One-child policy

One-child policy
The one-child policy (simplified Chinese: ; pinyin:
jhu shngy zhngc; literally "policy of birth planning") is the
population control policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The
Chinese government refers to it under the official translation of family
planning policy.[1] It officially restricts the number of children
married urban couples can have to one, although it allows exemptions
for several cases, including rural couples, ethnic minorities, and
parents without any siblings themselves.[2] A spokesperson of the
Committee on the One-Child Policy has said that approximately 35.9%
of China's population is currently subject to the one-child restriction.[3]
The policy does not apply to the Special Administrative Regions of
Hong Kong and Macau, or Tibet.

"For a prosperous, powerful nation and a happy

family, please use birth planning." Government
sign in Nanchang.

The policy was introduced in 1978 and initially applied to first-born children in 1979. It was created by the Chinese
government to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China,[4] and authorities claim that the
policy has prevented more than 250 million births from its implementation to 2000.[2] The policy is controversial
both within and outside China because of the manner in which the policy has been implemented, and because of
concerns about negative economic and social consequences. The policy has been implicated in an increase in forced
abortions, female infanticide, and underreporting[5] of female births, and has been suggested as a possible cause
behind China's gender imbalance. Nonetheless, a 2008 survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center showed that
over 76% of the Chinese population supports the policy.[6]
The policy is enforced at the provincial level through fines that are imposed based on the income of the family and
other factors. Population and Family Planning Commissions (Chinese: ) exist at every level of
government to raise awareness about the issue and carry out registration and inspection work. Despite this policy,
there are still many citizens that continue to have more than one child.[7]
In 2008, China's National Population and Family Planning Commission said that the policy will remain in place for
at least another decade,[8] although in 2010 it was announced that the majority of the citizens first subject to the
policy are no longer of reproductive age and it has been speculated that many citizens simply disregard or violate the
policy in more recent years. In response, the director of the Commission has denied claims that most citizens are
allowed to have second children and stated that the policy would remain unaltered until at least 2015.[9]

Overview
The one-child policy promotes one-child families and forbids couples from having more than one child in both rural
and urban areas. Parents with multiple children aren't given the same benefits as parents of one child. In most cases,
wealthy families pay a fee to the government in order to have second children.

Current status
The limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actual implementation varies from location to
location.[10] In most rural areas, families are allowed to apply to have a second child if the first is a girl,[11] or has a
physical disability, mental illness or mental retardation.[12] Second children are subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or
4 years). Additional children will result in large fines: families violating the policy are required to pay monetary
penalties and might be denied bonuses at their workplace. Children born in overseas countries are not counted under
the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad can have a second

One-child policy
child.[13]
The social fostering or maintenance fee
(simplified Chinese: ;
traditional Chinese: ;
pinyin: shhu fyng fi) sometimes
called in the West a family planning
fine, is collected as a multiple of either
the annual disposable income of city
dwellers or the annual cash income of
peasants as determined each year by
the local statistics office. The fine for a
child born above the birth quota that
year is thus a multiple of, depending
upon the locality, either urban resident
disposable income or peasant cash
income estimated that year by the local
statistics. So a fine for a child born ten
The Danshan, Sichuan Province Nongchang Village people Public Affairs Bulletin Board
in September 2005 noted that RMB 25,000 in social compensation fees were owed in
years ago is based on the income
2005. Thus far 11,500 RMB had been collected leaving another 13,500 RMB to be
estimate for the year of the child's birth
collected.
and not of the current year.[14] They
also have to pay for both the children
to go to school and all the family's health care. Some children who are in one-child families pay less than the
children in other families. The one child policy was designed from the outset to be a one generation policy.[15]
The one-child policy is now enforced at the provincial level, and enforcement varies; some provinces have relaxed
the restrictions. Many provinces and cities, such as Henan[16] and Beijing permit two "only child" parents to have
two children. As early as 1987, official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow
second children in the case of "practical difficulties" (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or
when both parents are single children,[17] and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as
well.[18] Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan
province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake.[19] [20] Similar exceptions have previously been made
for parents of severely disabled or deceased children.[21]
Moreover, in accordance with PRC's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups
are subjected to different rules and are usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural
areas. Han Chinese living in rural areas, also, are often permitted to have two children.[22] Because of couples such
as these, as well as urban couples who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee") to have more children,[23] the
overall fertility rate of mainland China is closer to two children per family than to one child per family (1.8). The
steepest drop in fertility occurred in the 1970s before one child per family was implemented in 1979. Population
policies and campaigns have been ongoing in China since the 1950s. During the 1970s, a campaign of 'One is good,
two is okay, and three is too many' was heavily promoted.[24]
In April 2007 a study by the University of California, Irvine, which claimed to be the first systematic study of the
policy, found that it had proved "remarkably effective".[25] Other reports have shown population aging and negative
population growth in some areas.[26]

One-child policy

Effects on population growth and fertility rate

After the introduction of the one-child policy, the fertility
rate in China fell from over three births per woman in
1980 (already a sharp reduction from more than five
births per woman in the early 1970s) to approximately 1.8
births in 2008.[27] (The colloquial term "births per
woman" is usually formalized as the Total Fertility Rate
(TFR), a technical term in demographic analysis meaning
the average number of children that would be born to a
woman over her lifetime if she were to experience the
exact current age-specific fertility rates through her
lifetime.)

