Power Plant Chemistry for Engineers

(Practical Guide)

Jindal Institute of Power Technology (JIPT)

O P Jindal Super Thermal Power Plant (4X250 MW & 4X600 MW) Tamnar,
Raigarh, Chhattisgarh 496108

Table of Contents
Contents
About Chemistry Department
Some Important Terms used in Power Plant Chemistry
Combustion Calculation of Coal Based plant
Coal Sampling and sample preparation
Calorific Value
Grading of coal
LOI of Ash
Water: Pre-treatment
Source of Water
Impurities of water
Scheme of Pre-treatment
Aeration
Coagulation and flocculation
Filtration
Disinfection
Calculation of dosing and diluting chemicals
Basic pumping calculation
De Mineralization Plant
Trouble shooting of WTP including DM plant
Desalination technologies
FAQ on RO
Ultra filtration
Water Chemistry of stream-water cycle
VGB Guidelines
Significance of parameters in steam-water cycle
Corrosion of metal
Water analysis Requirement
Circulating water Chemistry
Heat transfer and monitoring in cooling water system
Variables affecting tower performance
Heat transfer within cooling system
Effects of scale formation on heat transfer coeff.
Heat Transfer in a condenser
Methods of checking condenser performance
Boiler Tube Failures
Corrective Actions

mechanism

inspection

&

About Power Plant Chemistry

Chemistry is a integral part of Thermal Power Plant. Chemistry departments are established
to maintain the chemistry of circulating water, steam water cycle, DM water, operation of
DM water Plant , operation-analysis- reporting of chemical lab results of water and fuel.
Responsibility of power plant Chemistry Department:
1. Sampling and analysis of fuel interpreting the resulting data for both fuel pricing and
calculating station efficiency.
2

2. Operation of pre treatment and DM plant.

3. Quality control of raw, treated, feed, and boiler waters.
4. Technical control of demineralization, evaporation and chlorination.
5. Cooling Water treatment and heat transfer monitoring of cooling water system.
6. Monitor and control corrosion.
7. Acid cleaning of water/steam circuits of the station as and when required.
8. Manage the storage and handling of large amounts of chemicals.
9. Combustion monitoring and control.
10. Ion exchange resin troubleshooting.
11. Communicating/reporting to the line manager.
12. Document and data control.
The Chemistry department therefore provides a skilled scientific service in order to
improve availability, efficiency and economics of generation, by controlling the raw
material input to the station and minimizing chemical damage to the very high cost
capital plant.
This Department comprises of:
1. Chemical Lab: Analysis of steam, water and coal, Reporting, document and Data
control of the results.
2. D.M. Plant Operation: Maintenance and troubleshooting to cater make-up water for
boilers
3. Circulating water: Chemistry control to optimize tower
performance by reducing corrosion, scaling and microbial control.
4. LP & HP dosing:

and

exchanger

Chemistry control to reduce corrosion at high temperatures

5. Thermodynamics: Heat transfer monitoring of cooling water system, Calculating

thermal efficiency of heat transfer equipments of cooling water system.
6. New Projects Participation in technical discussions and commissioning about plant
chemistry

Some important terms used in Power plant Chemistry:

1.

Carryover: Carryover is any solid, liquid or vaporous contaminant that leaves a

boiler along with the steam. Entrained boiler water, which may contain dissolved or
suspended solids, is the most common cause of steam contamination. Carryover can
contaminate process streams and affect product quality. Carryover may also reduce
capacity or cause equipment failure, resulting in production losses. Deposition in
superheater tubes can lead to failure as a result of overheating. Steam turbines are
3

particularly susceptible to deposition and impingement damage resulting from impure

steam.
2.

Foaming: Foaming is formation of small and stable bubbles through out the boiler
water .The presence of high dissolved solids; excessive alkalinity and presence of oil
in water are responsible for foaming. When the concentration of solids increases and
it is also contaminated with oil, numerous small sized bubbles formed on boiler
water surface. This phenomenon is called foaming. This is highly undesirable as the
foaming contaminates the steam with appreciable amount of boiler, which contains
corrosive salts.

3.

Silica: The main impurity receiving critical attention in high press boiler is silica. All
naturally occurring water contains silica mainly in two forms- 1. Reactive silica 2.
Non reactive silica. Reactive silica in silicic acid, which reacts with anion resin
during demineralization of water in D M plant, hence can be removed through ionexchange process. This is also called molybdate reactive silica , as it reacts with
ammonium molybdate and produces coloration during silica estimation in laboratory,
Non reactive silica is colloidal silica , chemically it is in Silicon dioxide form , which
is very stable and non- reactive in nature .Hence , It does not take part in ion exchange
process in DM Plant , also being a non reactive material , it does not take part in any
chemical reaction during lab analysis , thus could not be estimated by simple chemical
analysis. Silica in boiler water volatizes at high temp. and pressure ( 60Kgf/cm2 and
above ) and passes with steam to the turbine .As the stem expands in the turbine
blades ,the silica deposits on turbine blades .This cuts of the flow area , creates the
imbalance and reduces efficiency.
The silica content in water is controlled by
a.Limiting the silica content by careful operation of D M Plant.
b.
Controlling the silica level of the boiler water by blow-down and HP
dosing.
c.Limiting silica bearing materials into feed and dosing systems.

4.

H P Dosing: Treating water in the boiler during evaporation is commonly known as

internal treatment .The aim of treatment is to adjust boiler water chemically to prevent
scale formation, corrosion and steam contamination. An internal treatment is
accomplished by adding chemicals to boiler water either to precipitate the impurities
so that they can be removed in the form of sludge .A solution of tri sodium phosphate
and di sodium phosphate is dosed in boiler drum periodically after chemical analysis
of boiler water .On hydrolysis Tri-sodium phosphate gives sodium hydroxide and disodium phosphate,
Na3PO4 < = > Na OH + Na2HPO4
NaOH thus formed helps to maintain pH, and Na 2HPO4 removes hardness by forming
sludge. Phosphate also helps to keep the sludge floating / non- sticky, so that it can be
removed easily during blow down, without scale formation. In normal cases, HP
4

dosing is advised by lab when boiler pH is less than 9.5 and phosphate less than 2
ppm.
5.

L P Dosing: LP dosing is given in low pressure zone in boiler water circuit, normally
in boiler feed pump suction continuously round the clock. A solution of aq. Ammonia
and hydrazine hydrate is used as LP dosing chemical.
Alkalinity of the feed water is one of the parameter to control corrosion of boiler as in
alkaline solution corrosion slows down due less number of hydrogen ions. Aq,
ammonia is added to raise the pH of feed water and steam to minimize chances of
acidic corrosion .The presence of Dissolved Oxygen is mostly responsible among
other factors responsible for corrosion. The permissible limit of dissolved oxygen
varies with the pH of feed water. Lower pH and higher dissolved O 2 is dangerously
increases the risk of corrosion. The limit of dissolved oxygen is 0.3cc /litre. The
action of oxygen elevates with high temp. & Press. Oxygen normally enters through
make up water. Next to oxygen CO2 is also responsible for corrosion. CO2 is coming
out as result of breaking bicarbonates on heating. This CO 2 combines with water
forming a weak acid, carbonic acid. This initiates a cyclic corrosion in boiler metal.

6.

Hydrazine: Hydrazine hydrate is added to boiler feed water continuously through LP

dosing system. This reacts with traces of dissolved oxygen forming harmless nitrogen
and water, thus chances of oxygen initiated corrosion is minimized .Thus Hydrazine is
called oxygen scavenger.
N2H4 (Hydrazine) + O2 (Dissolved) N2 (harmless) + H2O
The excess hydrazine is converted to ammonia in boiler and raise pH of steam/ feed

7.

Ammonia: Aqeous ammonia is added to boiler feed water continuously through LP

dosing system. This increases the pH of feed water and maintains higher steam pH,
thus chances of acidic corrosion is minimized. This also neutralizes any dissolved
CO2 in feed water. Ammonia is advantageous, as it neither leaves any residue in the
system nor increases TDS.

8.

COC (cycle of concentration):

COC = Concentration of a Hardness or Silica in re circulating water / Concentration
of the same in makeup water.

9.

PPM: This is parts per million, or milligram per liter.

10.

PPB: This is parts per billion, or micro gram per liter.

11.

Iron: The amount of iron in feed / boiler water indicates how much corrosion is
taking place. It is not possible to make iron nil, aim should be make it minimum to the
acceptable limit. The iron content not only shows health of boiler, but also shows
effectiveness of boiler water chemistry monitoring. High iron in boiler water shows
5

corrosion in the system. This is may be due to improper internal treatment or Chloride
attack .Excess iron leaching is very serious issue, to be dealt with proper attention
12.

Copper: The amount of copper in feed /cep water indicates how much corrosion is
taking place in condenser zone. Copper oxide deposition in superheater and turbine
zone leads to serious deposition problem. Copper comes from condenser tubes, and
copper content is analyzed in condensate water. Very high Cu content indicates
leaching of Cu from condenser tubes (where condenser is made of copper alloys) may
be due to very high ammonia presence in feed water.

13.

Magnetite layer: Magnetite layer is thin film layer of Fe 3O4 on metal surface which
protect the boiler metal from corrosion /oxidation. Excessive low or high pH can
damage this protective layer making naked metal surface exposed for corrosion.

14.

Chlorides: Presence of chloride is harmful as chloride ion can break through any
protective layers and induce corrosion. Further Chloride ion can induce corrosion
cracking in austenitic steel. Chloride comes in boiler water mainly from two sources.
1. due to leaky condenser 2.contaminated internal treatment / dosing chemicals
bearing chloride.

15.

Phosphate hide out: Some salts shows retrograde solubility, I e as the temperature
increases its solubility decreases. Tri- sodium phosphate has its very low solubility at
higher temperature, so phosphate disappears from the solution , gets deposited in
some loops / bends etc. and when the load is reduced it it reappears in the boiler water
. This is called phosphate hide out. This some time misleading to carry H P Dosing
advices.

16.

Condenser Leakage: Condenser leakage takes place due to the corrosive effect of the
water mainly from CW side and to a little extent due to steam/condensate. It is
identified by increased CEP conductivity, sudden increase in chlorides in condensate
and boiler water, low phosphate as it is consumed to neutralize acid formed due to
chloride ingress. In extreme case of leakage, phosphate may disappear despite HP
dosing. This is monitored by water analysis. Continuous monitoring system such as
SWAS helps to a greater extent in identification of condenser leakage. Once the
leakage is confirmed, plant has to take shut-down and do the necessary repairing. This
costs generation loss, time loss & manpower cost.

Combustion calculations
Calorific Value:
Basic standard of value for any fuel. It is a measure of its heating power and it is the primary
factor in fuel pricing. It is the number of heat units liberated per unit weight of fuel when
completely burned in oxygen.
6

1 cal / g
1 BTU/lb
1 Cal/g

=
=
=

4.1868 KJ / Kg (used in Britain)

2.326 KJ/Kg
1.8 BTU/lb

When a solid fuel is burned the energy released is taken up by the immediate environment.
Some energy will be retained by the combustion gases. The amount will depend upon
whether they are allowed to do work and expand or are constrained to a constant volume.
Similarly more energy will be released if the water formed is allowed to condense and give
up its latent heat than if remains as vapor. As a result it is necessary to distinguish between
four CVs.

GCV at constant Volume

NCV at constant volume
GCV at constant Pressure
NCV at constant pressure

The laboratory bomb calorimeter determination is the first of these GCV at constant
Volume; the others may be calculated from its (fuels) composition.
The word gross signifies that the latent heat if evaporation of the water present in the fuel
plus that formed during combustion, is recovered by condensing the products; net signifies
that the latent heat is lost, the water being discharged as vapor.
The latent heat of evaporation is not recoverable under boiler operating conditions and this
has led to continual manufactures reporting boiler efficiencies based on the lower or net
calorific values. Their efficiency is some 4% higher than the figures based on GCV.
Combustion of a fuel in a bomb differs from that in a boiler; the first is at constant volume,
the latter at constant pressure, when the products of combustion are allowed to expand at
constant pressure, when the products of combustion are allowed to expand at constant
pressure, work is done and the GCV at constant pressure is higher than the bomb-determined
CV by the heat equivalent of this work. The correction on this account is about 28 KJ/Kg.
Determination of CV:
There are two basic methods of determining CV, the isothermal method and adiabatic
method. In each case 1 gm of fuel is burnt inside a metal bomb in an atmosphere of oxygen.
The temperature of the vessel rises as a result and if there were no heat losses from the bomb
surface during the process, the energy released by the coal/fuel could be readily calculated
from the measured increase in temperature. In practice, corrections have to be made for the
heat loss from the calorimeter.
In the isothermal method a water jacket surrounds the vessel and is of sufficient mass so that
its temperature remains essentially constant during the CV determination. The cooling
correction is then simplified because the heat loss occurs to a constant temperature heat sink.
7

In the adiabatic method the surrounding jacket matches its temperature to the bomb during
the determination. Sensor measures the temperature of the bomb and control heaters in the
jacket to achieve this. As a result of there being no difference in temperature between the
bomb and its environment the cooling correction is no longer required. This is the preferred
method.
Combustion Calculations:
Coal/fuel consists of C, H, O, N, S & mineral compounds. Thermo-chemical data is therefore
needed about the main reactions of these combustible elements:
C
2H2
S

+
+
+

O2
O2
O2

CO2 +
2H2O +
SO2 +

372.7 MJ
525.4 MJ
26.9 MJ

(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)

And also about the reaction leading to partial combustion:

C

O2

CO

112.0 MJ

(1.9)

These equations relate the heat produced by the reactions to the masses of each element
involved. Thus for equation (1.6) 12 kg of Carbon combines with 32 kg of O 2 to give 44
kg of CO2 and liberate 372,7 MJ of heat energy. Similarly, equation (1.7) 4 kg of H
combines with 32 kg of O2 to give 36 kg of H2O and 525.4 MJ.
If the amount of air provided for combustion is less than required to equation (1.6 1.8),
some of the C will burn incompletely to CO (eq. 1.9), taking the latter for comparison with
Eq. (1.6) it will be seen that 12 kg of C completely combusted gives 372.7 MJ but on partial
combination to CO only MJ is evolved, a difference to 260.7 MJ. This can be retrieved by
completing the combustion:
CO

O2

CO2

260.7 MJ

(1.10)

Incomplete combustion can lead to considerable heat loss and this is why calculation of
theoretical air requirement is of importance. To make the necessary arrangements and
calculations, the amount of air required for combustion, and the quantities of O2 and N2 in the
fuel must be considered.

The composition of standard dry air (density 1,293 kg/m3 at STP)

Constituent
N2
O2

Mole fraction *
0.7809
0.2095

Mass fraction
0.7552
0.2315
8

Ar
CO2

0.0093
0.0003

0.0128
0.0005

*Assuming ideal gas behaviors, this is the same as the proportionate volume analysis.
For simplicity N2 & Ar may be taken together as N2 so that from the above table, air can be
said to consist of 79% by volume of N2. The volume ratio of N2 to O2 is then 3.77:1 and the
total volumes of gases involved when fuel burns in air as opposed to O 2 can then to
expressed. For examples Eq. 1.6 becomes:
C

O2

3.77N2

CO2

3.77N2

372.7 MJ

This means that 12 kg of C burns in 32 kg of O2 and 105.6 kg of N2 (3.77 >< 32) to form 44
kg of CO2 and 105 kg of N2 while liberating 372.7 MJ of heat. There is no change in the
energy liberated compared with the equation 1.6, but as this heat is now shared with a greater
mass of gas, combustion temperatures will be lowered.
Generally volumes will be calculated at STP (0 deg. C, 1 ATM, 101325 N/m 2). Adjustments
are made using the gas laws, so that if the calculated standard volumes is Vo at To ( 0 deg C)
and Po (1 ATM) then at any other temperature T1 or P1 the volume V1 will become.
V1 = V0 (T1/To) >< (Po/P1)
Detailed calculation for air requirements.
As an example of the calculation of the amount of air required burning 1 kg of Fuel, taking
case of the composition of X is:
Analysis %
Kg constituent/kg fuel
Moisture
18
0.18
Ash
08
0.08
C
59
0.59
H
3.7
0.037
N
1.2
0.012
S
1.7
0.017
O (balance)
8.4
0.084
The first step in the calculation is to determine the amounts of gases, which react with, or are
produced from reaction with 1 kg of C, H or S in the fuel using
equations (1.6 to 1.10).
The results are given below:

Mass Balance for Combustion Reactions

Combustible Equivalent amount (kg) of:
Elements
O2
N2
Air
CO2 CO
H2O
C (I)
2.66 8.85 11.51 3.66 Complete combustion

SO2
-

C (II)
Incomplete combustion
H
S

1.33

4.43

5.76

8
1

26.38 34.38 3.32 4.32 -

2.33

9
-

The amount of air required can now be calculated from the analysis using the last lable as
follows:
0.59 kg of C requires 0.59 >< 2.66 kg of O2 = 1.573 kg of O2
0.037 kg of H requires 0.037 >< 8 kg of O2 = 0.296 kg of O2
0.017 kg of S requires 0.017 >< 1 kg of O2 = 0.017 kg of O2
Total O2 req.
= 1.8863 kg of O2
The amount of O2 in the fuel must be deducted, as this gives rise to CO 2, directly, thereby
reducing the amount of gaseous O2 that needs to be supplied. In normal routine calculations
the O2 reported 8.4% will be deducted, so that the total weight of O2 required from the air will
be judged to be 1.8863 0.084 = 1.8023 kg of O 2. To be more precise, however, it is
necessary to correct the ash to mineral matter.
MM = 1.10 A + 0.53 S + 0.74 CO2 0.32
The CO2 correction may be omitted, since it will then be rightly assigned to the O 2 in the fuel
when this is calculated by the difference. Using the figure of X:
Mineral Matter = 1.10 >< 8 + 0.53 >< 1.7 0.32 = 9.38%
The amended composition of X is then:
Analysis %
Kg constituent/kg fuel
Moisture
18
0.18
Ash
9.38
0.0938
C
59
0.59
H
3.7
0.037
N
1.2
0.012
S
1.7
0.017
O (balance)
7.02
0.0702
And the correction for O2 in the fuel:
Total wt. of O2 req./Kg fuel
Less O2 content of fuel
Amount of O2 by air to be supplied

= 1.8863 kg of O2
= 0.0702 kg of O2
= 1.8161 kg of O2

Therefore wt. of air required:

= 1.8161 >< 100/23.15 = 7.85 kg
The volume of air at STP =
7.85/1.293 = 6.07 m3
Calculation of the composition of the waste gases:
10

Continuing with the above example, the waste gases from burning 1 kg of X fuel will consist
of N2 remaining from the combustion air, a small amount of N2 originating from the fuel and
the product of oxidation; CO2, H2O & SO2
Constituent

Wt. Of Gases (kg)

N in fuel
N in air = 7.85 1.816
Total N in flue gas
Wt. Of CO2 produced (0.59 ><
3.66)
Wt of H2O produced (0.037 >< 9)
Wt of H2O in fuel
Wt of SO2 produced (0.017 >< 2)
Total products of combustion (wet)
Total products of combustion (dry)

0.012
6.034
6.046
2.16
0.333
0.18
0.034
8.753 kg
8.24 kg

Volume of
according
hypothesis

gases (m3)
to
avagadros

4.789
1.099
0.636
0.012
6.54 m3
5.9 m3

Avagados hypothesis states that the molecular wt in kg of any gas will occupy 22.41 m 3 at
STP for the above computation the use of the specific volumes if each gas is helpful. This is
the volume occupied by 1 kg of the gas (equal to 22.41 m3/molucular wt in kg).
Specific volumes of gases
Gas
H2
O2
N2 (including rare gases)
CO2
SO2
H2O
CO
CH4
Dry air

Molecular Wt. (approx.)

