A single turn fault may produce a total
less than rated current (Reference 6). Accordingly, a sudden pressure relay (SPR) should be
applied to complement the differential protection.
The SPR will detect any abnormality that generates a sudden increase in pressure due to gas
generation (e.g. arcing due to a loose connection).
FIGURE 23.
13
B)
FIGURE 24.
Fig. 24(a) shows an SPR that detects an increase in gas pressure, applied on gas-cushioned transformers of about 5 MVA and up. The
gas pressure is generated by an arc under the
oil, producing decomposition of the oil into gas
products. The change in pressure actuates
bellows 5 closing microswitch contact 7. Equalizer port 8, much smaller than the main port 4,
prevents bellows movement for slow changes in
gas pressure due to ambient temperature
changes and load cycling.
Fig. 24(b) shows use of the break contact of the
microswitch (63) in conjunction with auxiliary
relay 63X. This circuit prevents tripping for a
flashover of the make contact of 63.
A design similar to that of Fig. 24(a) is mounted
within the oil either in gas-cushioned or in conservator-type transformers.
8.2 51 Relay
The partial differential relay 51 in Fig. 1 measures the sum of the transformer and bus-tie
breaker currents. Such a connection is appropriate with a normally-closed bus-tie breaker, to
avoid unwanted transformer breaker tripping for
an adjacent bus fault. This relay serves as
primary bus protection or backs up the bus
differential protection. It also backs up for line or
feeder faults. This relay must be set to coordinate with the feeder or line protection. It trips the
transformer and bus-tie breakers.
If the transformer and bus-tie breakers are
interlocked to prevent both from being closed, a
single set of overcurrent relays on the bus-tie
breaker will suffice, rather than a set of partial
differential relays on both busses.
15
Recently developed fiberoptic sensors, incorporated in the transformer winding, provide a direct
method of measuring the hot-spot temperature.
About four of these sensors would provide good
coverage.
8.6 67 Relay
References
FIGURE 25.
17
ACXF1XX0SXX
Figure
No.
Inverse:2.05 V/Hz
(107%), TD=2, Reset:
2s/% FS; Alarm: 2.26
V/Hz(118%)
--
24
BE1-24
Overexcitation
49
Thermal
50/5
BE1-50/51B
1 phase
overcurrent
0.5-15.9A., 1 ph.
1-99A inst.
50/51B-1XX
51
BE1-50/51B
partial
differential
0.5-15.9A, 1 ph.
50/51B-1XX
51N-1
BE1-50/51B
ground
overcurrent
0.1-3.18A, 1 ph.
50/51B-1XX
51N-2
BE1-50/51B
Neutral
overcurrent
0.1-3.18A, 1 ph.
50/51B-1XX
51N-3
50/51B-1XX
63
1-3.99 V/Hz
Sudden pressure or
Bucholz Gas Accum.
1,23
67
B1XZ2XX3C6X
67N
BE1-67N
Directional
overcurrent
A1XZ2XX3CXX
86-1/
86-2
Lockout Aux.
87N-1
87N-2
BE-67N
Ground
differential
0.25-6A TOC;
2-100A dir. inst.
A1XZ2XX3CXX
1,22
87T
BE-87T
Transformer
differential
2-8.9A, 3 phase
E1EA1XX1XXX
1,17,2
0.25-6A; directional
instant, 2-100A
Appendix I:
Time to CT Saturation
For the application in Fig. 1, assume a high-side,
wye-connected, multiratio 600/5 CT on the 300/5
tap and an ANSI accuracy class of C200. The
unrestrained element pickup is 22A on the
secondary of the 300/5 CTs. The maximum time
constant of the fault current is 0.02s. Two way
lead burden (for ground fault) and CT winding
resistance is 0.4 ohms. Assume an internal fault
producing 33A, which is 150% of pickup.
Ks = (CT knee pt. voltage)/(burden voltage) =
(0.6*Effective Accuracy Class)/(22*1.5*0.4) =
(0.6*200*300/600)/13.2 = 60/13.2 = 4.5
FIGURE I-1.
From Fig. I-1 (Reference 5), the time to saturation is 13ms (3/4 cycle). This applies for a fully
offset current of 33A rms symmetrical and
assumes the CT saturates at the knee point, a
somewhat conservative assumption.
This result indicates marginally acceptable CT
performance. Fig. I-2 shows CT waveform
similar to that expected for the above example,
although the dc time constant is much longer in
Fig. I-2 than the assumed 0.02s. Note that the
CT delivers considerable energy even after
onset of severe saturation, including the negative excursions. At higher levels of current the
CT will saturate sooner; however, the negative
excursions, during which interval the CT recovers from saturation, produce increased energy.
Fast response depends upon the relays reaction to this distorted waveform.
Use of a higher CT ratio will improve CT performance, but the reduced current levels will result
in desensitizing the unrestrained element unless
the relay taps are lowered in proportion to the
drop in secondary current level.
19
Appendix II:
Harmonics During CT
Saturation
CTs experience both ac and dc saturation.
Ac saturation results under symmetrical current
conditions. Dc saturation occurs when the
current contains a dc component, during a
fault, magnetizing inrush, motor starting or
generator synchronizing. CTs that produce
negligible distortion under symmetrical conditions can become severely distorted when a dc
component exists (Reference 5). While faults
generally produce the most current, other
conditions such as a motor starting produce
much slower dc decay than occurs for a fault. A
smaller dc current that persists longer can also
produce dc saturation. For these external
disturbances, unequal times to saturation in
various CTs results in false operating current.
Either the harmonic-restraint or the percentage
differential restraint (fundamental frequency
characteristic) prevents unwanted tripping for
this condition.
Under symmetrical current conditions, CT
distortion generates odd harmonics, but no even
harmonics. A CT experiencing dc saturation
during an asymmetrical fault develops both even
and odd harmonics. Relays that restrain on odd
harmonics may fail to operate if the harmonic
content exceeds the relays threshold for restraint. Relays that restrain on just even harmonics may be temporarily restrained until the CTs
recover from the effects of the dc transient.
High-set unrestrained elements (instantaneous)
supplement the restrained elements, so that high
current faults, where CT saturation can be
severe, can be cleared independent of any
harmonic restraint. These elements must be set
above the maximum inrush level and above the
maximum false operating current produced by
dissimilar CT performance during external faults.
For satisfactory protection, harmonic generation
by the CTs should not exceed the restraint level
for a current below the unrestrained element
pickup. Poor CT quality can materially detract
Revised 5/99
If you have any questions or need
additional information, please contact
Basler Electric Company.
Our web site is located at:
http://www.basler.com
e-mail: info@basler.com