Age pyramid for China showing smaller age cohorts in recent

years.
The Chinese government estimates that it had three to
four hundred million fewer people in 2008 with the
one-child policy, than it would have had otherwise.[28] [29] Chinese authorities thus consider the policy as a great
success in helping to implement China's current economic growth. The reduction in the fertility rate and thus
population growth has reduced the severity of problems that come with overpopulation, like epidemics, slums,
overwhelmed social services (such as health, education, law enforcement), and strain on the ecosystem from abuse of
fertile land and production of high volumes of waste. Even with the one-child policy in place, however, "China still
has one million more births than deaths every five weeks."[29]

Suicide
The suicide rate of women in childbearing years (generally between 15 and 34) has increased considerably since the
policy was implemented, especially in smaller Chinese cities. This is believed to be due to pressure to produce a
single child, as it is usually desired to have a male child.[30] [31]

Non-population-related benefits
Impact on health care
It is reported that the focus of China on population control helps provide a better health service for women and a
reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free
contraception and pre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnant women to closely monitor their health. In various
places in China, the government rolled out a Care for Girls program, which aims at eliminating cultural
discrimination against girls in rural and underdeveloped areas through subsidies and education.[29]

One-child policy

Increased savings rate

The individual savings rate has increased since the one-child policy was introduced. This has been partially
attributed to the policy in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms
of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese more money with which to invest. Second, since young
Chinese can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the
future.[32]

Economic growth
The original intent of the one-child policy was economic, to reduce the demand of natural resources, maintaining a
steady labor rate, reducing unemployment caused from surplus labor, and reducing the rate of exploitation.[33] [34]
The CPC's justification for this policy was based on their support of Mao Zedong's supposedly Marxist theory of
population growth, though Marx was actually witheringly critical of Malthusianism.[34] [35]

Criticisms
Other available policy alternatives
One type of criticism has come from those who acknowledge the challenges stemming from China's high population
growth but believe that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, could
have achieved the same results over an extended period of time. Susan Greenhalgh's (2003) review of the
policy-making process behind the adoption of the OCPF shows that some of these alternatives were known but not
fully considered by China's political leaders.[36]

Policy benefits exaggerated

Another criticism is directed at the exaggerated claimed effects of the policy on the reduction in the total fertility
rate. Studies by Chinese demographers, funded in part by the UN Fund for Population Activities, showed that
combining poverty alleviation and health care with relaxed targets for family planning was more effective at
reducing fertility than vigorous enforcement of very ambitious fertility reduction targets.[37] In 1988, Zeng Yi and
professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese
fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s
weakened family planning controls during that period.[38] Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot" system of the
People's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, however,
economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers
wanted.
As Hasketh, Lu, and Xing observe: "[T]he policy itself is probably only partially responsible for the reduction in the
total fertility rate. The most dramatic decrease in the rate actually occurred before the policy was imposed. Between
1970 and 1979, the largely voluntary "late, long, few" policy, which called for later childbearing, greater spacing
between children, and fewer children, had already resulted in a halving of the total fertility rate, from 5.9 to 2.9.
After the one-child policy was introduced, there was a more gradual fall in the rate until 1995, and it has more or less
stabilized at approximately 1.7 since then."[39] These researchers note further that China could have expected a
continued reduction in its fertility rate just from continued economic development, had it kept to the previous policy.

One-child policy

Human rights
The one-child policy is challenged in principle and in practice for violating human rights. Reported abuses in its
enforcement include bribery, coercion, compulsory sterilization, forced abortion, and possibly infanticide, with most
reports coming from rural areas.[40] [41] A 2001 report exposed that a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was
set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one-child policy. The
effort included using portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. Earlier reports
also show that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort by injection of saline solution.[42]
There have also been reports of women, in their 9th month of pregnancy or already in labour, having their children
killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.[43] Stephen Moore of the Cato Institute announced that the
One child policy is "an ongoing genocide." He argued that free market capitalism will solve the overpopulation and
overconsumption problems of developing nations.[44]
In 2002, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization, but it is
not entirely enforced.[29] [45] In the execution of the policy, many local governments still demand abortions if the
pregnancy violates local regulations.
The one-child policy includes eugenic regulations. Both partners have to be rigorously tested before they marry. If
one spouse has an "unsatisfactory" physical or mental condition, ranging from dyslexia to schizophrenia, they are
banned from marrying. The Chinese government claimed that these regulations are intended to "improve the quality
of the Chinese population." In the mid-1990s the Chinese government somewhat backed away on this policy.[46] [47]
According to a UNESCO debate, Chinese genetic testing is conducted with the consent of the individual and is not
based on racist or sinocentric attitudes.[48]
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) funding for this policy is heavily criticized in the United States.[49]
The United States Congress pulled out of the UNFPA during the Reagan years,[44] and U.S. President George W.
Bush referred to human rights abuses as his reason for stopping the US$40 million payment to the UNFPA in early
2002.[50] In early 2003 the U.S. State Department issued a press release stating that they would not continue to
support the UNFPA in its present form because they believed that, at the very least, coercive birth limitation
practices were not being properly addressed. The U.S. government has stated that the right to "found a family" is
protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This, coupled with the International
Conference on Population and Development's view that it is the right of the individual, not the state, to determine the
number of children, represents a clear conflict between China's policy and U.S. accepted and adopted human rights
conventions.[51]
President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009.
Obama said, "I look forward to working with Congress to restore U.S. financial support for the U.N. Population
Fund. By resuming funding to UNFPA, the U.S. will be joining 180 other donor nations working collaboratively to
reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV/AIDS and provide family planning
assistance to women in 154 countries."[52] [53]