2
32
28.3
44
64
18
28
16
28.964

Specific volume m3/kg at STP

11.11
0.70
0.792
0.509
0.343
1.24
0.80
1.40
0.77

The total volume of waste gases, 6.54 m3

CO2 in flue gas is measured in a dry basis and from the above calculation is present to the
extent
1.099 >< 5.9/100 = 18.6 % by wt.

The significance of CO2 levels in flue gases:

When a fuel is burnt with the exact amount of air to ensure complete combustion the flue
gases will contain a fixed and characteristic level of CO 2, known as the theoretical percentage
of CO2.

11

As one volume of O2 combines with C to give one volume of CO 2, when pure dry C is burnt
the O2 of the air will be replaced by an equivalent volume of CO 2 i.e. 20.95%. Any excess air
will dilute the CO2 to a lower level. If insufficient air for incomplete combustion is supplied
then the CO2 level will also fall as CO is produced instead. The theoretical percentage of CO 2
represents a datum for good combustion and the plant performance may be assessed by use of
this parameter.
Calculation of excess air:
Excess air (%) = (air supplied theoretical air)/theoretical air >< 100
In general operations the fuel analysis is not available and calculations of excess air are made
from dry flue gas analysis. The amounts of O 2, CO2 and CO in the gases are measured and N 2
is determined by difference. The excess air on a dry basis may then be estimated by assuming
that all C has been converted to oxides. The volume of CO 2 produced will be equal to the
volume of O2 consumed, but if CO is formed then only half the volume of O 2 would have
been consumed. The apparent excess air will be enhanced in the latter case and an adjustment
for the volume of CO formed must be made, i.e.,
Corrected excess O2 = (% by vol O2 in flue gas) ( measured CO%)
The theoretical O2 is the amount present in the air supplied, less the corrected excess O 2 just
calculated. The amount in the dry air supplied can be deduced from N 2 content of the flue gas
since the ratio of O2 to N2 in the original air must have been 0.264. Thus:
Excess air = [(O2 CO2)/ 0.234 N2 - (O2 CO2)] >< 100
The equation ignores the small amount of N2 present in the fuel but it turns out to be
sufficiently accurate for day to day purposes:
Measurement of boiler efficiency:
Special trial is undertaken, fuel supplied to the burners is analyzed, and flue gases are
monitored carefully. Since fuel supplied to the burners is analyzed, the heat input is known,
the efficiency may then be estimated by determining the % loss of heat due to each of the
following seven possible causes and deducting their sum from 100%.
L-1 Loss due to the latent heat of moisture in the fuel;
L-2 Loss due to the latent heat of water in the flue gases arising from Hydrogen in the fuel;
L-3 Loss due to the elevated temperature of the dry flue gases;
L-4 Loss due to incomplete combustion of the fuel resulting in Carbon Monoxide in the
flue gas;
L-5 Loss due to incomplete combustion of the fuel resulting in Carbon in the refuse;
L-6 Loss due to elevated temperature of the refuse;
12

L-7 Loss due to radiation.

L-1 and L-2 requires measurement of the gas temperature of the flue gases leaving the boiler,
determination of the dew point of the gases and measurement of their water content. The gas
temperature is measured at the air heater, but the gas composition and dew point are
measured before this point as air often leaks into the system after the boiler, causing a
dilution. The acid dew point is typically 120 deg C and flue gases are maintained above the
temperature to prevent the corrosion of the ductwork. The true dew point is typically 50 deg
C, so all of the water present in the flue gases leaves the stack, taking latent heat with it. This
represents one of the large causes of heat loss from a boiler.
L-3 is estimated from gas temperature and the specific heat of the flue gases.
L-4 CO concentrations in gases leaving a modern boiler are very low. On-line measurement
using an infrared detector is used to control the boiler. Levels of CO above 50-100 PPM by
volume are taken as showing the onset of incomplete combustion and the air supplies to the
burners are adjusted to reduce the concentration below these figures. O 2 is also measured in
order to estimate the excess air level figures of 3% O2 and 10-20% excess air are typical. The
O2 is measured on-line using either a solid state electrolyte (yttrium-doped garnet) cell or a
paramagnetic instrument. CO2 may also be measured using an infrared detector.
L-5 the measurement of the C in ash and grits isokinetic sampling- at same flow rate of flue
gas.
L-6 loss of heat in hot ash is measurable, but one of the smaller losses and final loss due to
radiation is about 2% for a large 500 or 660 MW boiler.

Coal
As you are aware, primary fuel of our power plant is fuel and the chemistry of the fuel mainly
carbon content is the source of desired energy. Generally, two types of analysis is done on
coal (a) proximate and (b) Ultimate. Here we are having facility of carrying out proximate
13

analysis and determination of calorific value. Proximate Analysis is done in four steps (1)
Moisture Content, (2) Ash Content, (3) Volatile matter and (4) Fixed Carbon expressed in
percentage. Specific sampling and analysis methods are followed and mentioned in
subsequent sections.
Coal Analysis:
SAMPLING FROM RAKES
(a)
Each rake of coal supplied at loading point shall be considered as a lot.
(b)
Sampling method shall be such that, if in one wagon, the sample is collected from
front, in the next wagon the sample shall be collected from middle of the wagon and
in the third wagon at the other end of the wagon and the same sample method will be
repeated for subsequent wagons.
(c)
The sampling spot, from top of the wagons, shall be leveled. At least 25 cm of coal
surface shall be removed/scrapped from the top, and again leveled for an area of 50
cm by 50 cm.
(d)
About 30 kg of sample shall be collected from each selected wagon in the rake of a
source by drawing 6 increments of approximately 5 kg each with the help of
shovel/scoop.
(e)
All samples collected from each wagon in the rake shall be mixed together.
PREPARATION OF COLLECTED SAMPLE FROM RAKES
(a)
The gross samples collected from each rake shall be separately crushed to 5 cm by
mechanical means, mixed thoroughly and quartered.
(b)
Two opposite quarters shall be retained and the rest shall be rejected.
(c)
The retained material shall be further mixed, halved and one half retained.
(d)
Material so obtained shall be crushed to 12.5 mm by a jaw crusher and then to 3.3
mm by mechanical means.
(e)
The crushed material shall be reduced either by coning and quartering or by ruffling
to 1.5 kg.
(f)
The sample so reduced shall be finally ground to pass through 212 micron IS sieve
using a Raymond mini mill.
(g)
From the final sample passing through 212 micron IS sieve, 0.75 kg shall be taken,
which will constitute the laboratory sample.
COLLECTION OF TOTAL MOISTURE SAMPLES FROM CONVEYOR
(a)
Collect ONE SOURCE and ANOTHER SOURCE sample separately.
(b)
Before collecting the sample, the type of coal shall be ascertained from CHP control
room.
(c)
Gross sample: During coal feeding to mill bunker from CHP, each increment (half
hour interval) shall be taken from the full cross section of the conveyor with the help
of a scoop. If the whole of the stream cannot be covered by one increment without
over filling then the coal stream should be sampled by taking coal from all portions
of the stream.
(d)
The minimum weight of each increment shall be approximately 5 kg.
14

(e)

Moisture sample: Take coal sample In an air tight plastic container (1 litre capacity)
and close it immediately.

CHECK Pt.: 01 (COAL RECEIVING) AS PER QUALITY PLAN

Coal rakes are received from West Bokaro and Mahanadi Coal Field Ltd., Coal sampling
done from each rake of Mahanadi Coalfields Ltd collected and analyzed. As coal quality of
West Bokaro another source is consistent, No samples from rakes received from West Bokaro
is collected. But only for a cross check, weekly one sample of another source is collected and
analyzed as per check point-2. Rake samples are collected and analyzed for both sources by
the handling agent at loading point and report to CHP and C&E. Copy of reports is filled in
standard formats.
CHECK Pt.: 02 (COAL CRUSHING) AS PER QUALITY PLAN
Sampling of Coal size & quality supplied form CHP to mill bunker done as per standard.
Sample collected from ONE SOURCE conveyor for ONE SOURCE & West Bokaro Another
source separately and a copy of report sent to DH (CHP), and all measured values recorded in
standard document.
CHECK Pt.: 03 (COAL PULVERISING) AS PER QUALITY PLAN
The fineness of coal after mills outlet measured after taking samples of individual mill as per
standard. All measured values recorded in standard document. In case of any non-conformity,
DH (Mech.Maint) shall take corrective action.

FLOW DIAGRAM of COAL SAMPLING

PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION OF COAL SAMPLES (As per IS 436 Part I)
SAMPLE AS
COLLECTED
TOTAL 350 Kg (Min)

15

Whole Sample Crushed below 50 mm

1 & 3 discarded

Mixing 3 times,
quartering

coning

&

Take 2 & 4 (175 Kg) &

Crushed below 25 mm

Mixing 3 times,
quartering

coning

&

2 & 4 discarded

Take 1 & 3 (88 Kg) &

Crushed below 13 mm
1

1 & 3 discarded

Mixing 3 times,
quartering

coning

&

Take 2 & 4 (44 Kg) &

Crushed below 6 mm
Mixing 3 times,
quartering

coning

&

2 & 4 discarded

Take 1 & 3 (22 Kg) &

Crushed below 3 mm
1

1 & 3 discarded

Take 2 & 4 (11 Kg), Further

Reduced to 1.5 Kg By Repeated
coning and quartering
1 & 4 Analysis Part (0.75
Kg)

Mixing 3 times,
quartering

coning

&

Grinding by Pulverizer 72
Mesh

Calorific Value:

16

Basic standard of value for any fuel. It is a measure of its heating power and it is the primary
factor in fuel pricing. It is the number of heat units liberated per unit weight of fuel when
completely burned in oxygen.
When a solid fuel is burned the energy released is taken up by the immediate environment.
Some energy will be retained by the combustion gases. The amount will depend upon
whether they are allowed to do work and expand or are constrained to a constant volume.
Similarly more energy will be released if the water formed is allowed to condense and give
up its latent heat than if remains as vapor.
The laboratory bomb calorimeter determination is the GCV at constant Volume.
The word gross signifies that the latent heat of evaporation of the water present in the fuel
plus that formed during combustion, is recovered by condensing the products; net signifies
that the latent heat is lost, the water being discharged as vapor.
The latent heat of evaporation is not recoverable under boiler operating conditions and this
has led to continual manufactures reporting boiler efficiencies based on the lower or net
calorific values. Their efficiency is some 4% higher than the figures based on GCV.
Determination of CV:
There are two basic methods of determining CV, the isothermal method and adiabatic
method. In each case 1 gm of fuel is burnt inside a metal bomb in an atmosphere of oxygen.
The temperature of the vessel rises as a result and if there were no heat losses from the bomb
surface during the process, the energy released by the coal/fuel could be readily calculated
from the measured increase in temperature. In practice, corrections have to be made for the
heat loss from the calorimeter.
In the isothermal method a water jacket surrounds the vessel and is of sufficient mass so that
its temperature remains essentially constant during the CV determination. The cooling
correction is then simplified because the heat loss occurs to a constant temperature heat sink.
In the adiabatic method the surrounding jacket matches its temperature to the bomb during
the determination. Sensor measures the temperature of the bomb and control heaters in the
jacket to achieve this. As a result of there being no difference in temperature between the
bomb and its environment the cooling correction is no longer required. This is the preferred
method.

CALCULATION
17

Tabulate the data as analyzed basis

AIR DRY BASIS (%)
MOISTURE
M
ASH
A
VM
V
FC
100-(M+A+V)

AS RECEIVED BASIS
MOISTURE
M1
ASH
A1
VM
V1
FC
FC1

AS EQ BASIS
MOISTURE
Meq
ASH
Aeq

Tabulate the data as calculated basis as per following formula

A1 = (100-M1) / 100-M)*A ; V1 = (100-M1) / 100-M)*V ;FC1 = (100-M1+A1+V1)
Aeq = (100-Meq) / (100-M)*A
AIR DRY BASIS (%)
MOISTURE
M
ASH
A
VM
V
FC
100-(M+A+V)

AS RECEIVED BASIS
MOISTURE
M1
ASH
A1
VM
V1
FC
FC1

AS EQ BASIS
MOISTURE
Meq
ASH
Aeq

Calculation of UHV (Useful Heat Value) as per CENTRA FUEL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
STATUTORY formula published by Govt. of India in the price notification from Time to
time.
USEFUL HEAT VALUE (UHV)
UHV (K.cal/Kg) = 8900 138(Aeq+Meq)
Acceptance Criteria : Any non conformity in specification for GCV, UHV, Ash and Moisture
intimation to be sent to EIC (FAMD) and a copy to be filed at DH (CHP) Office.
GRADING OF COAL
UHV K.cal/Kg (Range)
1300 AND BELOW
1301-2400
2401-3360
3361-4200
4201-4940
4941-5600
5601-6200
6201 AND ABOVE

GRADE
U/G
G
F
E
D
C
B
A

DETERMINATION OF GROSS CALORIFIC(GCV) AIR DRY BASIS

Gross Calorific Value is determined by Bomb Calorimeter on air dry basis. Take about 1gm
of air dried coal sample and experiment is set up as given procedure below:

CALCULATION: As per Format given below:18

AIR DRY BASIS

RAK M A V
DA E
M
% % %

Column

C D

F
C
%

GC
V

EQUIL. BASIS

AS RECEIVED BASIS

M A UH
V
% %

Grad
e

M A V
M
% % %

F
C
%

Correct
ed GCV

Ne
t
C
V

L M N

CORRECTED GCV(P) :

(100-L)*G / (100-C)

NET CV(Q) :

PL*532/100

UHV:
Calculation of UHV (Useful Heat Value) as per CENTRA FUEL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
STATUTORY formula published by Govt. of India in the price notification from Time to
time.
USEFUL HEAT VALUE (UHV)
UHV (K.cal/Kg) = 8900 138(I +H)
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA: Any non-conformity in specification for GCV, UHV, Ash and
Moisture intimation to be sent to supplier.
REPORTING FORMAT
FORMAT FOR REPORT (RAKE SAMPLES)
AIR DRY BASIS

DATE
A

EQUIL. BASIS

AS RECEIVED BASIS

RAKE

M
%

A
%

VM
%

FC
%

GCV

M
%

A
%

UHV

Grade

M
%

A
%

VM
%

FC
%

Corrected
GCV

Net
CV

UHV

WT%
(-3.2
mm)

FORMAT FOR REPORT (CONVEYOR SAMPLES) SOURCE : WBC, ANOTHER

SOURCE

Column
No

DAT

Sourc
e

AIR DRY
BASIS
M % GC
V

AS RECEIVED
BASIS
M % Corrected Net
GCV
CV

EUUIL.
BASIS
M%
A%

19

FORMAT FOR REPORT (CONVEYOR SAMPLES) SOURCE : ONE SOURCE

Column
No

DAT

Sourc
e

AIR DRY
BASIS
M % GC
V
C

AS RECEIVED
BASIS
M % Corrected Net
GCV
CV
E

EUUIL.
BASIS
M% A
%
H

UH
V
J

WT%
(+25
mm)
K

For daily basis GCV / NCV determination for daily Heat rate calculation, samples from mill
outlet (PA Fan) for individual source (ONE SOURCE/ANOTHER SOURCE) shall be
collected on daily at least two times (A & B-Shift). The average value of NCV shall be
reported for daily MIS report.
A separate sample of moisture (AR-basis) shall be collected for individual sources on daily
basis for the calculation of corrected GCV and NCV.
The moisture% and Ash% (Eq. Basis) for both sources (ONE SOURCE/ANOTHER
SOURCE) shall be reported on weekly basis.
The size analysis of Conveyor samples (both ONE SOURCE & ANOTHER SOURCE) shall
be done on weekly basis.

LOI IN ASH
Introduction: When pulverized coal is burnt in boilers the ash is carried onwards in the gases
as fused particles which solidifies in to a rough spherical shape and is called ash. The LOI
(loss on ignition) value of ash depends both on quality of coal burnt and the efficiencies of
the combustion process. The LOI is determined by incinerating ash to constant weight under
81510 deg C for 1 hr 30 mins.
Recommended Norms for 250+ MW: Fly Ash 0.5% LOI on dry basis
Bottom Ash 1% LOI on dry basis.
However this LOI of Ash depends on type of boiler, kind and type of fuel, boiler design for a
particular fuels etc.
Pre Treatment (Raw Water Treatment)
Sources of Water
Introduction
The origin of all sources of water is rain fall. Water evaporate from the ocean and seas and is
carried upwards by the wind. It condenses as rain, hail or snow. On reaching the earth, part of
it is held by the top soil to feed vegetation, but the reminder either falls upon impervious
20

surfaces or percolates through the earth and it is from these two sources that we obtain our
water supplies.
The two main sources of water are surface water and groundwater. Surface Water is found in
lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it travels
through and fills openings in the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are
called aquifers. Groundwater must be pumped from an aquifer to the earth's surface for use.
Surface water includes rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
Now a days sea water is also considered as a source or water but this needs be desalinate
before use in power plant systems.
River water
Waters from rivers, streams and canals are generally variable in quality and less satisfactory
than those from lakes and impounded reservoirs. It contains mineral impurities because rain
water dissolves minerals of the soil during its journey to river.
Color, turbidity, taste & odour and other impurities are due to natural and manmade pollution.
Lake water
Lake water is more uniform in quality than river or canal. The chemical composition of lake
water is generally constant. Lake water has less dissolved solids but more organic matter.
Some lakes have such good quality water that it may not require any treatment.
Sea water
It is probably the most impure form of surface water and the most difficult and costliest to
treat.
Ground Water
A part of rain water percolates through earth surface till it reaches a hard rock where it may
be stored. The water as it percolates through earth dissolves many salts. The chemical
characteristics of ground water is representative of the strata it passes through.
Generally ground water is clear and colorless but may contain more hardness and other
mineral impurities. Ground water is pumped form wells that are drilled into aquifers.
Aquifers are geologic formations that contain water. The quantity of water in an aquifer and
the water produced by a well depend on the nature of the rock, sand, or soil in the aquifer
where the well withdraws water.
Impurities in Water
The impurities present in water can be broadly classified as:1)

Non ionic impurities. Or un-dissolved impurities or suspended solids

2)

Ionic impurities or dissolved impurities also called Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

3)

Gaseous impurities or dissolved gases.