The "four-two-one" problem

As the first generation of law-enforced only children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child
was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4-2-1 Problem",
this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to
receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely
dependent upon their very small family or neighbors for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to
care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response
to such an issue, certain provinces maintained that couples were allowed to have two children if both parents were
only children themselves. As of 2009, all provinces in the nation adopted this new adaptation.[54] [55] However, a
majority of women in Jiangsu province eligible for a second child would voluntarily have only one child, according

One-child policy
to a 2010 survey.[56]

Possible social problems for a generation of only children

Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one-child families as
"little emperors". Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor
social communication and cooperation skills among the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. However,
no social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged.
With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples
with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries are reduced.[57]
However, some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese Peoples Political Consultative Conference
(CPPCC) in March 2007 to abolish the one-child rule, attributing their beliefs to "social problems and personality
disorders in young people". One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be
spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either."[58] The proposal was prepared
by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least
restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one-child
limit is too extreme. It violates natures law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother natures revenge."[58] [59]

Unequal enforcement
Government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of
fines.[60] For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China's Hunan province were
found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the
commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior
intellectuals.[61] Some of the offending officials did not face penalties,[62] although the government did respond by
raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high-income people who violate the family
planning policy and have more than one child."[61]

Side effects on female population

China, like many other Asian countries, has a long tradition of son preference.[29] The commonly accepted
explanation for son preference is that sons in rural families may be thought to be more helpful in farm work. Both
rural and urban populations have economic and traditional incentives, including widespread remnants of
Confucianism, to prefer sons over daughters. Sons are preferred as they provide the primary financial support for the
parents in their retirement, and a son's parents typically are better cared for than his wife's. In addition, Chinese
traditionally hold that daughters, on their marriage, become primarily part of the groom's family. Male-to-female sex
ratios in the current Chinese population are high in both rural and urban areas.[39]

Gender-based birth rate disparity

The sex ratio at birth (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117:100 in the year 2000,
substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100
in 1981at the boundary of the natural baselineto 111:100 in 1990.[63] According to a report by the State
Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially
leading to social instability.[64] The correlation between the increase of sex ratio disparity on birth and the
deployment of one child policy would appear to have been caused by the one-child policy.
However, other Asian regions also have higher than average ratios, including Taiwan (110:100) and South Korea
(108:100), which do not have a family planning policy[65] and the ratio in South Korea reached as high as 116:100 in
the early 1990s but since then has moved substantially back toward a normal range, with a ratio of 107:100 in
2005.[66] Many studies have explored the reason for the gender-based birth rate disparity in China as well as other

One-child policy
countries. A study in 1990 attributed the high preponderance of reported male births in mainland China to four main
causes: diseases which affect females more severely than males; the result of widespread underreporting of female
births; the illegal practice of sex-selective abortion made possible by the widespread availability of ultrasound; and
finally, acts of child abandonment and infanticide.[5] The number of bachelors in China had already increased
between 1990 and 2005, implying that China's lack of brides is not solely linked to the one-child policy, as
single-child families were only enforced from 1979.[67]
In a recent paper, Emily Oster (2005) proposed a biological explanation for the gender imbalance in Asian countries,
including China. Using data on viral prevalence by country as well as estimates of the effect of hepatitis on sex ratio,
Oster claimed that Hepatitis B could account for up to 75% of the gender disparity in China.[68]
However, Monica Das Gupta (2005) has shown that "whether or not females 'go missing' is determined by the
existing sex composition of the family into which they are conceived. Girls with no older sisters have similar
chances of survival as boys. Girls conceived in families that already have a daughter, however, experience steeply
higher probabilities of being aborted or of dying in early childhood. Gupta claims that cultural factors provide the
overwhelming explanation for the "missing" females."[69]
The disparity in the sex ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily
within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples
appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, however,
and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is
a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, however, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a
feminine direction.[70]
This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of
having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. For example, Zeng et al. (1993)
reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births
in families that already had two or more boys.[71] A study by Anderson and Silver (1995) found a similar pattern
among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in
families that had already borne two or more boys.[72] This evidence is consistent with the observation by another
researcher that for a majority of rural families "their ideal family size is one boy and one girl, at most two boys and
one girl".[73]
A 2006 review article[74] by the Editorial Board of Population Research (simplified Chinese: ; pinyin:
Rnku Ynji), one of China's leading demography journals, argued that only an approach that makes the rights of
women central can succeed in bringing down China's high gender ratio at birth and improve the survival rate of
female infants and girls. A section written by East China Normal University demography professor Ci Qinying,
"Research on the Sex Ratio at Birth Should Take a Gender Discrimination Approach," argued that researchers must
pay closer attention to gender issues in demography,[75] [76] and a human rights perspective in demographic research
is crucial.[77] [78]
The authors of another review article, "Girl Survival in China: History, Present Situation and Prospects," which was
presented at a 2005 conference supported by the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), concluded
that "The Chinese government has already set the goal of achieving a normal gender ratio at birth by 2010, and to
achieve preliminary results in establishing a new cultural outlook on marriage and having children. The government
is working to change the system, way of thinking and other obstacles to attacking the root of the problem. Only if
equality of males and females is strongly promoted ... will the harmonious and sustainable development of society be
possible."[79]

One-child policy

Abandoned or orphaned children and adoption

The social pressure exerted by the one-child policy has
affected the rate at which parents abandon undesirable
children, and many live in state-sponsored orphanages,
from which thousands are adopted internationally and
by Chinese parents each year. In the 1980s and early
1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state
institutions generated intense international pressure for
reform.[80]
According to Sten Johansson and Ola Nygren (1991)
adoptions accounted for half of the so-called "missing
girls" in the 1980s in the PRC.[81] Through the 1980s,
Rural Sichuan roadside sign: "It is forbidden to discriminate against,
as the one-child policy came into force, parents who
mistreat or abandon baby girls."
desired a son but bore a daughter in some cases failed
to report or delayed the reporting of the birth of the girl
to the authorities. The one-child policy also caused riots and protests in China resulting in the deaths of 13 family
planning officials. But rather than neglecting or abandoning unwanted girls, the parents may have offered them up
for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later
1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time (Johansson and Nygren 1991).
The practice of adopting out unwanted girls is consistent with both the son preference of many Chinese couples and
the findings of Zeng et al. (1993) and Anderson and Silver (1995) that under some circumstances families have a
preference for girls, in particular when they have already satisfied their goals for sons. However, research by Weiguo
Zhang (2006) on child adoption in rural China reveals increasing receptivity to adopting girls, including by infertile
and childless couples.[82]
In 1992, China instituted its first Adoption Law. Officially registered adoptions increased from about 2,000 in 1992
to 55,000 in 2001. However, according to one scholar, these figures "represent a small proportion of adoptions in
China because many adopted children were adopted informally without official registrations. . . ."[83]
International adoption rates climbed dramatically after the early 1990s, increasing to the U.S. alone from about 200
in 1992 to more than 7,900 in 2005.[84]
According to the Los Angeles Times, many babies put up for adoption had not been abandoned by their parents, but
confiscated by family planning officials.[85]

Infanticide
Gender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Despite the Chinese legal position, the
US State Department,[86] the Parliament of the United Kingdom,[87] and the human rights organization Amnesty
International[88] have all declared that China's family planning programs contribute to infanticide.
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California-Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have
claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.[89] It is unknown how prevalent infanticide
has been in recent years.

One-child policy

Fertility medicines
A 2006 China Daily report stated that wealthy couples are increasingly turning to fertility medicines to have multiple
births, because of the lack of penalties against couples who have more than one child in their first birth; according to
the report, the number of multiple births per year in China had doubled by 2006.[90]

Children born outside of China

In June 2006, documents were presented in the United States in migration disputes which apparently indicated that
Chinese nationals with children born abroad will be treated the same as Chinese nationals with Chinese-born
children. This evidence has led the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to remand a litany of cases
involving Chinese nationals seeking asylum back to the Board of Immigration Appeals.[91]
In August 2007, the Board of Immigration Appeals ruled that the new documents, even assuming that they are
genuine, reflect only "general birth planning policies [...] that do not specifically show any likelihood that [...]
Chinese nationals will be persecuted as a result of the birth of a second child in the United States." [92]

See also
After-eighty generation

Demographics of the People's Republic of China

Demographic momentum
Family planning
Human rights in the People's Republic of China
One-dog policy
Only child
Reproductive health
Two-child policy
Urbanization in China

Further reading
Better 10 Graves Than One Extra Birth (ISBN 1-931550-92-1, Laogai Research Foundation)
Greenhalgh, Susan, (2008). Just One Child: Science and Policy in Deng's China (ISBN 978-0-520-25339-1,
University of California Press)

External links
Family Planning in China [93]
Illegal births and legal abortions the case of China [94]