21

Major non ionic impurities are:

1)
Turbidity or suspended solids.
2)
Colour
3)
Taste and odour
4)
Organic matter
5)
Colloidal silica
6)
Oil.
Major cationic impurities
1)
Calcium
2)
Magnesium
3)
Sodium
4)
Potassium
5)
Iron
6)
Manganese
7)
Aluminum
Major anionic impurities
1)
Bi carbonates
2)
Carbonates
3)
Hydroxide
4)
Fluorides
5)
Chlorides
6)
Sulphates
7)
Nitrates
8)
Phosphates
9)
Silica.
Gaseous impurities
Carbon di oxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Ammonia
Oxygen
Bacteriological and microbiological impurities

A. Impurities in Water: Common impurities in water, their effect and method of removal
are as follows:
Impurities
Effect
Method of removal
Turbidity
Can clog pipelines and equipments Coagulation,
setting
and
Suspended silica
can choke Ion exchange resin and RO filtration
membranes
Color
Indication of organic, iron etc. and Coagulation, settling filtration,
can be harmful to the unit operation followed by activated carbon
ahead.
filter.
Organic matter
Can foul Ion exchange resins Coagulation, setting, filtration,
22

Bacteria
Iron
pH
Calcium,
Magnesium
(Hardness)
Sodium
Bicarbonates,
Carbonates,
Alkalinity,
Hydroxide
(Alkalinity)

Sulphate

Chloride

Impurities
Nitrate

Silica
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Sulphide
Oxygen

Ammonia

membranes and may be detrimental

to process.
Will depend upon the type of
bacteria, can induce corrosion and
also harmful to RO membrane.
Red water, corrosion, deposit,
interferes with dyeing, bleaching etc.

followed by activated carbon

filtration.
Coagulation, filtration, setting
and super chlorination, UV,
ozonation
Aeration, coagulation, filtration,
filtration through Manganese
Zeolite
High pH or low pH can both induce Ion exchange, addition of acid or
corrosion.
alkali.
Scaling, cruds with soap interfere Ion exchange
with dyeing and also harmful to other Lime Soda
process.
Unharmful
when
low
in Ion Exchange through cation H+
concentration, increase TDS, high resin.
concentration can induce corrosion.
Reverse Osmosis
Corrosion, foaming and carry over
Acid addition
Ion Exchange by weak acid
cation
Split stream by hydrogen cation
resin
Degassification after step 2 and
3
Scaling if associated with Calcium, Ion Exchange
harmful in construction water.
Reverse Osmosis
Evaporation
Electrolysis.
Corrosion
Ion Exchange
Reverse Osmosis
Evaporation
Electrodylsis.
Effect
Method of removal
Normally not found in raw water. Ion Exchange
Harmful in food processes (especially Reverse Osmosis
baby food).
Scaling and deposition on equipment.
Corrosion

Ion Exchange
Open aeration, Degasification,
and Vacuum deaeration.
Corrosion
Aeration,
filtration
through
Manganese Zeolite, aeration plus
chlorination.
Corrosion
Deaeration
Addition of chemicals likes
sodium sulphite or hydrazine.
Anion exchanger
Corrosing especially of Copper and Aeration
Zinc
Hydrogenations exchange if
23

ammonia is present in Ionic

form.
Free chlorine

Corrosion

By adding chemicals
Activated carbon

Objective of water treatment

Objective of any water treatment processes is to remove impurities or change the composition
of water so that it can be used either for drinking or for any intended end use. It is
generally not possible to treat water with a single process or a single unit operation
Water is rendered useful by series of treatment operation depending on the source of
supply. The method of treatment also depends on the desired standard of effluent
water.
Schematic 1 is generally the most commonly used Drinking water treatment for hard ground
water supplies.
Schematic 2 is generally employed for treating turbid surface water.
Schematic 1: Pre-Treatment for Hard ground Water
Raw water
Aeration
Softening by lime soda

Filtration

Disinfection by Cholrination
Storage
Chlorination is done at variopus stages . See cholrination for more details.
Schematic 2: Pre-Treatment for Turbid surface Water
Raw water
Pre sedimentation
Mixing, flocculation & Settling
Filtration

Disinfection by Cholrination

Storage

As mentioned above these schematics are only representative . There are many other factors
on which the treatment method are decided
Aeration
Aeration is generally the first process when treating hard ground water or water which may
have considerable amount of iron and manganese.
The principle use of Aeration are
1.
2.
3.
4.

Removal of Taste & odour

Removal of carbon Di Oxide
Oxidation of Iron & Manganese Di Oxide
Removal of Volatile Organics

Four types of Aerators are generally used

24

1.
2.
3.
4.

Gravity Aerators.
Spray Aerators
Diffusers
Mechanical Aerators.

The first two are more common in water treatment plants and the later are employed more in
waste water treatment.
Gravity Aerators
Gravity Aerators are of various types. Cascade aerators, Inclined plane, Stacks of perforated
plates are all types of Gravity Aerators.
In gravity Aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that large area of water is exposed
to air. In gravity aerators free fall occurs due to gravity and by law of Physics it can be
shown that acceleration
a=-g
and
v= vo - gt
th = time to fall one step h can be calculated from Vo = 0 (initial Velocity )
Therefore
v= - gt & h = gt2
H= sqrt(2h/g)
If H is the total height subdivided into n individual steps then Tc total contact time between
Air & water is given by
Tc

= n. Sqrt [(2H/N)/g]
= Sqrt (2Hn /g)

Spray aerators
Spray aerators at times are called fountain aerators. Water is sprayed through nozzles upward
into the atmosphere and broken up into either a mist or droplets. Water is directed vertically
or at slight angle to vertical. The nozzle systems may be stationary or moving. Spray aerators
are aesthetic and hence used in water treatment plants though they take large areas.
Air diffuser
Air is introduced into the water through submerged porous diffusers or air nozzles. It is more
commonly used in waste water
Mechanical aerators
The water is agitated mechanically so as to promote solution of air from the atmosphere. It
serves two purpose 1) Of mixing chemicals and 2) Aeration

25

Aeration Process
Aeration is a process of mixing air with water and has number of useful
Functions as explained above. Aeration is not adopted as a general practice in Water
treatment but only when specially needed for iron and manganese removal.
The Governing equation for Aeration is based on gas transfer equations
Ct
=
Cs (Cs Co) Exp (-KLat) (for absorption)
- eq1
Ct
=
Cs + (Cs Co) Exp (-KLat ) (for desorption )
-eq2
KL a is the overall mass transfer coefficient
a= A/V s the exposed area to volume of water
KL = kg A/V Where Kg is the gas transfer coefficients (having dimensions of velocity)
Ct is the actual concentration of gas in water after time t
Cs is the gas saturation concentration
Co is the concentration of gas initially present in water
t is the aeration period .
For optimal transfer
1. Generating the largest practicable area A of interface between a given water volume V and
air.
2. By preventing buildup of thick liquid film or by breaking them to keep the Gas transfer
coefficient high
3. Increase the to time of contact of water droplets with air
4. Keeping the driving force high i.e. keeping the concentration difference high
The product (A/V) * t is given by Langelier as (6/d)* 2 h/g for spherical droplet of
diameter d and falling through a column of air of height h (6/d)*(h/v) for spherical bubbles
of like diameter and rising through a column of water of like height and attaining a terminal
velocity v.
Coagulation & Flocculation
Coagulation
Impurities in water in form of solids are classified on the basis of size. Coarse solids settle by
gravity because of its size and is easily removed by sedimentation process.
Finer particles which does not settle by gravity pass on to effluent water. For effective
treatment these particles are to be aggregated to large settle able solids. These is done by the
addition of Chemicals. These chemicals are Coagulants and the process is known as
Coagulation. Coagulation is the process of destabilizing colloidal particles to remove them.
The three main coagulants used in Water treatment are
1. Aluminum sulfate (Filter Alum)
2. Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC)
3. Ferrous Sulfate (Copperas)
4. Ferric Salt
26

Adjustment of Alkalinity & pH

Alkalinity & pH control is essential for proper coagulation. The optimum pH for coagulation
varies from 5.5 to 8.5 for Filter Alum & 5.0 to 8.5 for PAC & ferric Salts.
Acid & alkalis are used to adjust the pH. Typical acid used for lowering pH is sulphuric acid
and alkali used is Lime. Soda Ash is also used.
Coagulant Aids
Coagulant Aids are chemical substances which are used to increase or hasten the Coagulation
Process. They may be natural or manmade .Bentonite and some other clays are used
as natural coagulant aids. Polyelectrolytes are used as Coagulant aids and exist in
three forms
1. Cationic Polymer
2. Anionic polymer
3. Non Ionic polymer
Some cationic polymer not only act as a Coagulant aid but can also be used in some water as
a primary coagulant e.g. poly di-allyl, di-methyl, ammonium Chloride (Poly-DADMAC)
which is approved for potable water application.
Flocculation
Flocculation is an agglomeration of small particles and colloids to form flocs. In flocculation
first rapid mixing is done so that so that coagulants are dispersed uniformly in water and then
slow mixing for growth of flocs.
Rapid Mix or flash mixing
For effective coagulation the chemicals have to be rapidly dispersed in the mixing tank.
The process of rapidly mixing the coagulants so that chemical is rapidly and uniformly
dispersed throughout the volume of water is known as Rapid Mixing or Flash Mixing
Rapid Mixing or Flash mixing unit
Mixing Devices
Many type of devices have been designed to rapidly mix the chemicals with the source of
water.
The types of device used for mixing are
1. Mechanical Devices in dedicated basin
2. Inline blenders
3. Hydraulic methods
4. Air Mixing
Mixing intensity is governed by the velocity gradient equation. The equation developed by
Camp and Stein is given by
27

G = (P/ V)1/2
Where G is the root mean square velocity gradient s-1
P is the power input in watts
is the dynamic viscosity N s /M2
V is the volume of water M3
The following G values with corresponding rapid Mix detention time to has been found to
work in practice.
Detention time to(s)
0 -5
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-130

G (s-1)
4000
1500
950
850
750

The values given above are taken from the book Environmental engineering A design
Approach by Arcadio p. Sincero & Gregoria A. Sincero(published by Prentice Hall)
Impeller type mechanical mixers are the most commonly used rapid mix system in water
treatment units. Mixing I these devises is a function of geometry of the basin and impeller,
fluid characteristics and power expenditure. Gravity effects are not important.
Design Basis
The rpm used for propeller type is generally range from 400 to 1400 rpm
The blades are mounted on vertical or inclined shaft.
In mechanical flash mixing the detention time provided is 30 to 60 seconds
Power requirements are 1 to 3 watts per M3 /hr of flow
Impeller diameter to ratio of tank 0.2 to 0.4
Shaft speed should be greater than 100 rpm and tangential velocity at the tip of the blade
should be greater than 3 m/s.
The ratio of tank height to diameter of 1:1 to 3:1 is recommended for proper dispersion
Flocculators
There are variety of devices used for accomplishing slow mixing for flocculation.
Flocculators can be categorized on the basis of working principle as Gravitational (Hydraulic)
or as Mechanical or Pneumatic
Hydraulic Flocculators
The hydraulic type uses the kinetic energy of water flowing through the plant created usually
by the baffle.]
1. Horizontal Flow baffled Flocculator
2. Vertical Flow baffled Flocculator
3. Alabama type Flocculator
28

4. Tangential Type Flocculator

5. Pipe Flocculator
Mechanical Flocculators
Mechanical Flocculator consists of revolving paddles with horizontal or vertical shafts or
paddles suspended from horizontal oscillating beams moving up and down
Design Parameters for Gravitational & Hydraulic Flocculator
1. Velocity in The channel to be 10 to 30 cm/s
2. Width of channel should be minimum 45cm
3. Depth of Flow should not be less than 1 M
4. Flocculation detention time should be 10to 20 Minutes.
5. Loss of Head is 15 to 60 cm
Design Parameters for Mechanical Flocculator
1. Power required is 0.5 to 1.5 Watts /M3 per flow/Hr
2. The peripheral velocity of paddles should be in the range
(average0.35m/s)
3. Flocculation period 20 to 30 minutes ( generally 30 Mts)
4. Depth of Tank 3 to 4.5 M
5. Velocity of Flow around 0.4 m/s
6. Velocity gradient 10 to 80 per Second
7. Gt value from 10 4 to 10 5
8. Power consumption 10 to 36. kW /M/D
9. CD 1.8
10. K = 0.25 in absence of stator
11. n = 1 to 5 rpm

of 0.15 to 0.6 m/s.

Higher value of G produce smaller flocs and low values of G provide larger flocs . Though
larger flocs are desirable it should form within the time period Floc sizes are a function of G
and time the index of flocculation is Gto. The following G & Gto values are used
Type of raw water
Low turbidity water
High turbidity (solid removal)

G (S-1)
20 to 70
70 150

Gto
50000 to 250000
80000 to 190000

Following things should be Kept in mind while designing:

Minimum distance of 300 cm should be provided between paddle tips for preventing
excessive velocity gradient.
Minimum distance of 300 cm also should be provided between paddles and any
structure inside the flocculator.
Paddle blade velocity should be less than 1 m/s

29

Sedimentation
Sedimentation or settling is a process used to separate the settleable suspended solids from
water by gravity. Sedimentation can be plain or aided by coagulants & flocculent Plain
sedimentation is by natural force alone i.e. by gravity. Plain sedimentation is usually used as a
preliminary process to reduce heavy sediments loads prior to subsequent treatment processes
such as coagulation or filtration. Sedimentation is also done after chemical treatment to
remove settable solids that have been rendered more settable by addition of coagulants to
remove organic, colour and turbidity..
The factors that influence sedimentation are
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)

Particle size,shape and weight

Viscosity and temperature of particle
surface overflow
surface area
velocity of flow
inlet and outlet arrangements
detention periods
effective depth of basins
electrical charges on particles
dissolved substance in water
Flocculation characteristics of the suspended material.
Environmental conditions (such as Wind Effects etc )

There are four general types or classes of particle settling that are based on the concentration
of the particles to interact. These criteria directly influence the design and construction of
sedimentation.
The four types of settling are: discrete, flocculent, hindered, and compression. Each of these
occur in both water and wastewater treatment.

Type 1

Discrete

Type 2
Type 3
Type 4

Flocculated
Hindered
Compressed

Sedimentation Basin
Sedimentation basin is divided into four zones
Inlet zone
Settling zone
Sludge zone
Outlet zone

30

Inle
t

Settling

Outl
et

Sludge

Sludge
R
For explanation of working, Sedimentation basin can be divided into four zones
1. Inlet zone: The water enters here. The water should uniformly get distributed over the
entire cross section
2. Settling zone this is a zone where settling takes place. Here the particles are undisturbed
for 3 or more hours for effective settling.
3. Sludge zone: This is a temporary place for the settled sludge which has to be removed
periodically.
4. Outlet zone: The basin outlet should be so designed that the flow of water from
sedimentation basin should be smooth.
Type of tanks
The tanks are generally categorized on the basis of direction of flow. Horizontal flow Tanks
or vertical flow tanks. The tanks may be rectangular or square or circular in plan.
Horizontal Flow Tanks
Horizontal flow tanks are generally of the following type .
1. Radial Circular Tanks with Central feed
2. Radial Flow tank with peripheral feed
3. Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow
4. Rectangular tank with longitudinal flow and continuous removal of sludge

31

Vertical Flow Tanks

Vertical Flow tanks combine flocculation & Sedimentation. The tank may be circular or
square. The inlet is from bottom. These types are also known as Sludge blanket
Clarifier.
Clariflocculator or Solid Contact clariflier
Solid contact clariflier go by several interchangeable name:- Solid contact clariflier, Up flow
clariflier, Reactivators and precipitators.
The basic principle of operation is same though various manufacture use different terms to
describe how the mechanism removes solids from water. The settled material from
coagulation is called sludge and slurry refers to the suspended floc clumps in clariflier.
Sometimes Slurry and sludge are used interchangeably.
Clariflocculator provides mixing, flocculation and clarification in a single unit. A significant
reduction in total space is attained but requires greater degree of operational skill. The
coagulating agent is added and mixed with water in the central zone of the unit ,
where a significant amount of flocculation occurs Floc formed in the central zone
exits into the clarification zone. A dense sludge blanket forms in the clarification
zone. Design guidelines for upflow clarification is shown as given in book (Theory &
Practice of Water & Waste Water Treatment by Ronald L Droste and published by
John wiley & Sons)

Design details for Settling basin

The common criteria for designing settling basin are

Rectangular and Circular Clarifiers

1. Depth
2. Overflow rate
3. Weir Loading Rate
4. Maximum Length of rectangular Basin
5. Length Breadth Ratio
6. Maximum diameter of Circular Basin

1.5 to 5 M
20 to 70 M3/M2/day
<1250 M3/M/day
70-75 M
3to 5:1
38

Up flow Solid contact Clariflier or

Clariflocculator
1. Depth
2.5 to 3.5
2. Over flow rate
24 550 M3/M2/day
Inclined tube or Lamella Clariflier
1. Inclined Length
2. Angle of Inclination

1-2 M
7 to 60
32

3. Tube diameter or Plate Spacing

4. Overflow rates based on Plan Area
5. Depth

Near 5cm
88 -178 M3/M2/day
6-7 M

Actual sedimentation basins are rectangular, square, or circular in plan area. A singlerectangular basin will cost more than a circular basin of the same size; however, if numerous
tanks are required, the rectangular units can be constructed with common walls and be the
most economical.

Rectangular tanks
Inlets for Rectangular Tanks:
In an ideal rectangular tank, water enters through the flocculation basin which is usually
adjacent to the tank. The flocculation basin is the same width as the settling tank but is
usually not as deep. The two basins are separated by a wood baffle fence or a concrete wall
with numerous ports. The inlet water enters uniformly across the rectangular basin by means
of the inlet zone. The inlet zone does not extend down to the full depth of the settling tank but
extends down to the depth of the flocculator. If the rectangular tank does not adjoin the
flocculator, the inlet water is distributed uniformly across the basin by a flume with ports into
the tank. In this case, a baffle in front of the flume will disperse the water downward to give a
deep inlet zone.
Outlets for Rectangular Tanks:
One type of outlet for a rectangular tank is a weir which spills into the effluent flume that
extends across the entire width of the basin. If, however, the water is chemically coagulated, a
weir should be avoided because the turbulence will break up much of the fine floc and result
in poor filter performance. For chemically treated waters it is best to have an orifice flume
across the basin width. An orifice flume does not have a high degree of turbulence and will
not break up fine floc.
Circular Tanks
Inlets for Circular Tanks:
In circular tanks, the flow enters either the center of the tank (center feed) or the side of the
tank (side feed). If the tank is less than 30 ft (9.14 m) in diameter, the inlet pipe will enter
through the wall and discharge into the baffle well. Then, the flow enters in a downward
direction. If the tank is greater than about 30 ft (9.14 m), the inlet pipe will run underneath
the tank and discharge vertically in the center of the center of the baffle well. The depth of a
circular clarifier is considered to be the depth at the side of the tank, and is referred to as the
side water depth (swd). This depth is used for determining tank volume and detention time.
Outlets for Circular Tanks:
The outlets for most circular tanks consist of a weir channel around the periphery giving a
uniform flow removal. The center-feed circular clarifiers that are used in wastewater
33

treatment have both mechanical sludge rakes and surface skimming. Circular tanks used in
water treatment are similar to those in wastewater treatment except that surface skimmers are
not required. The bottom of a circular tank slopes to the center at a slope of 1:12, thus it
forms a flat inverted cone. In design, the cone is not considered in the design volume, which
is taken as being the plan area times the depth of the water at the sides of the tank. The sludge
is usually collected in a hopper near the center of the tank.
Inlet for Periphery-feed Circular Tanks:
As flow enters a periphery (or side) feed tank, it is deflected so that it moves around the
periphery in an orifice channel. From the channel the flow discharges through the orifice into
the clarifier. Sometimes, instead of an orifice channel there is simply a skirt surrounding the
inside of the tank and the liquid flows out underneath the skirt into the tank. Peripheral entry
does not give as uniform a flow as the center feed tanks.
Outlet for Periphery-feed Circular Tanks:
The outlet of a side feed tank consists of a weir channel in the center of the basin.
Influent structure & Effluent structure
The influent structure is so designed that turbulence is minimum, water and suspended solids
gets distributed uniformly across the width and depth of the settling basin. It may consist of
influent channel, submerged orifice and baffles before orifice.