One-child policy

References
[1] Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China (August 1995). "Family Planning in China" (http:/ / www. fmprc.
gov. cn/ ce/ celt/ eng/ zt/ zfbps/ t125241. htm). Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Lithuania. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. Section
III paragraph 2.
[2] BBC: China steps up "One-child policy". (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 941511. stm)
[3] "Most people free to have more child" (http:/ / www2. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 11/ content_5432238. htm). 7/11/2007. .
Retrieved 2009-07-31.
[4] Rocha da Silva, Pascal (2006). " La politique de l'enfant unique en Rpublique populaire de Chine (http:/ / www. sinoptic. ch/ textes/
recherche/ 2006/ 200608_Rocha. Pascal_memoire. pdf)" ("The politics of one child in the People's Republic of China"). Universit de Genve
(University of Geneva). p. 22-8. (French)
[5] For studies that reported underreporting or delayed reporting of female births, see the following:

M. G. Merli and A. E. Raftery. 1990. "Are births under-reported in rural China? Manipulation of statistical records in response to China's
population policies", Demography 37 (February): 109-126
Johansson, Sten; Nygren, Olga (1991). "The missing girls of China: a new demographic account" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1972351).
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Merli, M. Giovanna; Raftery, Adrian E. (2000). "Are births underreported in rural China?". Demography 37 (1): 109126.
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[7] Arthur E. Dewey, Assistant Secretary for Population, Refugees and Migration Testimony before the House International Relations Committee
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[8] " China Sticking With One-Child Policy (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 11/ world/ asia/ 11china. html)." The New York Times, March
11, 2008. Retrieved on 7 November 2008.
[9] "China's one-child policy little enforced -- and set to end" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/
chinas-one-child-policy-largely-ignored-2010-03-18). MarketWatch. March 29, 2010. Retrieved March 29, 2010.
[10] See Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific report " Status of Population and Family Planning Programme in China by
Province (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ chinadata/ intro. htm)".
[11] Hu Huiting (18 October 2002). "Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation" (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ 2002/ Oct/
46138. htm). China Daily. . Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[12] PBS (14 February 1984). "Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ listseason/ 11.
html). NOVA. . Retrieved 13 October 2009.
[13] Are the rich challenging family planning policy? (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2006-12/ 28/ content_770107. htm)
[14] Summary of Family Planning notice on how FP fines are collected (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/
Image:Sichuan_social_fostering_fee_schedule. jpg#file)
[15] Chen Youhua, 6/1999 issue of Population Research [Renkou Yanjiu] "Research on Adjustment of Family Planning Policy" (http:/ / www.
cpirc. org. cn/ yjwx/ yjwx_detail. asp?id=2463)
[16] "Regulations on Family Planning of Henan Province" (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ poplaws/ law_china/
ch_record060. htm). Henan Daily. 5 April 2000. . Retrieved 29 October 2008. Article 13.
[17] Scheuer, James (4 January 1987). "America, the U.N. and China's Family Planning (Opinion)" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9B0DEFD81F3BF937A15752C0A961948260). The New York Times. . Retrieved 27 October 2008.
[18] Sichuan, for example, has allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds; see Articles 11-13, "Revised at the 29th session of the
standing committee of the 8th People's Congress of Sichuan Province" (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ poplaws/
law_china/ ch_record075. htm). United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 17 October 1997. . Retrieved 31
October 2008.
[19] One-Child Policy Lifted for Quake Victims Parents (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 27/ world/ asia/ 27child. html?_r=1& hp&
oref=slogin), by Andrew Jacobs. New York Times, 27 May 2008. Retrieved May 28, 2008.
[20] Baby offer for earthquake parents (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 7440480. stm) BBC. Retrieved on 31 October 2008.
[21] China Amends Child Policy for Some Quake Victims (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=90931455)
[22] Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). "China Sticking With One-Child Policy" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 11/ world/ asia/ 11china.
html?_r=2). The New York Times. . Retrieved 20 November 2008.
[23] " New rich challenge family planning policy (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2005-12/ 14/ content_3918776. htm)." Xinhua.
[24] "China's One-Child Policy" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,1912861,00. html). TIME. July 27, 2009. Retrieved June
11, 2010.
[25] "First systematic study of Chinas one-child policy reveals complexity, effectiveness of fertility regulation" (http:/ / today. uci. edu/ news/
release_detail. asp?key=1597). Today@UCI (University of California Irvine). April 18, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-04-19.
[26] People's Daily Online - Wuhan sees negative population growth (http:/ / english. peopledaily. com. cn/ 200503/ 02/ eng20050302_175199.
html)
[27] CIA World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ch. html#People)
[28] Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ 2002/ Oct/ 46138. htm)