Inclined Plates & Tube Settlers

The efficiency of settling basin is dependent primarily upon surface area and is independent
of depth. The reason for this that the liquid up flow velocity should be less than the velocity
of slowest settling particle that must be removed. Various method were tried to increase the
surface Area. One method was to introduce shallow plates but did not meet with great
success. Later inclined plates and tube settlers were tried which showed promise and is being
used.
Inclined plate & tube settler are shallow settling device consisting of stacked offset trays or
bundles of small tubes of various geometrical sizes.
Tube settlers are plastic (PVC) modules with uniformly spaced inclined channels. Lamellas
settlers have uniformly spaced inclined panels both type of clarifliers solve the problem of
sludge removal. The resultant velocity on the particle from the upward flow of water and the
vertically downward settling velocity of the particle direct the particle to the bottom wall of
the tube or toward the lamella. The particle then slides down the surface and exits at the
bottom to be collected in the sludge chamber.
Types of Clarifiers
The design of most of the clarifiers falls into three categories:

Horizontal flow
34

Solids contact
Inclined surface

Conventional Clarifier

High Rate Solid Contact Clarifier

35

Lamella Clarifier / Inclined Plate Clarifier

Clariflocculator
Clariflocculator go by various names: Solid contact Clariflier, Up flow Clarifliers, rectivators,
precipitators. The basic process of operation is same for all, even though different
manufactures use different names. In Solid contact Clarifliers, the unit process of
Coagulation, Flocculation & sedimentation all occur in a single unit. The capital cost &
Maintenance cost of such unit reduces in comparison to conventional system because all the
process is accomplished in a single unit. This kind of unit requires higher degree of operator
knowledge & Skill.
Coagulant chemicals
The most commonly used coagulants are Aluminum sulphate (Filter alum), PAC - Poly
Aluminum Chloride (AlnCl(3n-m)(OH)m), Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) Ferrous sulphate (copperas)
and Ferric sulphate (Ferrisul),. These coagulants are acidic in nature and reacts with the
natural or added alkalinity of water to form gelatinous precipitate.

36

An important property of poly aluminum coagulants is their basicity. This is the ratio of
hydroxyl to aluminum ions in the hydrated complex and in general the higher the basicity, the
lower will be the consumption of alkalinity in the treatment process and hence impact on pH.
The optimal pH range for Aluminum sulphate is 5.5 to 8.5.
The optimum pH range for PAC is 5.0 to 8.0.
The optimal pH range for Ferrous sulphate is 8.0 to 11.0.
The optimal pH range for Ferric sulphate is 8.0 to 11.0
But for colour removal it is 5.0 - 6.0.
Lime is required to be added only if the alkalinity in raw water is less than required.

37

Filtration
Process
Filtration is a process to remove particulate matter and floc from water being treated by
passing the water through a bed of porous material such as sand, coal or other granular
substance.
Classification of filters are done in many ways.
1. By mode of operation
a) Gravity Filters
b) Pressure filters
2. By the type of media used
a) Sand filter
b) Dual media Filter
c) Multimedia filter
3 By flow rates
a) Slow sand filters
b) Rapid sand filters

Filter Media
This is the most important component of filter is the filter media. It must be of uniform and of
appropriate size. Small size gives good filtration but high head losses. Large sizes give
produce smaller head losses but are less effective in filtration.
The filter media is classified by the following
1. Effective size
2. Uniform coefficient
3. Specific Gravity
4. Hardness
Time required for turbidity to breakthrough and time required to reach the limiting head loss
are two criteria for selecting the filter media. The other characteristics of media should be
1. Permeable (good hydraulic characteristics).
2. Inert
3. Hard and durable
4. Pure
5. Insoluble in water

38

Filtration layout
In gravity filter, the filter media is usually contained in concrete (also steel or aluminum)
filter modules which are all of same size. The surface area of filter differs from plant
to plant. In pressure filters the media is contained in a cylindrical vessel, horizontal or
vertical but mainly vertical. Only when the filter size is large than only horizontal
filters are used. Horizontal filters are often found in swimming pool.
A. Basic Operation of Filter: Basic operation of Pressure Filter, Dual Media Filter and
Activated Carbon is as follows:

Mode of Operation: All Units operate in down flow mode, where the water enters from
the top, percolates through the media and treated water is collected from the bottom.
Sequence of Operation: (see figure)
1. Service: The water to be filtered enters from the top of the shell, percolates downward
through the media and is drawn off from the bottom.
2. Backwash: The water enters from the bottom of the vessel, passes through the media and
is drained from the top. This is called BACKWASH and it is done to carry the dirt
accumulated on the top. Generally back washing is done once in every 24 hrs or when the
pressure drop exceeds 8 psi. (0.5 kg/cm2)
3. Rinse: The water enters from the top passed through the media and is drained off from the
bottom.
B. Thumb rules for designing a filter: Calculate area of vessel by required volumetric flow
rate and the velocity as mentioned in the following table.
Area (m2) = Volumetric Flow Rate (m3/hr)
(1)
Velocity (m/hr)
Basesd on above calculated area calculate dia. of the vessel by the following formulae:
Dia (m) = [Area (m2)/ 0.7856]
(2)
Parameters

Sand Filters

Velocity (m3/m2/hr)
Effective size of
Media (mm)
Uniform coefficient
Density (kg/m3)

7.5 12
0.45 - 0.6
(fine sand)
1.6 max
2650

Dual Media
Filters
12-20
0.65 - 0.76
(Anthracite)
1.85
1600

Activated Carbon

15-20
0.35 - 0.5
< 2 (115 typical)

C. Important points on Filter:

1. Normally, pressure sand filter is used to filter suspended solids upto 30 ppm and dual
filter for 50-55 ppm and higher suspended solids would require coagulation. Output
quality of water from a Pressure Sand Filter is 25 to 50 microns.
2. Normally, velocity for Sand velocity is taken for water treatment /residential filters is
taken as 7.5 to 18 m3/m2/hr; for institutional filters 20 to 30 m3/m2/hr. For recirculation of
39

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

water like swimming pool velocities can be taken greater than 35 m 3/m2/hr for low
turbidity application
Higher velocity will induce higher head loss through the bed and frequency of backwash
will increase.
Back washing of filter should always be carried out using clean water.
Whenever air scouring is provided, it should be done before back washing step.
Where strainers are provided at bottom, pebbles and gravels need not be put.
1NTU is approximately between 2.5 to 3 ppm

40

E. Filter vessel diagram / Operating instruction chart for filter

Configuration 1: 5 VALUE OPERATION
INITIAL FILLING

V1

V4

V3
V2

V5
V6

SERVICE
Open V1, V2
All other valves are closed
V1

V4

V3
V2

V5

V6

BACKWASH
Time : 15 20 minutes
Open valve PSF V3 and PSF V4
All other valves are closed
Throttle valve PSF V3 to achieve
specified backwash flow rate.

V1

V4

V3
V2

V5

AIR RELEASE
Open v3, v6
All other valves closed

41

RINSE
Time : 10 15 minutes
Open valve PSF V1 and PSF V5
All other valves are closed
Throttle valve PSF V5 to achieve
specified rinse flow rate.

V1

V4

V3
V2

V5

Configuration 2: MULTI PORT VALUE OPERATION

Multi Port valve
(MPV)
Top strainer
Riser pipe

Drain

P
SF
V5 valve
Pressure relief / feed

Bottom strainer

NOTE: When activated carbon is installed in a vessel, it should be soaked for 12 to 24 hours
to remove trapped air and back washed to remove fines and stratify the bed. A necessary
maintenance item, periodic back washing removes solids trapped in the carbon bed, as well as
fine carbon particles. Since the dechlorination reaction oxidizes the carbon surface, which
slowly breaks down the carbon structure, back washing is especially important in dechlorination applications. Frequency is determined by the solids content of the feed water.
Tests on activated carbon dechlorination systems indicate that regular back washing of carbon
beds helps preserve the dechlorination and filtering efficiency. By back washing regularly and
expanding the carbon by at least 30 percent, fouling or binding of the carbon bed does not
occur.
CAUTION: Wet activated carbon removes oxygen from air. In closed or partially closed
containers and vessels, oxygen depletion may reach hazardous levels. If workers must enter a
vessel containing activated carbon, appropriate sampling and work procedures for potentially
low-oxygen spaces should be followed, according to all applicable federal and state
requirements.

42

Disinfection
Disinfection refers to killing of pathogenic organism, whereas sterilization is a process of
killing all micro organism. Sterilization is generally not practiced in water treatment. The
effluent after treatment should meet the parameters set by statutory board.
Removal Processes
Pathogenic organisms can be removed from water, killed or inactivated by various physical &
chemical means. They are
1. Coagulation
2. Sedimentation
3. Filtration
4. Disinfection
Purpose of Disinfection
The purpose of disinfection is to kill harmful bacteria. This can be done either by physical or
chemical means the three major methods mostly employed today are
1. Chlorination
2. By use of UV rays
3. Ozonation.
There are other methods used for disinfection but more as emergency treatment. Like
1. Iodine Treatment
2. Heat (Boiling)
3. Bromine
Chlorination
Chlorination is by far the most widely used form of disinfection. Chlorine is also used as an
oxidizing agent for iron, manganese and hydrogen sulfide and for controlling taste and odors.
Its effectiveness as a disinfecting agent depends on factors such as pH, temperature, free
chlorine residual, contact time and other interfering agents.
Forms of Chlorine
Calcium hypochlorite is the solid form of chlorine, usually found in the tablet or powder
form, and contains 65% chlorine by weight. It is white or yellowish-white granular material
and is fairly soluble in water.
Sodium hypochlorite is the liquid form of chlorine. It is clear and has a slight yellow color.
Ordinary household bleach (5.25% chlorine by solution) is
the most common form of sodium hypochlorite. Industrial strength is available at 12% and
15% solutions.
Chlorine gas is usually used only on relatively large water systems. Smaller systems may find
the initial cost of operation prohibitive at room temperature, chlorine gas has a yellow-green
color and is heavier than air. Chlorine gas is 99.5% pure chlorine

43

Chlorine Calculation in water treatment

In Chlorine calculation the important terms in calculation are
1. Chlorine Dose is the total amount of Chlorine added to Water .Chlorine dose equals to
chlorine demand plus Chlorine residual.
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand +Chlorine residual..
2. Chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine consumed for reacting with various
components such as harmful bacteria, organic material and inorganic substances in water.
3. Chlorine residual is the amount of chlorine left after the chlorine demand is met.
4. Breakpoint Chlorination is addition of chlorine to water until the chlorine amount of
chlorine added beyond the break point demand has been satisfied. At this point further
additions of chlorine will result in a free chlorine residual that is directly proportional to
the amount of chlorine added beyond breakpoint.
Factors governing chemical disinfection
Factors governing chemical reactions are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The nature of organism to be destroyed, and their concentration.

Condition of water to be disinfected.
Nature, distribution and concentration of disinfectant.
Temperature of water
The time of contact

Chlorine Application in Water Treatment

The amount of time that chlorine is present during treatment is called the contact time and is
related to the 'Ct' value. Ct values are calculated to determine the amount of time that a
disinfectant must be present in the system to achieve a specific kill of microorganisms, for a
given disinfectant concentration. A large Ct value means that disinfection alone will not be
sufficient treatment and additional methods will be necessary to eliminate the
microorganisms. The contact time is directly related to the chemicals' efficiency of
eliminating bacteria and viruses from the water. The chart below shows the amount of time
for HOCl, OCl-, and NH2Cl need to be present in the treatment system in order to achieve a
99% kill of E. coli (Reynolds, 1996)

44

How much chlorine is required for disinfection?

It is not a straight forward arithmetic. It is best to obtain this data by Laboratory experiment.
You go on adding chlorine and measuring the residual chlorine. For proper
disinfection you require a free available residual chlorine. Chlorine in this form has
the highest disinfect possibility. Breakpoint chlorination is achieved after the chlorine
demand is met. Further addition of Chlorine beyond breakpoint will result in a
chlorine residual directly proportional to the amount of chlorine added.
The graph shown below depicts the chlorine residual as a function of increasing chlorine
dosage with descriptions of each zone given below
Zone I: Chlorine is reduced to chlorides.
Zone II: Chloramines are formed.
Zone III: Chloramines are broken down and converted to nitrogen gas which leaves the
system (Breakpoint).
Zone IV: Free residual.

Breakpoint
Zone I:

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Free Available
Chlorine

Combined Residual

Now you understand what happens when you add chlorine . Once you fill the table above you
will get a graph has shown below

Residual Chlorine
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Residual
Chlorine

0.5

1.5

2.5

45

From the graph to achieve a combined residual of 0.4 mg/l is a chlorine dose of 0.6 mg/l is
required. Combined residual after breakpoint is 0.08 and chlorine dose to reach breakpoint is
1.1 mg/L
Now we require a free residual of 0.5 mg/L
Then chlorine dose required is 1.1+0.5 =1.6 mg/l
If we require a free residual of 0.2 mg/L
Then Chlorine dose required is 1.1 +0.2 =1.3 mg/L
That is Chlorine dose actually required is chlorine dose to achieve Breakpoint + the amount
of residual chlorine required.
Now we are going to use Sodium hypochlorite
Molecular wt. of sodium hypochlorite =Na +O + Cl= 23+16+35.5=75.5g
Using Chlorine
Chlorine can be added to water in either gas, liquid or solid form. There are three methods of
chlorine injection.
1. Gaseous Chlorine
2. Solid Chlorine (Chlorine pellets)
3. Liquid Chlorine (Hypochlorite solution
Gaseous chlorinators are generally used in large water treatment plants. Gaseous chlorinators
require trained manpower to operate the system. Pellets of chlorine tablets are used in very
small water treatment plants Solid chlorine tablets are placed in a dispenser and eroded by the
flow of water. Liquid chlorinators are used in small to medium water treatment plants.
A. Direct Feed

Chlorine

B. Feed through Ejector

Chlorine

Service
water
for Dilution

46

Calculation for dosing & diluting of Chemicals

Chemical feed rate
Let us say that the chemical to be dosed is x mg/liter. If the flow to be treated is Q M 3/day
then the amount of chemical required per day is
(x mg/l of chemical * Q M3) / 1000 = Kg of Chemical per day
Calculating the Amount of Chemical required
Flow
Chemical Dose
Chemical required per day

4000 M3/Hr
2.5 mg/L or Gram/M 3
10 Kg/Day

Let us Calculate if the chemical is supplied as a solution. Many times Hypochlorite

and other chemical are available only in solution.
Then first calculate the Dry Chemical dose as shown above
If the chemical is supplied as solution it strength as %age or in mg/Liter should be known
Let us assume that the chemical is alum and supplied as a solution. The solution strength is
10 %. But 60 liters of this solution has to be diluted to 0.8%. How much water is to be added
Amount of Water required =Amount of Chemical solution * % strength / Required % strength
Amount of water required = 60*10/0.8 =6000/8 =750 Liters
Available Chemical solution
Chemical solution required
Amount of Chemical to be added
Amount of water to be added

10
0.8
60
750

%
%
liters
Liters

% solution with Dry Chemical

The above chemical is supplied has powder. A Chemical solution of x % is to be made .How
much water is required.
% Chemical = (Dry Chemical gm) / (Dry Chemical gm +Water gm)
1 liter =1Kg =1000 gram
Water = [(Dry Chemical gm )/% Chemical) ] Dry Chemical gm
For Example let us make a solution of 0.5 %. Amount of chemical we have is 80 gm.
The amount of water required = [(80)*100/0.5)-80] = 15920 grams = 15920 /1000 =15.9
Liters. say 16 liters
Dry Chemical
Chemical solution strength required
Amount of water required

80 gm
0.5 %
16 liters

47

Calculating the total amount of solution to be made for dosing x kg of Chemical

Suppose we have to dose Chlorine as 3.75 mg/L. The total water flow per day is 4000 Cubic
Meters (M3).
Mg/l = gm /M3
Total dosage of chlorine per day = 3.75*4000 =15000 gm =15000/1000=15 Kg
This has to be dosed has 2.5 %. How much hypochlorite solution is required
Hypochlorite Solution = (Chlorine kg*100%) /Hypochlorite %
= (15*100)/2.5 =600 Liters
Total water quantity
Chemical required
% chemical solution required
Total chemical Solution required

4000
3.75
2.5
600

M3/Day
gm/M3 or mg/L)
%
Liters

Setting for Chemical feed pump

Many instance we dose chemical with help of feed pump. We need to know the setting in %
stroke on a chemical feed pump for various doses of Chemical in mg/L.
Water to be treated is generally in Liter /Sec. Feed pump flow is in ml/Min. Chemical
solution in %. Chemical doses are in mg/L and pump setting are in %age

Step 1 Convert % Chemical solution to mg/L

1% =10000 mg /L Therefore 5 % solution = 50000 mg/L
Step 2 Calculate the chemical feed in Kg/Day for various chemical dose
Chemical feed kg/Day = Flow (liters/day)* Dose (mg/L) /1000000
Or

Chemical feed kg/Day = Flow (M3/day)* Dose (gm/M3) /1000

Step 3 determine the desired Flow from chemical feed pump

Desired feed flow from Chemical feed Pump in mL /minute = Chemical feed
Kg/day/Chemical solution mg/L)
Step4 Setting of feed pump as a % (setting as a % of pump Stroke)
% Setting = [Desired feed pump (mL/min)* 100}] /(Maximum feed pump flow at 100 %)
In excel we have calculated for a flow of 25L/sec. This is the flow of water in which chemical
has to be introduced. Calculation has been done for chemical dose of 0.5,1,2,4,6 and 8 mg/l.
The maximum flow from feed pump at 100 % is 250 mL/minute and the chemical solution
percentage is 5 %. The percentage stroke obtained for various dose is shown in the table
Chemical Dose (mg/L)

Pump setting (%)

48

0.5
1
2
4
6
8

6.1
12.2
23.9
47.8
72.2
96.0

Basic Pumping Calculation

1. Density: -

Density is defined as amount of mass(matter) in given volume of that

49

substance Density = Mass/Volume

Sp. Gravity: -

Sp. Gravity is ratio or comparison of the density of substance to the

density of water. Sp. Gravity of gases is compared with density of air.

Force: -

Force is a push or pull measured in terms of weight such as pound or

kilogram.

Pressure: -

Pressure is a measure of force or weight pushing against a specified area

Pressure = force/ Area

In simpler terms Pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to area .
That is when Force increases pressure increases & when area increases pressure decreases.