10

One-child policy
[29] John Taylor (2005-02-08). "China - One Child Policy" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ foreign/ content/ 2005/ s1432717. htm). Australian
Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-07-01.
[30] "China's one-child policy: As brutal and hypocritical as ever" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ opinion/ forum/
2010-05-29-ling01_ST_N. htm). USA Today. May 29, 2010. Retrieved June 5, 2010.
[31] "Chinas one child family policy" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC1116810/ ). British Medical Journal. 1999.
Retrieved June 5, 2010.
[32] Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2007.
[33] : (http:/ / www. chinapop. gov. cn/ rkzh/ rk/ rkyjj/ t20040326_2577. htm) Google Translated
Version (http:/ / 64. 233. 179. 104/ translate_c?hl=en& sl=zh-CN& tl=en& u=http:/ / www. chinapop. gov. cn/ rkzh/ rk/ rkyjj/
t20040326_2577. htm)
[34] Tain Z (March 1983). "[Studying Marxist theory on population and initiating a new situation in demographic research]" (in Chinese).
Renkou Yanjiu (2): 134. PMID12313010.
[35] Wen TZ (July 1981). "[Comrade Mao Ze-dong's contribution to Marxist theory on population--in commemoration, of the 60th anniversary
of the birth of the Chinese Communist Party]" (in Chinese). Renkou Yanjiu (3): 811. PMID12264239.
[36] Susan Greenhalgh. 2003. "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy", Population and Development Review 29
(June): 163-196.
[37] U.S. Embassy Beijing June 1988 report PRC Family Planning: The Market Weakens Controls But Encourages Voluntary Limits (http:/ /
www. usembassy-china. org. cn/ sandt/ POPMYWB. html).
[38] PRC journal Social Sciences in China [Zhongguo Shehui Kexue, January 1988].
[39] Therese Hasketh, Li Lu, and Zhu Wei Xing. 2005. "The effects of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years" (http:/ / content. nejm.
org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 353/ 11/ 1171), New England Journal of Medicine, 353, No. 11 (September 15): 1171-1176.
[40] The United Nations Population Fund Helps China Persecute Women and Kill Children (http:/ / www. nrlc. org/ news/ 2004/ NRL08/
united_nations_population_fund_h. htm)
[41] "Chinese witness: Beijing forces sterilizations, abortions" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 9806/ 11/ china. abortion/ ). CNN.
1998-06-11. .
[42] Damien Mcelroy (2001-04-08). "Chinese region 'must conduct 20,000 abortions'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main.
jhtml;jsessionid=MBO41XZJLB0BDQFIQMGSFFWAVCBQWIV0?xml=/ news/ 2001/ 08/ 05/ wchin05. xml). Telegraph. .
[43] Mosher, Steven W. (July 1993). A Mother's Ordeal. Harcourt. ISBN0151626626.
[44] Don't Fund UNFPA Population Control (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pub_display. php?pub_id=5457)
[45] "Forced Sterilization" (http:/ / www. webster. edu/ ~woolflm/ forcedsterilization. html). .
[46] "China's eugenics law on maternal and infant health care" (http:/ / www. popline. org/ docs/ 117401). Annals of Internal Medicine.
1996-09-01. .
[47] "China backtracks on eugenics law" (http:/ / www. healthmatters. org. uk/ issue16/ chinabacktracks). healthmatters magazine. 1993-12-01. .
[48] "Is China's Law eugenic?" (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ courier/ 1999_09/ uk/ dossier/ txt07. htm). 1999-09-01. .
[49] Smith, Chris (8 August 2004). "The United Nations Population Fund Helps China Persecute Women and Kill Children" (http:/ / www. nrlc.
org/ news/ 2004/ NRL08/ united_nations_population_fund_h. htm). National Right to Life Committee. . Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[50] Damien McElroy (2002-02-03). "China is furious as Bush halts UN 'abortion' funds" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main.
jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2002/ 02/ 03/ wabor03. xml). Telegraph. .
[51] Sichan Siv (2003-01-21). "United Nations Fund for Population Activities in China" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030219115734/ http:/
/ www. state. gov/ p/ io/ rls/ rm/ 2003/ 16790. htm). U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. state. gov/ p/ io/ rls/
rm/ 2003/ 16790. htm) on 19 February 2003. .
[52] "UNFPA Welcomes Restoration of U.S. Funding," UNFPA News, January 29, 2009 (http:/ / www. unfpa. org/ public/ News/ pid/ 1562).
[53] Haider Rizvi, "Obama Sets New Course at the U.N.," IPS News, March 12, 2009 (http:/ / ipsnews. net/ news. asp?idnews=46093).
[54] "Rethinking China's one-child policy" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2009/ 10/ 28/ f-rfa-germain. html). CBC. October 28, 2009.
Retrieved June 11, 2010.
[55] ":11% (English: "Spokesperson of the one-child policy committee: 11% or more of the
population may have two children)" (http:/ / news. sina. com. cn/ c/ 2007-07-10/ 154513416121. shtml) (in Chinese). Sina.com. 10 July 2007.
. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
[56] "China may ease controversial one-child policy, allowing couples to have multiple kids" (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ news/ world/
2010/ 04/ 24/ 2010-04-24_china_may_ease_its_controversial_onechild_policy_. html). New York Daily News. April 24, 2010. Retrieved June
8, 2010.
[57] Daniela Deane (July 26, 1992). The Little Emperors. Los Angeles Times. pp. 16
[58] "Consultative Conference: The government must end the one-child rule" (http:/ / www. asianews. it/ index. php?l=en& art=8757&
size=A). AsiaNews.it. 2007-03-16. .
[59] "Advisors say it's time to change one-child policy" (http:/ / english. sina. com/ china/ 1/ 2007/ 0315/ 106515. html). Shanghai Daily.
2007-03-15. .
[60] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).
Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008. "But heavy fines and exposures seemed to hardly stop the celebrities and rich people, as
there are still many people, who can afford the heavy penalties, insist on having multiple kids, the Hunan commission spokesman said."

11

One-child policy
[61] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).
Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008.
[62] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).
Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008. "Three officials... who were all found to have kept extramarital mistresses, were all
convicted for charges such as embezzlement and taking bribes, but they were not punished for having more than one child."
[63] Chen Wei (2005). "Sex Ratios at Birth in China" (http:/ / www. cicred. org/ Eng/ Seminars/ Details/ Seminars/ FDA/ papers/ 18_ChenWei.
pdf). . Retrieved 2 March 2009.
[64] "Chinese facing shortage of wives" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ go/ pr/ fr/ -/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 6254763. stm). BBC. 2007-01-12. .
Retrieved 2007-01-12.
[65] See the Central Intelligence Agency report Sex ratio (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2018. html).
[66] "Where Boys Were Kings, a Shift Toward Baby Girls," New York Times, December 24, 2007 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 12/ 23/
world/ asia/ 23skorea. html).
[67] "The worldwide war on baby girls" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ international/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=15636231). The
Economist. March 8, 2010. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
[68] Oster, Emily (December 2005). "Hepatitis B and the case of the missing women" (http:/ / www. eldis. org/ static/ DOC18588. htm). Journal
of Political Economy 113 (6): 11631216. doi:10.1086/498588. .
[69] Monica Das Gupta, "Explaining Asia's 'Missing Women,'" Population and Development Review 31 (September 2005): 529-535.
[70] This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was also noted by Coale, who suggested as well
that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior", i.e., to stop
having more children. See Ansley J. Coale (1996),"Five Decades of Missing Females in China", Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society 140 (4): 421-450.
[71] Zeng Yi et al. 1993. "Causes and Implications of the Recent Increase in the Reported Sex Ratio at Birth in China", Population and
Development Review 19 (June): 283-302.
[72] Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver. 1995. "Ethnic Differences in Fertility and Sex Ratios at Birth in China: Evidence from Xinjiang",
Population Studies 49 (July): 211-226.
[73] Weiguo Zhang, "Child Adoption in Contemporary Rural China," Journal of Family Issues, 27 (March 2006), p. 306.
[74] " Chinas Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.
asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 20061]
[75] " Chinas Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.
asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 20061.
"If we do pay more attention to the problem of the rising sex ratio, still the focus is on the rights of males such as the right to marry, and
ignores womens rights such as the right to survive, the right to reproduce, the right to health, etc. This approach inflicts even more harm on
women. If this approach is taken, women will never be able to escape their subsidiary position and their role of satisfying the desires of others.
Robbing females of their right to exist [shengmingquan ] is for the sake of giving birth to males that is putting the right to survive of
males first. Moreover, protecting womens right to exist is merely for the purpose of provide a wife to sons. A measure to ensure that a
counterpart is available to ensure that male can exercise his right to marry. In both case, the male is primary and the female is subsidiary."
[76] " Chinas Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.
asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 20061].
"Therefore, how a researcher approaches the question of the sex ratio at birth from what point for view, considering whose rights is
critical. This depends upon the values of the researcher, the humanistic orientation of the researcher and the consciousness the researcher has
about gender and gender discrimination. Protecting the right to exist, the right to reproduce, and the right to health of girls should be at the
very core of policy and action measures to control sex ratio at birth. That is because females are the biggest victims of the rising sex ratio. The
rising sex ratio is in fact robbing females of their right to exist and completely discriminates against females."
[77] " Chinas Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.
asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 20061].
"Social controls on methods of selective reproduction are needed not only because of the higher birth ratio that results but also because
selective reproduction harms the body and soul of the mother and robs unborn infants (regardless of being boy or girl) of their right to live.
Selective reproduction itself should be more closely regulated and brought under control."
[78] " Chinas Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.
asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 20061].
"Even aside from the question of the rising sex ratio at birth, we should also intervene against and oppose elective abortion. Elective abortion
robs unborn female infants of their right to live and their right to exist, accentuates the social custom of favoring males over females. Not only
does it harm womens bodies it also reduces women to the role of a mere tool for reproduction. Women bodies and spirits are suffering
grievous wounds. Therefore no matter what the results of an elective abortion might be, we should intervene against and oppose elective
abortion. The rise of the sex ratio at birth is only one among several reasons for intervening on selective reproduction."
[79] http:/ / www. wsic. ac. cn/ Appendix/ Download. aspx?AppendixMainId=SAM-1229 Li Shuzhuo, Wei Yan and Jiang Quanbao, "Girl
Survival in China: History, Present Situation and Prospects", background materials for the August 2005 conference "Women and Health"
available online in Chinese. The conference was sponsored by the United Nations Fund for Population Activities.