Liquid pressure: In a liquid at rest the pressure at any one point is exerted in all direction
and not just at the bottom contact surface. The amount of pressure depends on two points
Depth (Height) and density. The greater the water depth, greater the pressure and higher
density fluid will impart greater pressure for the same depth . More details of this can be
found in any high school physics book.
Total Force: The total force of water against the side or bottom of a tank or wall is
determined by multiplying the pressure at that depth times the entire area . It is easy to
calculate the total force at the bottom of tank
Total Force = Pressure at the bottom of tank * Area
What should the pressure at the side of the wall be?
The pressure at water surface is zero and the pressure increases towards the bottom of tank.
The pressure to be used here is average pressure. The average pressure occurs at half the
depth.
Suction: - Suction is the pump inlet or the low pressure side of the pump
Discharge: - Discharge is the outlet or high pressure side of pump
Suction Head:-Head measured in suction side of pump is called suction head & similarly
Discharge Head:-Head measured in discharge side of head is called discharge head.
Static Head: - Measurement of head taken on either side of the pump when the pump is off
are called static head. Both static suction head and static discharge head are considered when
calculating total static head. In simplified language total static head is simply measure of
vertical distance between two water surface elevations.
Total Dynamic head: Pump must also work against friction and minor head losses. Friction
& head loss results because of water rubbing against pipeline and because of change of
direction as the water moves through the bend, valves etc. Total head against which pump
should operate is known as total dynamic head.
Suction and Discharge Side
50

Suction side of
pump

1. Static Head
Figure A

Discharge side of
pump

2.Static Head
Figure B

H1
H2

A. Suction Head

A . Suction Lift

B. Discharge Head

B. Discharge Head

Total Static Head (TSH)

In figure 1 the both the water surface (suction & Discharge) are above the pump. The total
static head is the difference between the two Heads.
In figure 2 suction is below the pump surface and discharge is above . Hence the total static
head is sum of two heads.
Total Dynamic head (TDH)
The total dynamic head is the static head + friction and minor head losses TDH = TSH +
Head Losses

51

Pump selection
Selection of pump or combination of pumps of adequate capacity depends on two factors
1) Desire flow rate
2) Effective Height; i.e. the feet of head against which the pump must pump.
We all know that if we raise 1 kg or (1 lb) of water to a height of 1 Meter (1 feet),
Some work is done. The work done is equal to
1kg * 1M (1*lb*1Ft)
Work = Force * Displacement
The amount of work done is measured in ft. lbs. or Newton meter
1 Newton meter = joule
Power = W/t
Power is the rate at which work is done
Power = W/t = ft .lbs. / sec or Joule/ sec
Power is the rate at which work is done
Power = W/t = ft .lbs / sec or Joule/ sec
1 joule/sec = watt
550 ft.lb/ sec = 1hp = 746 watt
Example
A centrifugal pump is required to raise 5 kg/sec of water vertically to a height of 20 M.
Assuming head Loss of 6 M which is 30% of the height to be pumped. Calculate the power in
kilowatts required if the efficiency of the pump is 70 %.
Effective height
Mass
g
time
Efficiency
power
Actual power

26
5
9.81
1
70
1275.3
1821.9

Meters
Kg
M/Sec2
Sec
%
Watt
Watt

Power in Watts =
Newton
=

Newton X Meters / seconds

Mass X 9.81

Horse power of Pump

The horse power required for pump is worked out as following
W= weight of water in Kgs
H = Total head in Meters
Then WH.P = WH/75 Where H= h + hL where h is the total static head and h L is the head
loss.
Assuming pump efficiency to be then B.H.P = WHP/
Assuming Motor efficiency to be then Motor HP = BHP/
Where WHP is water Horse power, BHP is Brake horse power and MHP is motor horsepower
Motor HP = Water HP/ *
52

Head loss hL is found out by the formula f l Q2 /3d5.

Where f is coefficient of friction, l is the length of pipe in meters v is velocity of water in m/s
and d is the diameter of pipe in meters. Q is the discharge in M 3/sec and g is the acceleration
due to gravity.
Example 1
Let us calculate a pump BHP which has to supply 250 liters /head /per day. The town
population is 60000. F=0.01
Solution: Average demand =60000*250 =15000000 liters/day = 15000 M3/day
=15000/(3600*24)= 0.1736 M3/sec
Peak hour demand =1.50*0.1736 = 0.26 M3/sec
Town population
Water supplied per Head /day
Total Water supplied /day
Flow
Peak Flow

60000
250
15000
0.173611
0.260417

Numbers
liters
M3/Day
M3/Sec
M3/Sec

We know that water is 1000 kg /M3. Friction factor is given diameter of pipe is given
Efficiency of pump and Motor is known. Combined Efficiency of pump and Motor is
E= *
Once you feed all this in the as shown below you will be able to calculate Motor HP
Calculating Head Loss and Motor HP required
Weight of water
Height Of Over head tank
Length of pipe
Diameter of pipe
Flow
Friction Coefficient
Gravitational force
pie /4
Head Loss hL
Total Head
Motor efficiency
Pump efficiency
Combined efficiency
Horse Powe of Motor required
Power required in Kilo watts

Kg/M3
Meters
Meters
Meters
M3/sec
Constant
M/(sec)2
Constant
Meters
Meters
%
%
%
HP

1000

h
L
d
Q
f
g
hL
H
M
n
E
Kw

60
300
0.1
0.26
0.01
9.81
0.785
27.81893
87.81893
0.95
0.6
0.57
534.1034
392.566

Delivery and suction sizes of Pump

Pump sizes are often quoted in terms of the size of main delivery pipe, although this does not
represent pumps capacity. More accurate representation of pump rating is Horse power
rating. Delivery or suction size is generally required when pump is required for replacement.
The Table below shows the optimum suction diameter for various delivery or discharge rates.

53

Suction
inlet mm
Delivery
rate lpm
HP range

25
100
to
150
0.5
to
1

33
125
to
200
1
to
2

40
150
to
300
2
to
2.5

50
200
to
350
2
to
3

75
550
to
1100
3
to
7.5

100
900
to
1125
3
to
7.5

150
2700
to
3375
10
to
33

300
13500

50

600
45000
to
48000
-

900
112500

Below we are giving another example for pump calculation.

Example 2
Suction lift is 30 M and Discharge Head is 30 M
That is the total lift equal to 30+30=60 M
Length of Pipe is 300 M and diameter 0.1 M.
Q=1500L/minutes =0.025cubic Meter /Sec and f=.00625

54

DM Plant
DE MINERALIZER PLANT
Process Description
Demineralizer
Demineralization or deionization is the process of removing dissolved salts from water by
using Ion Exchange Resin. Basically Ion exchange demineralization is a two step process
with both Cation and Anion resin. The raw water called influent water is first passed through
the Cation resin bed containing SAC Resin in H + form. Ca , Mg & Na are removed and the
salts are converted to their respective acids .The corresponding acid containing anions like
Cl, SO4 , NO3 are removed by passing the cation effluent through Anion column containing
Anion resin in Hydroxyl Form. The hydrogen ion from cation neutralizes the hydroxyl ion
and produces pure water.
Ion exchange is an equilibrium reaction which is reversible. In the hydrogen cation Resin,
Cations like Ca, Mg are exchanged for H ions. After some period The resin is not able to
exchange any more ions. The bed is exhausted. The Resin has to be brought back to its
original form. This is done by the regenerating the resin with strong acid and the process of
restoring the resin back to its original condition is called Regeneration. Similarly the Anion
resin is restored back after exhaustion by regenerating it with Alkali.

R SO3 H

Ca
R Mg
Na

CaCl2
MgSO4
NaCl

Ca
R Mg
Na

HCl

RH

HCl
+
H2 SO4

CaCl2
MgCl2
NaCl

Similarly For Anion Resin

HCl
R OH +

Cl
R SO4 +
CO3

H2 SO4
H2CO3

NaOH

Cl

R SO4 +
CO3

R OH

H2 O

Cl
+ Na SO4
CO3

It is more economical to remove CO2 by mechanical means i.e. by degasser.

55

Operation of the Down flow unit

Service start up
SAC
Open Main inlet valveV1 & Air Release ValveV6 once water starts coming from V6, Close
V6.
Open rinse outlet valve V5 and rinse the unit for 5 to 10 minutes and take a sample of water.
Test for Sodium and FMA and if okay close V5 and open the outlet valve V2.
Degasser
Start degasser blower before opening the cation outlet valve. Let the degasser sump get filled.
SBA
Once the degasser sump is filled open SBA main inlet valve V1 & Air Release Valve V6.
Once Water starts coming from V6, Close V6.
Open SBA drain inlet valve V10. The unit is rinsed till the specified conductivity is obtained.
Then close Rinse outlet valve V10 and open SBA Outlet Valve V2
Now the entire System is in Service

SAC

SBA
DGT

V1

V4

V1

V4

V3

V2

V6

V8
V2

V3

DGWT
V7
V5

V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8

V5

INLET VALVE
OUTLET VALVE
BACKWASH INLET VALVE
BACKWASH OUTLET VALVE
RINSE OUTLET (DRAIN OUTLET)
AIR RELEASE
POWER WATER INLET VALVE
SUCTION VALVE

Regeneration
56

After the unit has given specified quantity of treated water, it has to be regenerated.
Backwash
Open V3 & V4. After 10 minute closeV3&V4. Once should be careful with this operation
because resin can escape if flow rate is very high.
Injection
Required quantity of chemical is taken in chemical measuring tank and water is added to
make the chemical of required concentration.
1) Open power water valveV7 and open drain valve V5
2) Slowly open suction valve V8 and the brine should be injected in 20- 40 minutes
3) Close V8 and all water to pass trough for some time to flush out the pipeline.
4) Close V7 & V5
Final Rinse
Open V1 and Valve V5 and after 20 minutes start checking the quality of water and if
satisfactory close valve V5 and open
Regeneration
INLET TO ION EXCHANGE UNIT
V1

V4

V8
V3

ION
EXCHANGE

V
Outl
V5

Chemic
al
Tank

V7

Quality of water from each Unit

Strong Acid cation
1. It will contain free mineral acidity (FMA) nearly equal to equivalent Mineral acidity
(EMA) in the feed water.
2. It also contains free CO2 generated by the alkaline salts present in raw water.
3. Hardness of cation effluent will be nil.

57

4. The only cation from the feed that is present in the effluent is the sodium ion that has
slipped through column.
5. The difference between the EMA in the feed and the FMA in the effluent gives the
sodium slip from the cation unit.
6. The sodium slip from cation unit is a function of Regeneration level, the sodium content
of the raw water and the EMA of water .
7. Therefore For a given water & Regeneration level the sodium slip is fixed. This is the
average value of the sodium slip over a cycle is below 1 ppm.
8. The actual slip characteristics shows high slip at the start of a run and then drops to a
constant value for a major portion of the run and then rises again near exhaustion .
9. This pattern of slip is true for Co flow units.
10. The slip for countercurrent unit is constant throughout the run.
11. The FMA in the effluent drops at exhaustion and the pH rises indicating that exchanger
should be removed from service.
Degasser
1. The function of degasser is to remove CO2
2. The residual CO2 in degassed water corresponds to the solubility of CO2 in water at that
temperature. The analysis of degassed water will be same as that of cation effluent but the
CO2 content will be about 5 ppm, depending upon the actual ambient condition.
Strong Base Anion
1. All Anions including silica are absorbed by Strong base Anion exchanger.
2. The effluent is Demineralizer water having trace cation & Anion .
3. The SBA effluent will not contain chloride and sulphate.
4. At normal regeneration level, the silica of SBA outlet water will be less than 0.5 ppm
as SiO2.
5. Silica leakage is a function of regeneration level, temperature of regenerant SiO 2/ TA ratio
and the sodium slip from the cation unit.
6. There will be some amount of P Alkalinity which will be depend upon the sodium slip
from the preceding cation unit.
7. P Alkalinity directly reflects the sodium slip from the cation unit . A slip of ppm sodium
gives P value of 1 ppm.
8. Conductivity and pH are also dependent on sodium slip. One ppm of sodium slip will
give a conductivity rise of 5 to 6 Micro siemens / cm2 and a pH of 8 to 9
9. The functioning of anion unit is largely depend upon the functioning of the preceding
cation unit.
10. A conductivity of 30 micro mhos and pH of 8- 9 is considered satisfactory for a two
bed system.
11. A rise in conductivity at anion outlet will indicate exhaustion of either cation or anion
unit.
12. Rise in conductivity with a drop in pH of anion effluent indicate exhaustion of anion unit.
13. Rise in both conductivity and pH indicates exhaustion of cation unit.
58

14. If silica is considered for determining the breakthrough point of anion bed than
silica determination must be done at regular intervals.
15. Basic titration equipment are necessary for smooth operation of DM plant .

actual

Following different schemes of DM / Ion exchange systems are possible depending upon the
application and the outlet water quality required.
Note:
1. Detailed parameters on the quality of water required in various industries is given in
Chapter 9
2. SA Strong Acid Resin (H+)
3. SA*- Strong Acid Resin (Na+)
4. WB Weak Base Anion Resin
5. D Degasser
6. SB Strong Base Anion Resin
7. WC Weak Acid Cation Resin
8. MB Mixed bed (mixture of Strong Acid Cation Resin (H+) and strong base anion resin
(OH-)
#

Type of DM/ Ion Exchange systems

Removal of
silica,
removal of
CO2 is not
required
Where CO2
and silica
removal is
required, low
alkalinity
water
Where CO2
content is
high, i.e.
high
alkalinity
water
EMA and
alkalinity
high in raw
water

WB

2
S

3
S

4
S

WB

5
WC

SA

WB

Application

SB

High EMA
and high
alkalinity in
raw water
Hardness >
=1
Alkalinity

Outlet water
quality
Conductivity
< 50 micro
mhos
Conductivity
< 30 micro
mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
Conductivity
< 30 micro
mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
Conductivity
< 30 micro
mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm
Conductivity
< 30 micro
mhos,
silica < 0.5
ppm

59

Type of DM/ Ion Exchange systems

Softening, where
only hardness to
be removed

SA
7
WC

Dealkalization
when only
temporary
hardness is
present

8
SA

SA

Dealkalization
alkalinity with
permanent
hardness
Low conductivity
water required
MB is installed
after SBA

MB
10
MB

Application

MB2

When ultrapure
water is required
for
pharmaceutical or
electronic
industries

Outlet water
quality
Hardness less
than 5 ppm as
CaCO3
10 % of the
influent
alkalinity TDS
reduction upto
alkalinity
removal
10 % of the
influent
alkalinity TDS
reduction
alkalinity
removal
Conductivity <
1 micro mhos,
silica < 0.002
ppm
Conductivity <
0.02 micro
mhos,
Resitivity 1418 mega ohms
silica < 0.002
ppm

B. Operation of Ion Exchange unit

The mode of operation of all ion exchange units is same. The unit differs only by the resin it
contains. For e.g. Cation unit contains Cation resin. Anion unit contains Anion resin. The
sequence of operation remains same. The unit can be operated up flow or down flow.
Normally down flow operations have co-current regenerations and up flow operations have
counter current regeneration.

60

Down flow operation

Regeneration sequence

Up flow operation
Regeneration sequence

Step 1: Backwash (BW)

Step 1: Regeneration

2
3
1

1 Raw water
2 BW outlet water to drain

1 Power water
2 Waste
3Regeneration

Step 2: Regeneration

Step 2: Slow rinse

1

3
1 Regeneration
2 Power water
3 Waste water / regenerate

2
1 Rinse water
2 Waste

61

Step 3: slow rinse

1

2
1 Rinse water; Rinse water is same as power water
2 Rinse waste
Step 4: Final rinse

Step 3: Final rinse

2
1 Raw water or water to be treated
2 To drain till quality is achieved

1
1 Raw water or water to be treated
2 To drain till quality is achieved

Step 5: Service

Step : Service

2
1 Raw water or water to be treated
2 Treated water

1
1 Raw water or water to be treated
2 Treated water

C. Operation sequence of a mixed bed

SERVICE CYCLE
1

1 Raw water or water to be treated

2 Treated water

2
REGENRATION SEQUENCE
Step a. Backwash (BW)
2

1 Anion outlet water

2 Waste water to drain
Anion resin
Cation resin

1
Step b. Settling
Step c. Acid injection

1 Acid injection
2 Waste water to drain
Anion resin
Cation resin
1
2

Step d. Acid Rinse

1

1, 2 water
4, 5 Waste water to drain
Anion resin
Cation resin

4
5

1
2

Step e. Caustic injection

2
3

1 Water
2 Caustic
3 Power water
4, 5 To drain
Cation resin
Anion resin

5
1
Step f. Caustic rinse
2

1 Power water (dilution water)

4

Cation resin
Anion resin
4to drain

Step g. Drain Down

1 Waste water to drain

(water level should be slightly above the
resin bed. Can be seen from view glass)
Cation resin
Anion resin
1

Step h. Air mix

2
1 Air from blower
2 Air venting through air release
Cation resin
Anion resin
1

Step h. Refill
2
1 DM Water
2 waste water through air release
Cation resin
Anion resin

Troubleshooting
Filter system
1. Filter inlet turbidity shall not be more than 50 NTU.
2. Filter outlet turbidity shall not be more than 1 NTU.
3. Service flow rate > 326 lit/m2 means overloaded.
4. Service flow rate < 116 lit.m2, channeling could occur.
5. Normally backwash should not exceed 5% of service flow.
Clarifier
1. Overflow rate shall be between 600-1200 GPD/ft2.
2. Sludge blanket depth shall be as per design, if blanket too high, short circuiting can
occur.
3. Trouble shooting:
Problem
High outlet suspended solids

Floating sludge

Possible Cause
High hydraulic loading

Corrective Action
Reduce flow, add polymer

High Sludge bed depth

Increase sludge removal

Equipment problem

Check skimmer and weirs

Equipment problem

Check sludge pumps

Sludge detention too long

Increase sludge removal

Air entrainment

Pump sucking air, inject

polymer below water level

Cation Exchanger
Problem
Loss of Capacity

Cause
Improper regeneration
Change in raw water
characteristics, Increase
in Na/TC.
Over exhaustion of unit
Channeling

Loss of Resin
Resin fouling

Poor Quality of treated

water

Normal acid will not restore capacity

increase acid quantity.
Remove resin fines Replace broken
strainer or laterals Faulty distribution
system-check and rectify.
Inspect resin bed depth
Control Backwash flow
1.Get Resin analyse
2.Clean with acid
3.Replace if analyse too much
decross linking and broken
beads.

Valve leakage
Higher flow greater
than normal design
range increases leakage
Low flow rate
Temperature
Increased TDS
Hardness in Raw water

High sodium slip in

treated water

Strong Base anion

Action
Carry regeneration as per specification
Increase acid quantity

Increase Na/TC has more profound

effect on leakage from increased flow
rate
The flow rate should be maintained
above 0.5 GPM/ft3 of resin.
Does not have much effect except for
very low temperature
Increased leakage (Analyze and
correct).Add resin if required.
Valve leakage, High flow rate, change
in Raw water composition . Inefficient
regeneration
Over exhaustion (Double injection)
Improper regeneration (Correct)

Problem
Loss of capacity

Poor treated water

quality

Cause
Increase in Ionic load

Action
Put more resin, use more regenerant.
check for Degasser functioning
Long Rinsing time
Cation not working Organically fouled
resin. Give brine treatment.
Increase in Alkalinity
Check. Add resin or reduce output
Fouled Resin
Chemically clean with hot caustic for
silica & brine treatment for organic
fouling
Precipitation by Ca,
Check Regenerant for Ca/Mg etc.
Mg
Check cation if regenerated by H2SO4.
Use Decationised or DM water for
dilution.
Resin ageing
Use specified concentration of NaOH
Bacterial contamination Unit idle. Do not keep unit idle. Very
important where high purity water
required.
Heavy metal fouling
Iron in regenerant or through leakage
from cation. Damaged Rubber lining.
High pH, high
Check cation. Do more Rinsing Check
conductivity
conductivity meter
Low pH, High
Check anion. Regeneration not
conductivity
carried. Properly. Organic fouling,
check pH meter
High silica
Resin organically fouled. (Clean
chemically). Carry regeneration as per
specification. Regenerant temperature
low (carry regeneration by hot
caustic). High service water
temperature, check.
Chloride leakage
Valve leakage, chloride in regenerant
WBA not working silica precipitation
in WBA. Rectify.
Hardness
Check cation. Use cation or DM water
for dilution and rinsing.
Sodium leakage
Check raw water for sodium, check
cation for sodium slip, Na slip give
rise conductivity.

DEGASSER SYSTEM
Problem
High residual CO2 from

Cause
Choked suction filter

Action
Check and Clean

Degasser.

Problem

Flooding in Degasser

Dirt/Dust in air(Normally in
Cement and Allied
Industries

Improper air flow to

Degasser
Degasser blower not
Switched on during service
run
Cause
Broken air seal. Air seal not
fit. Results in Short
circuiting
Very high flow rate
Packed tower choked due to
broken packing material
First layer of packing Not
arranged properly
Degasser sucks dust and dirt
into water This can lead to
clogging of Anion unit.
Chokes suction filter

Check damper, blower speed

discharge pressure.
Check and operate blower.

Action
Check and replace fitting
provide air seal.
Reduce flow
Open and check, Replace
broken packing
Arrange as per instructions.
Install air filter Periodic
cleaning of suction filter.

Fouling of Ion exchange Resins

Water contains quite a few foulants, which could severely affect ion exchange resin
performance, if allowed to go unchecked.
The principal foulants normally encountered are iron and high molecular weight organic
acids besides, hydrous oxides of manganese, copper, aluminium, magnesium, calcium sulfate,
oil, suspended matter and colloidal silica are some of the other foulants encountered.
Iron Fouling
This is most frequently encountered in varying degrees and normally affects the cation resin.
Iron fouling may also occur in anions units when the caustic regenerant contains excessive
iron impurities.
Iron can foul the resin bed as
- suspended insoluble
- hydrous oxides which coat individual beads
- dissolved solids being exchanged by the cation resin like any other cation
Whereas iron as insoluble can be removed by backwashing, the hydrous oxide and ferrous
ion exchanged are tightly bound to the resin. In fact the ferrous ion which occupies the
exchange sites of the resin does not get eluted during regeneration and it is this form which is
most often the main foulants.
Iron fouling is gradual process and not readily noticed. The exchange capacity of the resin is
reduced with resultant shorter service runs. Ferrous ion on exposure to dissolved oxygen in
backwash water, oxidize and precipitate as Fe (OH)3 within the structure of the resin bed.
This is extremely destructive due to its ability and catalyze DVB de-cross-linkage. Visual

inspection can indicate iron fouling. As fouling progresses the resin will exhibit an
increasingly dark brown color until it appears almost black.
The following test can determine iron fouling:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Take about 10 ml of cation resin

Add 20 ml of 10% HCl solution (iron free)
Keep it soaked for 8 Hrs
Slowly pass this acid through resin and collect
Conduct a qualitative test for iron.

If iron is present in resin treat the contaminated as follows:

1. Rubber lined or PVC tank to hold the resin if the vessel holding resin is not rubber
lined.
2. Pipe for washing the resin.
3. Hydrochloric acid.
Procedure
1. Thoroughly back wash the resin till the effluent is clear.
2. Remove the resin in rubber lined or PVC container if the vessel holding resin is not
rubber lined.
3. Add 2 bed volumes of 10% HCl.
4. Stir the resin thoroughly.
5. Keep the resin soaked for minimum 8 Hrs.
6. Decant the acid solution and was the wash the resin free of acid.
7. Transfer the resin back in the resin column and regenerate with double the normal
regenerant quantity and rinse.
Note: Sure the iron content in HCl is below 10 ppm.
The rare case of manganese and copper fouling of cation resins are similar to iron fouling in
all respects. The procedure for eluting is the same as above.

Organic Fouling
High molecular weight acids are most often classified as humic and fulvic acids. These
materials frequently foul strong base anion resins both due to their large size and due to many
functional groups attached to them. Besides, industrial organic contaminants, naturally
occurring organics originating from cation resin degradation are common foulants. Cation

resin degradation products are a result of oxidative attack and this can be minimized by
tackling the metal foulants of cation resin.
Organic fouling of anion resin is indicated by the following:
- a gradual increase in rinse water required for the anion resin. Carboxylic acid groups
in the foulants react with the caustic regenerant to produce the COONa form which
takes quantities of water to get hydrolyzed back to COOH form.
- Over a period of time the organics break free from the resin during the service cycle
which results in increased conductivity and low pH.
- The presence of organic foulants on strong base sites lowers the silica removal
capacity resulting in premature silica break through.
Organic fouling can be prevented to a great extent by putting organic traps (special ion
exchange resin/WBA macro porous resin) at the inlet of SBA.
It must be noted that the effects of organic fouling are gradual and any sudden change in the
performance of anion units may be attributed to a different cause.
Treating organically fouled resin
In case the existing regeneration system is not suitable to hold required quantity of alkaline
brine solution, the tank to hold alkaline brine solution and ejector system or pump to inject
the brine solution in the resin column will be required.
Chemical Requirement
1. Calculate the water quantity required at double the bed volume
2. Take 8% common salt (NaCl) of the water quantity (wt/volume)
3. Take 2% sodium Hydroxide (caustic) of the water quantity (wt/vol).
Method:
1. Air scour and give extended back wash
2. Inject or pump alkaline brine solution in anion column. Care should be taken that the
rate of injection should be the same as for the normal caustic injection.
3. After all the alkaline brine is injected, close all the valves. Let the resin soak in brine
solution for a minimum of 2 Hrs.
4. After 2 Hrs, rinse the resin till effluent is clear and free of chloride.
5. Regenerate the unit with double the quantity of caustic than normally used for
regeneration.
Desalination Technologies
There is no best method of desalination. A wide variety of desalination technologies
effectively remove salts from salty water (or extract fresh water from salty water), producing
a water stream with a low concentration of salt (the product stream) and another with a high
concentration of remaining salts (the brine or concentrate). Most of these technologies rely on

either distillation or membranes to separate salts from the product water (USAID 1980,
Wangnick 1998 and 2002, Wangnick/GWI 2005). Ultimately, the selection of a desalination
process depends on sitespecific conditions, including the salt content of the water, economics,
the quality of water needed by the end user, and local engineering experience and skills.
These processes are described in greater detail below.
Membrane and Filtration Processes
Membranes and filters can selectively permit or prohibit the passage of certain ions, and
desalination technologies have been designed around these capabilities. Membranes play an
important role in the separation of salts in the natural processes of dialysis and osmosis.
These natural principles have been adapted in two commercially important desalting
processes: electro dialysis (ED) and reverse osmosis (RO). Both of these concepts have been
understood for a century, but commercialization lagged until the technology for creating and
maintaining membranes improved. Although they have typically been used to desalinate
brackish water, versions are increasingly being applied to seawater, and these two approaches
now account for more than half of all desalination capacity. A growing number of
desalination systems are also adding filtration units prior to the membranes in order to
remove contaminants that affect long term filter operation. Box 1 lists the characteristics of
major filtration and membrane systems.
Filtration/Membrane Systems
Microfiltration (MF) membranes are used to reduce turbidity and remove suspended solids
and bacteria. MF membranes operate via a sieving mechanism under a lower pressure than
either UF or NF membranes.
Nano filtration (NF) membranes are used for water softening, organics and sulfate removal,
and some removal of viruses. Removal is by combined sieving and solution diffusion.
Reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are used for both brackish water and seawater
desalination and are capable of removing some organic contaminants.
Ultrafiltration (UF) membranes are used for removal of contaminants that affect color, highweight dissolved organic compounds, bacteria, and some viruses. UF membranes also operate
via a sieving mechanism.
Electrodialysis
Electrodialysis is an electrochemical separation process that uses electrical currents to move
salt ions selectively through a membrane, leaving fresh water behind. The process was
commercially introduced in the mid 1950s, providing a cost-effective way to desalinate
brackish water and spurring considerable interest in the use of membranes. ED can produce
more product water and less brine than distillation processes, can treat water with a higher
level of suspended solids than RO, and needs fewer pre-treatment chemicals. These systems
produce water for industrial and power plant cooling towers, freshwater fish farms, and
municipal uses; treat industrial wastes; and concentrate polluted groundwater for further
treatment. In one innovative application of ED, a plant in Tenerife, Spain removes salts and
sodium from wastewater and uses the product water to irrigate bananas (von Gottberg 1999).

ED works on the principle that salts dissolved in water are naturally ionized and membranes
can be constructed to selectively permit the passage of ions as they move toward electrodes
with an opposite electric charge. Brackish water is pumped at low pressure between stacks of
flat, parallel, ion-permeable membranes that form channels. These channels are arranged with
anionselective membranes alternating with cation-selective membranes such that each
channel has as an anion-selective membrane on one side and a cation-selective membrane on
the other (Figure A-1).

Water flows along the face of these alternating pairs of membranes in separate channels and
an electric current flow across these channels, charging the electrodes. The anions in the feed
water are attracted and diverted towards the positive electrode. These anions pass through the
anion-selective membrane, but cannot pass through the cation-selective membrane and are
trapped in the concentrate channel. Cations move in the opposite direction through the
cationselective membrane to the concentrate channel on the other side where they are
trapped. This process creates alternating channels, a concentrated channel for the brine and a
diluted channel for the product water. ED membranes are arranged in a series of cell-pairs,
which consist of a cell containing brine and a cell containing product water. A basic ED unit
or membrane stack consists of several hundred cell-pairs bound together with electrodes on
the outside. Feed water passes simultaneously in parallel paths through all of the cells to
produce continuous flows of fresh water and brine.

Electrodialysis Reversal
In the early 1970s, a modification of ED was introduced electrodialysis reversal (EDR). An EDR
unit operates on the same principle as a standard ED plant except that both the product and the brine
channels are identical in construction. Several times an hour, the polarity of the electrodes is reversed,
and the brine channel and product water channel flows are switched. Immediately following the

reversal of polarity and flow, the ions are attracted in the opposite direction across the membrane
stack and product water is used to clean out the stack and lines. After flushing for a few minutes, the
unit resumes producing water. The reversal process breaks up and flushes out scale and other deposits
in the cells. Experience suggests that EDR can also achieve higher water recovery than RO systems.
The major energy requirement is the direct current used to separate the ions in the membrane stack.
ED and EDR represent a very minor fraction less than one percent of worldwide desalination
capacity (Wangnick/GWI 2005).

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis uses pressure on solutions with concentrations of salt to force fresh water to
Move through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving the salts behind (Figure A-2). The
amount of desalinated water that can be obtained ranges between 30% and 85% of the
volume of the input water, depending on the initial water quality, the quality of the product,
and the technology and membranes involved. An RO system is made up of the following
basic components: pre-treatment, high-pressure pump, membrane assembly, and posttreatment. Pre-treatment of feed water is often necessary to remove contaminants and prevent
fouling or microbial growth on the membranes, which reduces passage of feed water. Pretreatment typically consists of filtration and either the addition of chemicals to inhibit
precipitation or efficient filtering to remove solids. A high-pressure pump generates the
pressure needed to enable the water to pass through the membrane.

Figure A-2: Schematic of a Reverse-Osmosis Desalination Plant.

The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel and a membrane that permits the feed
water to be pressurized against the semi-permeable membranes. The membranes are fragile
and vary in their ability to pass fresh water and reject salts. RO membranes are made in a

variety of configurations. The two most commercially successful membrane configurations

are spiralwound and hollow-fine fiber. Post-treatment prepares final product water for
distribution, removes gases such as hydrogen sulfide, and adjusts pH. The energy requirement
for RO depends directly on the concentration of salts in the feed water. Because neither
heating nor phase change is necessary for this method, pressurizing the feed water accounts
for the major use of energy. As a result, RO facilities are most economical for desalinating
brackish water and increase in cost as the salt content of the water increases.
RO has become a relatively mature technology and membrane approaches are experiencing
fast growth. Some of the largest new desalination plants under construction and in operation
use RO membranes, including Ashkelon in Israel and the new plant at Tuas in Singapore.
Ashkelon, the largest RO plant in the world, desalinates seawater for municipal purposes with
a capacity of 100 million gallons per day (MGD), or 395,000 cubic meters per day (m 3/d)
(Wangnick/GWI 2005).
Among the needed improvements in RO systems are better pre-treatment of feedwater to
reduce the use of chemicals that often end up in the brine and cause a disposal problem;
improved membranes that are more durable and increase the flux of pure water; new
approaches to reduce bio fouling in membranes; more effective energy recovery and use; and
development of less expensive materials (Awerbuch 2004).
Thermal Processes
Approximately 40% of the world's desalted water is produced with processes that use heat to
distill fresh water from seawater or brackish water. The distillation process mimics the natural
water cycle by producing water vapor that is then condensed into fresh water. In the simplest
approach, water is heated to the boiling point to produce the maximum amount of water
vapor.
Water will boil at 100C under atmospheric pressure. By decreasing pressure, however, the
boiling point can be reduced. At one-quarter of normal pressure, water will boil at 65C, and
at one-tenth of normal pressure it will boil at only 45C. To take advantage of this principle,
systems have been designed to allow multiple boiling in a series of vessels that operate at
successively lower temperatures and pressures. The concept of distilling water with a vessel
operating at a reduced pressure has been applied for well over a century.
Distillation systems are often affected by scaling, which occurs when substances like
carbonates and sulfates1 found in seawater and brackish water precipitate out of solution and
cause thermal and mechanical problems. Scale is difficult to remove and reduces the
effectiveness of desalination operations by restricting flows, reducing heat transfer, and
coating membrane surfaces. Ultimately scaling increases costs. Keeping the temperature and
boiling point low slows the formation of scale.
1One of the most significant concerns is gypsum, a hydrate of CaSO4 that forms from
solution when water approaches about 95C. Gypsum is the main component of concrete and
can coat pipes, tubes, and other surfaces.

Multi-Stage Flash Distillation

Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) accounts for the greatest installed thermal distillation
capacity. Like all evaporative processes, MSF can produce high-quality fresh water with very
low salt concentrations (10 ppm or less), from salt concentrations as high as 60,000 to 70,000
ppm total dissolved solids, nearly twice the salinity of seawater. In MSF, evaporation or
flashing occurs from the bulk liquid, not on a heat-exchange surface, as is the case with
other distillation processes (see Multiple-Effect Distillation, below). This minimizes scale
and is a major reason MSF has been popular for several decades (Birkett 1999). Until recent
advances in membrane technology, MSF was the primary technology used for desalinating
seawater. In MSF distillation, water is heated in a series of stages. Typical MSF systems
consist of many evaporation chambers, each with successively lower pressures and
temperatures that cause flash evaporation of hot brine, followed by condensation on cooling
tubes. The steam generated by flashing is condensed in heat exchangers that are cooled by the
incoming feed water. This warms up the feed water, reducing the total amount of thermal
energy needed. Generally, only a small percentage of feed water is converted to water vapor,
depending on the pressure maintained in each stage. MSF plants may contain between 4 and
40 stages, but most typically are in the range of 18 to 25. Multi-stage flash plants are
typically built in sizes from 2.6 MGD (10,000 m 3/d) to over 9.2 MGD (35,000 m3/d), with
several units grouped together. As of early 2005, the largest MSF plant in operation was in
Shuweihat in the United Arab Emirates. This plant desalinates seawater for municipal
purposes with a total capacity of 120 MGD (455,000m3/d) (Wangnick/GWI 2005).
Multiple-Effect Distillation
Multiple-effect distillation (MED) is a thermal method that has been used successfully for
well over 100 years, substantially predating MSF (Birkett 1999). MED takes place in a series
of vessels or effects and reduces the ambient pressure in subsequent effects. There are 8 to
16 effects in a typical large plant. This approach reuses the heat of vaporization by placing
evaporators and condensers in series. Vapor produced by evaporation can be condensed in a
way that uses the heat of vaporization to heat salt water at a lower temperature and pressure
in each succeeding chamber, permitting water to undergo multiple boilings without supplying
additional heat after the first effect. In MED plants, the salt water enters the first effect and is
heated to the boiling point. Salt water may be sprayed onto heated evaporator tubes or may
flow over vertical surfaces in a thin film to promote rapid boiling and evaporation.
Only a portion of the salt water applied to the tubes in the first effect evaporates. The rest
moves to the second effect, where it is applied to another tube bundle heated by the steam
created in the first effect. This steam condenses to fresh water, while giving up heat to
evaporate a portion of the remaining salt water in the next effect. The condensate from the
tubes is recycled.
Although some of the earliest distillation plants used MED, MSF units with lower costs and
Less tendency to scale have increasingly displaced this process. In the past few years,
however, interest in the MED process has been renewed and MED appears to be gaining
market share.

Vapor Compression Distillation

Vapor compression (VC) distillation has typically been used for small- and medium-scale
desalting units. These units also take advantage of the principle of reducing the boiling point
temperature by reducing ambient pressure, but the heat for evaporating the water comes from
the compression of vapor rather than the direct exchange of heat from steam produced in a
boiler. The two primary methods used to condense vapor to produce enough heat to evaporate
incoming seawater are mechanical compression or a steam jet. The mechanical compressor
can be electrically driven, making this process the only one to produce water by distillation
solely with electricity (Buros 2000).
VC units use a compressor to create a vacuum, compress the vapor taken from the vessel, and
condense it inside a tube bundle that is also in the same vessel, producing a stream of fresh
water. As the vapor condenses, it produces fresh water and releases heat to warm the tube
bundle. Salt water is then sprayed on the outside of the heated tube bundle where it boils and
partially evaporates, producing more fresh water. Steam jet-type VC units, also called
thermocompressors, create lower ambient pressure in the main vessel. This mixture is
condensed on the tube walls to provide the thermal energy (through the heat of condensation)
to evaporate salt water on the other side of the tube walls. VC units are usually built in the
0.066 to 0.50 MGD (250 to 2,000m3/d) range and used for tourist resorts, small industries,
and remote sites.
FAQ on RO
What is Reverse Osmosis (RO)?

A. Reverse Osmosis is a process where water is demineralized using a semipermeable

membrane at high pressure. Reverse osmosis is osmosis in reverse. So, what is osmosis?
Osmosis is most commonly observed in plants. If you don't water your plants they wilt. A
plant cell is a semipermeable (water flows through the membrane but salts don't) membrane
with the living stuff on the inside in a salt solution. Water is drawn into the cell from the
outside because pure water will move across a semipermeable membrane to dilute the higher
concentration of salt on the inside. This is how water is drawn in from the ground when you
water your plants. If you salt your plants (over fertilize or spill some salt on the grass), the
plant will wilt because the salt concentration on the outside of the cell is higher than the
inside and water then moves across the membrane from the inside to the outside.
To reverse this process, you must overcome the osmotic pressure equilibrium across the
membrane because the flow is naturally from dilute to concentrate. We want more pure water
so we must increase the salt content in the cell (concentrate side of the membrane). To do this
we increase the pressure on the salty side of the membrane and force the water across. The
amount of pressure is determined by the salt concentration. As we force water out, the salt
concentration increases requiring even greater pressure to get more pure water.

Q. How does industrial reverse osmosis work?

A. Industrial reverse osmosis use spiral wound membranes mounted in high pressure
containers. The membrane stack is two, very long semipermeable membranes with a spacer
mesh between them that is sealed along the two long sides. This is then wound up in a spiral
tube with another spacer to separate the outside of the stack. The spiral winding provides a
very high surface area for transfer. Between each membrane layer is a mesh separator that
allows the permeate (pure) water to flow. Water is force in one end of the spiral cylinder and
out the out other end. Backpressure forces the water through the membrane where it is
collected in the space between the membranes. Permeate then flows around the spiral where
it is collected in the center of the tube.
Q. Is there any pretreatment requirement?
A. There are various pretreatment configurations that will work on the front of an reverse
osmosis water system. Part of the selection is based on the capabilities and experience of you
maintenance staff. The better preventative maintenance you have, the easier it will be to
maintain a chemical addition system. Chemical metering systems require more daily
maintenance and calibration to insure consistent operation. Fixed bed systems such as
softeners and carbon beds require little daily maintenance.
Water must have a very low silt (solids) content to keep the membranes from plugging up.
This can be accomplished by removing the solids or keeping them in suspension while
passing through the system. Chemicals can be added to the incoming water to keep the solids
in suspension or efficient filtration can be used. We prefer to remove all solids before the
system, which results in the lowest rate of membrane plugging.