12

One-child policy
[80] See Human Rights Watch report A Policy of Fatal Neglect in Chinas State Orphanages (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ summaries/ s. china961.
html) and CHINESE ORPHANAGES A Follow-up (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ summaries/ s. china963. 2. html).
[81] Sten Johansson and Ola Nygren. 1991. "The Missing Girls of China: A New Demographic Account", Population and Development Review
17 (March): 35-51.
[82] Weiguo Zhang. 2006. "Child Adoption in Contemporary Rural China", Journal of Family Issues 27 (March): 301-340.
[83] See Weiguo Zhang (2006), cited earlier.
[84] U.S. State Department report, "Immigrant Visas Issued to Orphans Coming to the U.S.", at http:/ / travel. state. gov/ family/ adoption/ stats/
stats_451. html.
[85] Demick, Barbara (20 Sept. 2009). "Chinese Babies Stolen by Officials for Foreign Adoptions" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/
nationworld/ world/ la-fg-china-adopt20-2009sep20,0,491086. story). Los Angeles Times. .
[86] See Associated Press article US State Department position (http:/ / www. phillyburbs. com/ pb-dyn/ news/ 27-12142004-416868. html).
[87] See publication of the United Kingdom Parliament position regarding Human Rights in China and Tibet (http:/ / www. publications.
parliament. uk/ pa/ ld199697/ ldhansrd/ vo961218/ text/ 61218-08. htm).
[88] See Amnesty International's report on violence against women in China (http:/ / www. amnesty. ie/ content/ view/ full/ 1683/ ).
[89] Sarah Lubman (2000-03-15). "Experts Allege Infanticide In China 'Missing' Girls Killed, Abandoned, Pair Say". San Jose Mercury News
(California).
[90] Associated Press (14 February 2006). "China: Drug bid to beat child ban" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ english/ doc/ 2006-02/ 14/
content_520025. htm). China Daily. . Retrieved 11 November 2008.
[91] See Shou Yung Guo v. Gonzales (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/
RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDAyLTQyNzVfb3BuLnBkZg==/ 02-4275_opn. pdf), 463 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006).; Jin Xiu Chen v. U.S. Dep't of
Justice, 468 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006). (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/
RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDA2LTA3NjItYWdfb3BuLnBkZg==/ 06-0762-ag_opn. pdf); Tian Ming Lin v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, 473 F.3d 48 (2d
Cir. 2007). (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/ RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDA2LTIzNTYtYWdfb3BuLnBkZg==/
06-2356-ag_opn. pdf)
[92] See Matter of S-Y-G-, 24 I&N Dec. 247 (BIA 2007). (http:/ / www. usdoj. gov/ eoir/ vll/ intdec/ vol24/ 3575. pdf) (on remand from Shou
Yung Guo v. Gonzales, 463 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006/7)).
[93] http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ e-white/ familypanning/
[94] http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1215519

13

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

One-child policy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376361912 Contributors: -Majestic-, -Marcus-, 10metreh, 4dhayman, A little insignificant, A.V., ANZAN, AOC25, AS,
Aaronbrick, Aarondimi, Adamoppe, Adrian, Afaprof01, Agathoclea, Ajsfiremouse, Akamad, Alansohn, Aldo L, Ale jrb, Alessgrimal, AlexiusHoratius, Alibipie, Alphachimp, Amberina,
Ambuj.Saxena, AmiDaniel, Amog, AnakngAraw, Anaxial, AndonicO, Andrea105, Andris, Anetode, Angela26, AniRaptor2001, Annalise, Antandrus, Apokrif, Arh3sfu, Ark, Armeria, Artur
Buchhorn, Asdfasdf1231234, Ash, Audiosmurf, Augest, AussieBoy, Avnjay, AxelBoldt, AzureFury, B1atv, BCSWowbagger, Backslash Forwardslash, Badgernet, Banaticus, Barbutti, Barliman
Butterbur, Barracuda57, Bcefjj805, Bcrawf, Before I Die, Beland, Ben Ward, Benjwong, Benlisquare, Benwildeboer, Bhadani, Bianca1975, Big Brother 1984, BigFatBuddha, Bigtop, Bihco,
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Dupz, Dureo, Durin, Dust Filter, Dvc214, Dwilso, Dylan Lake, E Wing, ESkog, EamonnPKeane, Earlypsychosis, Ed Poor, Edward, Edwy, Einsteins37, Ekrub-ntyh, El C, Elockid, Enviroboy,
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HamburgerRadio, Hanfresco, Haverpopper, Heias, Heimstern, HenryLi, Hephaestos, HexaChord, Hgilbert, Hidude965, Hmains, Hobartimus, Hokie92, Honeybabs, HongQiGong,
Hontogaichiban, Hornandsoccer, Huaiwei, I am not a dog, IceUnshattered, Immunize, Indon, Insanephantom, Instantnood, Int21h, Iridescent, Istib, Itai, IvanStepaniuk, Ixfd64, J fong, J.delanoy,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:One child policy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:One_child_policy.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Venus
Image:Danshan Nongguang Village Bulletin board.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Danshan_Nongguang_Village_Bulletin_board.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: David Cowhig
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Image:PRC family planning don't abandon girls.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PRC_family_planning_don't_abandon_girls.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: David Cowhig

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