As the water passes through the reverse osmosis system, the ionic content of the reject stream
increases as water permeates the membranes. This increase in TDS can results in calcium and
magnesium (the hardness ions) precipitating out in the system and plugging the membranes.
Again, either the Calcium and Magnesium can be removed or a chemical can be added to
keep them in solution. We prefer using a water softener to remove the hardness ions and
replace them with sodium.
Chlorine must be removed for thin film
membranes and should be minimal for CTA
membranes. Either it can be removed by carbon
treatment or reduced with a chemical addition of
sodium metabisulfite. The carbon is preferred
because the chemical addition can enhance
bacterial growth in the system which can plug the
membranes.
Q. What is required to install and use a reverse
osmosis system?
A. The reverse osmosis system itself is fairly
simple, consisting of a series of tube containing
the membranes with a high pressure pump to force
the water through the system. Pretreatment is required for all systems which is designed to
eliminate slit (suspended solids), water hardness and chlorine and other oxidizers. The
schematic shows a simplified front end reverse osmosis system where the city water is
filtered, softened to remove hardness, the carbon is used to remove the city chlorination
(membranes are sensitive to oxidizers). An alternative would be to dose the system with
chemicals to remove the chlorine and hold the hardness ions in solution.
After the carbon filter, the water is passed through
the membranes where the concentrate is recycled
back to the front of the system for another pass and
a bleed is taken off this line to drain. This recycling
allows very high system efficiencies.
The permeate line will have a TDS (total dissolved
solids) level of about 4% or less of the incoming
water (membrane dependent). A sidestream off this
line feed a DI bottle service for DI water. The TDS
is only 4% of the incoming water so the DI bottles

will

last

25

times

longer!

Q. How much pressure is required to purify water?

A. The pressure required is dependent on the concentration of the salt solution on the reject
(concentrate) side of the membrane. Running as system at 1100 PPM on the concentrate side
requires over 200 PSI. Sea water systems at 33,000+ PPM run at 800+ PSI. Under sink
systems at home run at 50-70 PSI.

Q. How pure will the water be?

A. Purity is determined by two things, first the "reject ratio of the membrane (92-99.5%) and
secondly, the type of salts in solution. Membranes are very good at rejection high molecular
weight compounds and multivalent ions. Monovalent ions such as Na + and Cl- (Sodium and
Chloride) are not rejected as well and are the leakage ions. The amount of leakage is
determined by the reject ration. A 95% reject ration means that 5% of the salt concentration
leaks through so a 200 PPM input stream would result in a 10 PPM output stream. A
membrane rated at 99% would result in a 2 ppm output stream. The reject ratio changes over
the life of the membrane and leakage increases. Each time you clean a membrane it slightly
changes its properties so after many years the ratio may drop to 90% or less.

Q. What about membrane plugging?

A. As you concentrate salts on one side of the membrane, you can reach a point where salts of
the hardness ions (or other ions) precipitate out. When they do, this will plug the very small
pores of the membrane. Organic compounds can also plug the pores. Once plugged, the flow
decreases and the membrane must be cleaned. Hardness can be eliminated by softening or
continuously dosing a chemical chelating agent.

ULTRAFILTRATION
As the pore sizes in a membrane becomes smaller, i.e., much below about 0.1 Mm, the
pressure differential required to produce acceptable flow rates increases substantially.
Processes using small pore-size membranes and increased pressure, called ultrafiltration
(UF), generally require pressure differentials greater than 20 lb/in 2(1.4 kg/cm2). The purpose
of using a smaller pore size is to remove colloids and certain high molecular weight organic
materials from water. However, this small pore size makes the membranes even more
susceptible to clogging or blinding than microfiltration membranes. In certain configurations,
UF membranes can be backflushed to solve this problem. UF membranes may be damaged
permanently by excessive heat or pressure, causing flux to drop drastically.
More pronounced than in straight filtration, the character and form of the UF membrane is
critical to the results obtained. To obtain suitable flow rates, the UF semipermeable
membrane usually has an extremely thin skin incorporated on the surface of a more porous,
thicker substrate. This type of membrane is said to be anisotropic. The skin may be less than
0.1 ^m thick, while the substrate may be 25 to 50 ^m in depth. Additional mechanical support
is usually necessary. The skin and the substrate are often the same material, the skin being
modified on the surface of the bulk membrane by treating the surface thermally,
mechanically, chemically, or by some combination of these. In addition to possible blinding
of the UF membrane, concentration polarization may also affect flux rates. This phenomenon,
occurring in the water layer adjacent to the membrane surface, is the result of a localized
increase in the concentration of rejected impurities. This increases the solution density and
viscosity at the membrane surface, reducing flow rate. A number of design techniques have
been developed to reduce concentration polarization.
Ultrafiltration system is a tangential flow, pressure driven filtration process that separates
particles on the basis of their molecular size. The Particles with higher size/molecular weight
are rejected while the particles with lesser size pass through.
What can UF Remove: Non reactive silicates, Colloids, Algae, Bacteria, Coiliform, Viruses,
Proteins etc.
What UF Reduced
TOC, Color Components, SDI etc.
What UF will not remove Salts, Gasoline, Sugar, Alcohol, Smaller, Molecular Weight
molecules etc.

Permeate: The System that passes through Ultrafiltration Membrane.

Reject: Waste Stream from Ultrafiltration which carries the rejected impurities e.g. retained
particles, colloids, bacteria etc. at higher concentration than that of feed.
Feed: Input to Ultrafiltration System Feed Flow = Permeate Flow + Reject Flow

Water Chemistry of Steam Water Cycle:

Formation of a protective layer

Transportation of corrosion products and deposits

Steam impurities

Chemical conditioning of water-steam cycle

Significance of the standard values and their analytical monitoring

VGB Guidelines

Formation of a protective layer:

The corrosive action of water and steam and steel, through which iron oxide result, undergoes
inhibition only when a protective layer is formed on the surface of the steel i.e. a surface
layer which is firmly connected to the base and is thick and uniformly formed. Only
magnetite as iron oxide is conceivable in direct contact with the metal on which- depending
on redox conditions oxides of trivalent iron can grow. Such protective layers limit the
transportation of corrosion products to prevent diffusion and reduce the surface provided for
the reaction between steel and water or steam, as a result of which the metal discharge rate
approaches a possible minimum (surface layer passivity).
Based on these connections the water/steam cycles of a power plant are divided into two
ranges
-

The temperature range of about up to 200C, at which steel surface at the inhibited
Schikorr reaction remains in contact with water as regards the iron dissolution, and
- The hot water range from about 200C onward, at which spontaneous protective layer
magnetite are formed.
The maximum of iron dissolution is at about 150C.
In the condensate feed water piping, therefore in the range of low-pressure preheaters at low
and medium water temperatures, the iron dissolution in pure water is normally controlled by
diffusion. Under unfavorable local flow condition conditions the same can change to erosion
corrosion. In order to reduce corrosion and taking up of corrosion products by the feed water,
conditioning measures are required.
Transportation of corrosion products and deposits
Corrosion products causes constriction of the flow cross-section and hampers heat transfer in
the steam generating tubes which in turn leads to overheating and damage of the material.
Suspended corrosion products which are carried along with the feed water into the boiler or
which occur in the boiler itself can form different types of deposits especially on thermally
stressed tube walls. One the one hand, such deposits can impair the heat transfer and thus
cause rise in the tube wall temperature, which may lead to overheating and finally to tube
cracks be exceeding the hot creep stability, on the other hand, an enrichment of electrolytes

dissolved in the water may occur in deposits resulting in a chemical attack on the tube
material or on the protective layer.
Steam impurities
Impurities in the steam can cause corrosion and deposits in super heaters, regulating members
and on turbine blades as well as the deposition of salt in the super heater and the turbine.
Carbonic acid as well as other inorganic and organic acids are present under certain
conditions as corrosive gaseous and vapor impurities in aqueous solution. Carbonic acid is
always present in the start-up operation. It controls the pH-value and the electric conductivity
of the steam condensate and, when enriched, can lead to acid corrosion especially in heat
exchangers. Inorganic and organic acids can result as products of hydrolysis of inorganic salts
or decomposition products of organic substances and similarly cause acid corrosion.
Dissolved solids get into the steam due to their solubility in steam or by entrained water
droplets. The steam solubility of solids soluble in water depends on pressure and temperature.
The solubility of solids in steam is highest under saturated steam conditions corresponding to
over-saturation at other pressure and temperature conditions of the steam in the water/steam
circuit. Dissolved solids can therefore be precipitated in super heaters and on turbine blades,
deposits can occur, and as far as electrolytes are concerned, cause corrosion in the presence of
water or melted material. A slight formation of deposits on the turbine blades is unavoidable
even when adhering to standard values according to table 3. Also, in the wet steam area of
condensation turbines a slight corrosion attack cannot be ruled out.
In the case of inadequate water/steam separation in the drums of circulation-type boilers
droplets of boiler water are entrained in the steam and in the event of a sudden drop in
pressure even carry-over of the boiler water into the steam takes place. In principle, a perfect
separation of water and steam must be guaranteed by constructional measures, which can,
however, be distributed by the increased tendency of the boiler water to form foam. For
example, suspended solids as well as dissolved or emulsified organic substances tend to
promote the foaming of the boiler water and hence the risk of contamination of the steam.
Chemical conditioning of water-steam cycles
Adequate protection against corrosion of all plant components in a water/steam circuit which
come into contact with water steam cycle can only be ensured with the help of chemical
measures. Two different methods are commonly used in practice; namely, the use of
alkalizing agents (alkaline mode of operation) and of oxidizing agents (neutral mode of
operation).Adherence to a minimum pHvalue as also a few other conditions and the
formation of surface layers with high resistance to corrosion on the metallic surfaces helped
by the addition of certain chemicals are factors which are common to both methods.

The corrosion of components made of steel is reduced by increasing the pH-value.

Circulation type boilers normally require additional use of stable alkalizing agents because
the pH value of boiler water can be appreciably increased only by such alkalis, which also
dissociate strongly at high temperatures.
Among volatile alkalizing agents ammonia is the most commonly used. The amount of iron
dissolved in alloyed and low-alloy steels in the preheater area reaches a minimum value in
salt-free water only at pH values above 9.5. Correspondingly high ammonia concentrations
cannot be permitted in most cases in condensers with brass tubing from the point of view of
copper dissolving because of enrichment in ammonia resulting from the constructional
features, particularly in the air-suction zone. This necessitates a compromise in that only the
maintenance of an alkalinity corresponding to pH > 9 can be recommended. The upper limit
is to be fixed in individual cases according to the constructional features and the materials of
the condenser; usually it is lower than pH 9.5. In contrast to this requirement tubing made of
steel, chromium-nickel steel or titanium does not require any upper limit of ammonia
concentration. Air cooled-condensers made of Aluminum permit only a max. pH of 8.
The optimum pH-value of any plant should be adjusted as early as in the condensate feedwater line before the LP preheaters in order to ensure the best possible corrosion protection
for the preheater.
Therefore, if there is a condensate polishing plant, ammonia is preferably added before the
LP preheaters. In plants which are operated without a condensate polishing plant, in which
case the ammonia remains in the water-steam circuit and only a pH-correction corresponding
to the quantity of make-up water added is required, the addition of ammonia can also be
made at other points, for example, to the make-up water or on the suction side of the feedwater pump. The latter alternative is, however, not considered when major quantities of
make-up water are injected into the condenser.
In order to reduce the level of corrosion products in the feed water hydrazine may also be
used. N2H4 is not only an oxygen scavenger (binding agent) but it also acts as a corrosion
inhibitor in the feed-water. It is preferably added in the colder part of a water-steam cycle,
which is the main source for the absorption of the corrosion product by the feed water, where
hydrazine (N2H4) unfolds its effect of corrosion inhibition that requires the presence of a
slight amount of oxygen. Then the passivation of steel rests upon the activation of the
molecular oxygen in the meaning of an induced oxidation where the chemical reactions in the
areas of the phase limit are catalyzed by the interaction of hydrazine and the oxide covered
surfaces. The influence of hydrazine is interpreted as anodic inhibition of the dissolution of
iron by partial oxidation of the primarily formed corrosion product. On the one hand
hydrazine activates the molecular oxygen that promotes the oxidation of Fe (II) to Fe (III)
and on the other hand the reducing agent hydrazine limits the oxidation to the stage of the
magnetite that in this case forms the corrosion inhibiting oxide layer.

In order to make an optimal use of the corrosion inhibition of the hydrazine it has to be
injected in the pressurized condensate line upstream the LP preheaters and not down stream
the thermal-degassing unit because of the problems with the chemical evacuation of the
residue gases. Hydrazine alone cannot be used for alkalizing the feed-water because it can
produce an adequate increase in the pH-value only in high concentrations that would result in
ammonia concentrations in boiler after thermal transformation which because of the brass
tubing in condenser would no longer be admissible. The base pH value should therefore be
adjusted and maintained by using ammonia. In closed systems without drawing off ammonia
by a condensate polishing plant slight ammonia losses due to suction and deaeration can often
be compensated by the addition of hydrazine to the feed-water in order of 0.1ppm. Moreover,
despite its low alkalizing effect hydrazine is suited better for alkalizing the condensate in the
two-phase zone of steam and water than ammonia since it has a more favorable distribution
coefficient. The feed water of circulation-type boilers operated with salt-free feed-water
should also be conditioned with volatile alkalizing agents only when spray controlled coolers
are used.
Conditioning of the boiler water of circulation-type boilers
In circulation-type boilers of the pressure ranges considered in the present guideline there are
temperatures in the boiler water circulation system at which a protective layer is produced by
the spontaneous formation of a magnetite layer. The solubility of the magnetite is very low in
this temperature range and depends on the pH-value where the minimum solubility is given at
a pH-value of 10.
Why pH high?
1. Save magnetite layer
2. Prevent SiO2 deposition
3. Prevent corrosion
In order to keep the solubility of the magnetite as low as possible and to compensate the
influence of foreign matter in reducing the pH-value, which may penetrate into the boiler by
means of the feed-water and are concentrated by thickening, a certain range of pH-values
should be kept in the boiler water. This not possible by using volatile alkalizing agents as
they hardly contribute to increase the pH-value in the boiler water circulation system because
of their homogeneous distribution in the water and the steam in the drum and their
dissociation behavior at high temperatures. So the recommended standard procedure for the
operation of circulation type boilers of the pressure ranges < 160 Bar is the combined use of
volatile and solid alkalizing agents. There the volatile alkalizing agents are to maintain a pH
value of >9 in the condensate and feed-water area and the solid alkalizing agents are to assure
sufficient alkalinity of the boiler water. In view of the required good mixing the solid
alkalizing agent usually NaOH, should be injected into the feed-water upstream the
economizer but downstream the extraction point of the injection water. As an alternative the
solid alkalizing agent may also be dosed into the boiler drum if the design of the injection
point assures a good distribution and prevents local overdoses.

Significance of the standard values and their analytical monitoring:

1. Conductivity
It should be stated at the start that carbonic acid is to be present only as a trace impurity
during continuous operation of water/steam circuits operated with salt-free feed-water. In
order to eliminate the effect of CO 2 also from the air the conductivity measurement must be
carried out at the flow sampling point in the absence of air. A highly acid cation exchanger
upstream the conductivity-measuring probe ensures that the measurement value is not
affected by the alkalizing agent as the presence of free lyes is not automatically indicated by
the conductivity measurement agent behind a cation exchanger. Even cations from salts are
simultaneously interchanged in such an exchanger and the associated acids released which
increase the sensitivity of the measurement by a factor of 3 to 4 because of their specific
conductivity. On the other hand, direct conductivity measurements without an upstream
cation exchanger can be used as an aid for determining the pH-values and for controlling the
alkali addition in the feed water while operating with salt-free feed-water (conductivity
downstream a highly acid sampling cation exchanger <0.2 s/cm). For example, a reduction
in conductivity from the wet steam to superheated steam condensate enables one to infer the
precipitation of salts in the superheater; a higher conductivity in the turbine condensate as
compared to the superheated steam condensate indicates leakages in the condenser; a
conductivity difference between salt-free feed-water and steam points to entrainment of the
boiler water in the circulation type boilers or to non-ionic organic substance in the feed-water
which decomposes to ionic products at high temperatures only.
2. pH values
In the case of salt-free feed-water and conditioning with alkalizing agents it is necessary to
control the pH-values by means of auxiliary parameters like directly measured conductivity
and the concentration of ammonia as the exact measurement of the pH-value in low ion
waters is not possible with simple means. In contrast, the pH-value of the boiler water can be
measured directly. As an alternative it can also be derived from the directly measured
conductivity and the conductivity measured downstream the cation exchanger if conditioning
with NaOH has been used.
3. Oxygen
As in the salt-free feed-water oxygen acts on steel as an inhibitor the strict limitation of the
concentration of oxygen prescribed up to now is not necessary any more for preventing
corrosion. However, if leakages in the condenser, contamination in recirculated heating and
operating condensate or the ion slippage in the DM plant lead to exceeding the standard
values of the conductivity of salt-free feed-water (<0.2 s/cm) during a period of several days
an oxygen limit of 20 ppb is to be observed.

4. Total Iron, total Cu

The iron and Cu concentrations in the feed-water and the steam provide indications on the
efficiency of the conditioning system and on the corrosion processes in the system, the
release of metals to the water as also on the precipitation to be expected in the boiler and the
turbine. Variations in Fe and Cu concentrations due to load changes cannot be controlled by
chemical methods. The condensate to be recirculated should not deteriorate the quality of the
feed water and the boiler water: need of Condensate Polishing unit.
5. Sodium
In the water-steam cycle apart from the boiler water of circulation-type boilers where it is
used as conditioning agent (NaOH) sodium exists as a contamination which can be put in as
a slippage from ion exchanger plants or as a leakage in heat exchangers. In addition to the
measurement of the conductivity the determination of sodium by means of ion sensitive
electrodes (pNa electrode) also is a sensitive indicator of the intrusion of foreign substances
like cooling water.
Even in case of circulation-type boiler plants, the boiler water of which is conditioned by
means of solid alkalizing agents, the concentration of sodium in the steam remains within the
range of normal operating value acc.

To table 3 if the concentration of sodium hydroxide is kept at the level given in table 2 for the
pH values.
Values exceeding these standard values indicate a bad separation of water and steam in the
drum and the carry-over of boiler water droplets. The intrusion of sodium compounds into the
steam can lead to excessive contents of salt in the superheater and the turbine and also to
corrosion.
6. Silicic Acid (SiO2)
The silicic acid concentration in the feed-water and in the boiler water of the circulation-type
boiler must not exceed certain values because of the requirements on the steam purity for the
turbine operation. The solubility of silicic acid in steam increases with an increase in the
pressure. During operation with DM make up water the silicic acid concentration in the feedwater of once-through boilers as well as in the boiler water of circulation-type boilers remains
far below the standard values given in the tables 1 and 3.
Even whilst adhering to the standard values under unfavorable conditions, particularly in the
presence of certain accompanying media (such as aluminum), silicic acid precipitations
cannot be excluded in the HP section of the turbine.

If differences between the silicic acid concentration in the feed-water and in the steam occur
or if the silicic acid concentration in the boiler water is higher than that corresponding to the
product of the coefficient of concentration and the silicic acid concentration of the feed-water,
then the raw water probably contains colloidal silicic acid which had not been retained in the
make-up water treatment plant and had been transformed to soluble silicic acid in the boiler.
7. Phosphate
When operating a plant with salty and softened feed-water tri-sodium phosphate (TSP)had
and has been used for conditioning the boiler water in order to prevent adhesive precipitations
of the hardening substances and to bind possibly existing residual hardening agents in the
form of fluffy apatite sludge. Due to the hydrolytic action and the formation of Sodium
hydroxide, Tri sodium phospante also has an alkalizing effect at the same time. So in
combination with salt-free feed-water it also is used as a solid alkalizing agent instead of
NaOH, e.g. in power plants with condenser with seawater cooling and without a condensate
polishing plant and spray-type cooler. Then slight leakages of cooling water may be
compensated by the binding of hardness ions and the increased boiler water flashing and do
not require immediate shut-down. However, in the case of the boiler water conditioning with
TSP the measurement of the conductivity downstream the cation exchanger cannot be used
for detecting ionic contamination any more as the conductivity of these ions covered by the
conductivity of the phosphate ions.
An increase in the temperature reduces the dissolubility of sodium phosphate in water. In the
wall zones of heat exposed boiler tubes dissolved boiler water components may be enriched
so much because of the evaporation of water that the product of dissolubility of TSP is
exceeded. The latter precipitates (the physical hide out) but is also can react with the
protective layer and form iron phosphate (the chemical hide out) of which iron hydroxides
and phosphoric acid are formed locally by a hydrolytical process. Under unfavorable
conditions these hydrolytical products contribute to the formation of deposits and local
corrosion.
8. Organic substances
Organic substances which are carried into the steam generator with the feed water can
increase the tendency to foaming after having concentrated in the boiler water of circulationtype boilers, cause a carry-over of boiler water droplets and indirectly impair the steam
quality this way. The decomposition products of organic substances formed under the
conditions in the boiler can directly influence the pH-value of the boiler water and, as long as
they are volatile, the quality of steam.
Organic substances in the water are found by determining TOC content or using other
suitable procedures. The TOC of MU DM water shall not exceed 0.2 ppm (in GPEC 20 ppb).
If other sources also are to be considered for the input of organic substances into water-steam

cycle like the recirculation of contaminated operating condensates in industrial power plants
the continuous monitoring of the TOC of the condensate and the feed-water is recommended.
During the operation with salt-free feed-water the effects of such inputs also can be seen in
other parameters, e.g. the decrease in the pH-value of the boiler water, the increase in the
conductivity of the steam, or a difference in the conductivities of the feed-water not having
been preheated yet and the steam as a consequence of the split-up of organic substances.
VGB guidelines:
In normal cases it must be ensured that the make-up feed-water for the boiler whose
allowable gauge pressure is >68 bar is treated by total DM and that the boilers are operated
with salt free feed-water (conductivity after cation column <0.2 s/cm. The recycling of the
condensate from the power plant and from outside into water/steam cycle is permissible only
in so far as the quality of the boiler feed-water, boiler water and steam, according to tables 1
to 3 is not impaired as a result.
If circulation-type boilers without spray attemptor are operated with fully DM water but salt
containing feed water, exclusively the alkaline mode of operation in the feed-water is to be
employed under alkalization of the boiler water with sold alkalizing agents according to
tables 1 and 2.
Table 1: Salt-free feed water in continuous operation. Measuring point: boiler inlet (upstream
the possible dosing points for solid alkalizing agents)
Parameters
General conditions
Total Fe
Total Cu
Silicic acid (SiO2)
Sodium (Na)
Organic substance
Conductivity at 25C downstream
a highly acid sampling cation
exchanger
pH value
Oxygen

Unit

Standard Value

PPM
PPM
PPM
PPM
PPM
s/cm

Clear and colorless

< 0.020
< 0.003
< 0.020
< 0.010
< 0.200
< 0.2

PPM

Normal
value
0.010
0.001
0.005
0.002
0.1

9.2
< 0.100

operating

Table 2.: Boiler water Requirements to the boiler water of circulation-type boilers fed with
salt-free feed-water.
Precondition

Unit

Alkalizing of the Boiler Alkalizing of the feed

water
with
solid water
with
volatile
alkalizing agent
alkalizing agents; no
additional alkalizing of
the boiler water
> 68 < 136
All heat flux densities
< 50

Admissible working pressure

Bar
Heat flux density
KW/cm2
Conductivity at 25C downstream s/cm
a highly acid sampling cation
exchanger
10 +/- 0.2
pH value at 25C
Preferably NaOH should be used for adjusting the given pH-values; if TSP is used for dosing
the additional use of NaOH is required only if the recommended pH-values cannot be
adjusted by the addition of Na3PO4 alone.
Table3.
Steam, in continuous operation. Requirements to the steam for condensation turbines.
Parameters

Unit

Standard Value

Normal operating
value
0.1

< 0.2
Conductivity at 25C downstream s/cm
a highly acid sampling cation
exchanger
Silicic acid (SiO2)
PPM
< 0.020
0.005
Total Fe
PPM
< 0.020
0.005
Total Cu
PPM
< 0.003
0.001
Sodium (Na)
PPM
< 0.010
0.002
Organic substance
PPM
< 0.200
Total Fe
PPM
< 0.020
0.010
In the interest of avoiding reductions in the efficiency it is recommended to achieve the
normal operating values.

Significance of Chemistry Parameters in Sub-Critical Steam-Water Cycle

Parameters
pH
Dissolved Oxygen
Phosphate
Conductivity
After strong Acid Cation Conductivity
Chlorides
Reactive Silica
Copper
Iron
Alkalinity
Ammonia
Hydrazine
Total Organic Carbon
Sodium
Colloidal Silica

Sampling Points
Makeup water
Feed water after deaerator
Boiler Water
Saturated Steam
Main Steam
Condensate
To Analyze

To Analyze

pH

Water itself is a very weak electrolyte

forms very low concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
H2O H+ + OHAt 25C the concentration of H+ and OH- ions is 1 10-7 g.ion/dm3 each

Thus:

The dissociation constant (Kw), is the mathematical product of the concentrations of

the two ions, i.e.,
(1 10-7 g. H+ ion/dm3) (1 10-7 g. OH- ion/dm3) = 1 10-14 g. ion/dm3
pH is negative logarithm to base 10 of H+ ion concentration.
pH 6 means 1 10-6 g. H+ ion/dm3
pH 8 means 1 10-8 g. H+ ion/dm3
Thus increasing pH means reducing H+ ion concentration.
the scale is logarithmic so that a decrease in the pH value by one unit corresponds to a
tenfold increase in hydrogen ion concentration.

The Corrosion of metal

The corrosion of metals is essentially an electrochemical process.

Let us consider a Daniell cell

Zinc becoming the negative electrode (anode)

Copper the positive electrode (cathode) of the cell.
The Zinc dissolves (or corrodes) to form Zn2+ ions, and the releases electrons, passes
via external circuit to copper and consumed in converting Cu2+ ions from CuSO4 soln.
to deposit on metal surface

Thus:

Zn 2e- Zn2+ (Anodic Reaction Oxidation)

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu (Cathodic Reaction Reduction)
The rate of reaction at the anode and cathode determines the rate of corrosion of Zn.
If one of the reactions is retarded then the corrosion is retarded.

If the solutions of Zinc sulphate and Copper sulphate is replaced by a solution of

Sodium salt, and Zn anode is replaced by Iron, current will still flow.
Simple Corrosion Cell

The previously seen Anodic reaction will remain same.

Fe 2e- Fe2+ (Anodic Reaction Oxidation)
The Cathodic reaction will not be same as in the Daniell cell,
As the concentration of copper is negligible in the solution, Copper will not deposit.
Remaining cations in the solution are sodium (Na) ions and hydrogen ions (pH). As
corrosion proceeds, third cation appear in the solution, from corrosion of Fe.
Now, significantly, of the cations present, for Cathodic reaction:
The sodium ion cannot be deposited on the cathode because this would require a
potential far higher than that which the zinc attains in this cell.
Fe deposition would imply that the cell is in equilibrium thus not possible
Therefore, H+ ions to produce hydrogen gas is the only possible Cathodic reaction in
this system.
2H+ + 2e- 2H H2 (Hydrogen Gas) (Cathodic Reaction Reduction)
Dissolved Oxygen
For Corrosion occurring in alkaline solutions containing dissolved Oxygen
Predominated Cathodic reaction is the reduction of oxygen gas to hydroxyl ions:
O2 + 2H20 + 4e- 4 OH- (Cathodic Reaction )
If the solution is de-aerated, then the hydrogen evolution reactions will the Cathodic
reaction.
And if the solution is alkaline & de-aerated, the rate of Cathodic reaction is limited
and the corrosion cell tends to become polarized.
As the rate of anodic and Cathodic reactions must be equal, and the corrosion of the
base metal will be retarded.
Phosphate
In the need of decreasing H+ ion concentration, NaOH was used,
NaOH - satisfactory in low pressure boilers, but
At higher pressure and higher heat flux, boiler tube corrosions were encountered.
Localized concentrations of alkali were formed at tube surfaces by hide out.
In the attempt to combat the undesirable effect of NaOH, sodium phosphates were
introduced as alternate source to increase pH.

TSP Na3PO4 + H20 Na2HPO4 + NaOH

Na2HPO4 + 2H20 NaH2PO4 + NaOH
The important difference between Sodium Phosphate source of pH increase and that
produced by free caustic soda is the reversibility of the above reactions.
If acid appear in the boiler water they get neutralized by the sodium hydroxide.
On the other hand, if higher concentrations of sodium hydroxide are formed the
reaction move towards the left limiting the maximum pH that can be produced.
Conductivity
Measure of electrical conductance
Higher is the conductivity higher will be the corrosion reaction.
Contributed by the dissolved solids and gases in the water
Down Stream Strong Acid Cation Conductivity
To remove the effect of the volatile masking agents used for boosting the pH
Masking agents do not allow the conductivity measurement to be precise and
accurate.
We get 8 folds accurate readings due to the change of ions in acidic form by the
increased sensitivity of the conductivity cell.
Chlorides
Formation of Acids and promoting corrosion.
Comes with impure ammonia or hydrazine.
Sodium
Stress corrosion in austenitic super heaters
Lead to serious risk of stress corrosion failure
Higher steam conductivity
Cracking of turbine blades at LP section
(Due to the sharp fall in steam density on passing through the turbine, deposition could occur
at significantly lower concentrations of salts)
Reactive Silica
Silica could deposit on turbine blades
Cause serious loss of output / generation capacity.
Silica has significantly high partition coefficient, consequently appear in steam at
higher concentrations for a given concentration in boiler water.
This is depending on:
Boiler Pressure
pH (At pH 9 - 1.25% of boiler water silica will volatilize in steam and pH 10 it is
1.02%)
Silica Concentration in boiler drum
Fluctuation in drum level.
Colloidal Silica
Converts into reactive silica at >130 C.
Molybdenum non-reactive
Mostly Polymeric
Cannot be removed by ion exchanger

 Removed by membrane technologies

Total Organic Carbon/Organo Chlorides
Can foul anion resins thereby reducing the OBR.
Non ionic thus does not contribute to conductivity and does not get removed with
resin.
Break down at boiler temperature contributing to undesired conductivity.
Break with temperature librating chloride ions.
Copper
Indication and measurement of corrosion of copper or copper based alloy
Iron
Indication and measurement corrosion of Iron (MS).
Alkalinity
P shall be less than M because presence of OH alkalinity causes carryover.
When P < M there is only CO3-- & HCO3-(Carbonate and Bicarbonate alkalinity
exists)
However, these alkalinities form CO2 in boiler water on decomposition thus leading to
formation of carbonic Acid (H2CO3-), which corrodes the condensate systems.
Ammonia
Advantage
Volatile alkalinity booster (1 ppm will cause pH 9.3)
Neutralizing Carbonic Acid and formation of NH3COONH4 (Ammonium Carbamate)
Inexpensive, low eq. wt and relatively easy to handle.
Disadvantage
Cause corrosion to copper and its alloys at pH > 9.5 when D.O is significantly
present.
Have high volatility, passes into steam more than any volatile alkalinity booster.
Partition co-efficient (steam/water) is 10/1 thus does not remain in boiler water
Hydrazine
Advantage
Oxygen scavenger (N2H4 + O2 = N2 + 2H2O)
Formation of passivation layer (Magnetite from Hematite / Cupric Oxide to Cupreous
Oxide)
6Fe2O3 + N2H4 = N2 + 2H2O + 4 Fe3O4
4CuO + N2H4 = N2 + 2H2O + 2 Cu2O
Does not increase dissolved solids
Excess decomposes to ammonia pH booster.
Disadvantage
Flash on opening at 80 85 %, Safer to handle at 40%.
Carcinogenic Vapor toxic
Excess decomposes to ammonia cost implication (Hydrazine Vs Ammonia)

WATER ANALYSIS
Requirement of Water Testing
Introduction
Water treatment is an engineering practice based on chemical principles and dependent upon
chemical analysis for control. Many useless proprietary gad gets have been promoted due to
difference in the language of an engineer and a chemist. Water conditioning in easiest terms
means Intentional Shifting of equilibrium of chemical reaction to alter the properties of the
solution.
We know that Natural water contains dissolved as well as undissolved impurities. These
impurities are undesirable in many industrial applications. Thus if this water is to be treated
an analysis of water has to be done. Analysis of water is done not only for designing a water
treatment plant but also for control and as well conditioning after treatment.
Raw water analysis is divided into parts Physical and chemical.
Physical parameters
pH
Turbidity
Total suspended solids
Conductivity
Colour
Chemical parameters
1. Calcium

Hardness

2. Magnesium
Hardness
3. Sodium
4. Iron
5. Alkalinity M and P both
6. Chloride
7. Sulfate
8. Nitrate
9. Silica
10. Carbondioxide.
The above list are not exhaustive but are the most important in any water analysis Water
Analysis has more broader perspective then just analyzing the impurities in raw water a or
treated water. Resin used for treatment gets deteriorated due to various reasons and hence
must be checked from time to time. Power plant water analysis addresses these also. Boiler
and cooling water may be subjected to scaling and corrosion due to water & which element of
water was responsible for the effect is also one of the studies done in water analysis. Thus in
this booklet we have considered the following
Raw water analysis.
Treated water analysis.
Boiler water analysis.
Cooling water analysis
Resin testing.
Importance of Water analysis
The water analysis is very important for the following reason.
Analysis of raw water for designing the required water treatment.
Analysis of water at each stage of purification to check the performance of each unit.
Monitoring of water treatment plants.
Analysis of boiler water to check scaling, corrosion and Blow down.
Analysis of boiler water to check if internal chemicals are working as intended.
Analysis of cooling water to check for corrosion, scaling and bacterial growth.
Analysis of discharged water to meet legal and statutory requirements.
Analysis of water to be used for process.
Methods employed in Water analysis
Method
Gravimetric *
Titration

Basic Procedure
The substance being determined is converted into
insoluble precipitate and weighed
The substance to be determined is allowed to react
with an appropriate reagent added as a standard
solution and the volume of solution needed for
completing reaction is determined. Hence it is also
called volumetric analysis. Common type or
reaction used are, 1.Neutralization. 2. Complex
forming reaction. 3. Precipitation reaction 4.
Oxidation-reduction reaction

Voltametry
Potentiometry
Chromatography

Thermal method
Turbidimetric and nephlometric method.
Visible spectra-photometry (colorimetry)

Ultraviolet spectrometry

Flame photometry*

Measurement of current at a micro electrode at a

specified voltage
Measurement of the potential of an electrode in
equilibrium with an ion to be determined.
It is separation process employed for the separation
of mixture of mixture of substances. It is widely
used for identification of the components of
mixture. It can be gas liquid chromatography, High
performance liquid chromatography, ion
chromatography, gas chromatography
Change in weight, or change in energy recorded as
a function of temperature
This method measure the amount of light stopped
or scattered by suspension.
In colorimetric determinations the quantity of an
element (or ion) present is estimated from the
intensity of the color of solution due to presence of
a colored compound of that element
The analysis of samples is done by studying their
molecular spectra. This is normally applicable to
solution.
Sample solution is injected into flame.

CIRCULATING WATER CHEMISTRY (COOLING WATER):

CORROSION AND SCALE INHIBITION
Corrosion is one of the major problems affecting performance, safety and efficiency of
cooling systems. Use of chemical inhibitors remains the most practical and cost effective
means of preventing corrosion.
Corrosion of metals is said to be a manifestation of a metal's urge to return to its natural state,
which is generally the most stable form in which a metal can occur. Iron ore, for instance, is
essentially a form of iron oxide, as is rust from a corroded iron pipe. The primary cause of
corrosion of iron is tendency to return to its natural stable state. Corrosion is chiefly a
chemical phenomenon, rusting involves oxidation of iron. Various chemical factors influence
the course of corrosion in a recirculating water system. These include pH, dissolved oxygen,
dissolved salts and certain ions like sulphide and chloride which accelerate corrosion.
Besides chemical characteristics, flow velocity and temperature are the two main physical
factors that affect corrosion. Apart from physical and chemical characteristics, biological
factors can induce corrosion. This form of corrosion is promoted by certain type of bacterial
organisms.
Corrosion can occur both in open circulating systems and closed chilled water plants. The
factors may differ in respect of specific cause for corrosion, but if the physical, chemical and

biological characteristics enumerated in the foregoing are prevalent, then the phenomenon of
corrosion will occur unless certain inhibitors are added to arrest corrosion.
In simple language, a corrosion inhibitor is a substance which when added in small
concentrations to an environment effectively reduces the corrosion rate of a metal exposed to
that environment. The inhibition is achieved through interaction or reaction between the
corrosion inhibitor and the metal surface, resulting in the formation of an inhibitive surface
film; this may occur directly at the metal environment interface or via precipitation. In other
cases, the chemistry of the environment may be modified to render it less corrosive e.g. by
chemically scavenging dissolved oxygen, chemically neutralizing dissolved acidic gases,
adjusting pH to promote stable (inherent) passivation.
We need first class of chemical inhibitors and may be termed as passivating inhibitor. It
causes the formation or maintenance of a passive film on the iron, copper and brass surfaces
and this film essentially prevents the dissolution of the metal. We need a mixed inhibitor
since under certain conditions one constituent in the formulation can act as anodic inhibitor
and another as cathodic inhibitor. We need a judicious combination of both anodic and
cathodic inhibitor ingredients.
We need a chromate-free synergistic formulation based on zinc, inorganic phosphate,
specialty copolymers, organophosphonate and specific inhibitors for yellow metals specially
meant for the open circulating type of cooling tower system. It also has a secondary function
of scale inhibition.
Organophosphonates have better hydrolytic stability and are powerful sequestering agents
with superior deposit control characteristics. They do not induce accelerated corrosion when
in low (threshold) concentration. Zinc acts as cathodic inhibitors and protect most metals by
an electrodeposition mechanism.
The treatment regimen consists of a preliminary passivation cycle followed by a regular
prophylactic schedule. So long as prophylactic dosage is maintained in the system, the
environment will be less hostile to the metal surface.
Organophosphate also helps in preventing scale formation. It contains both inorganic
phosphates and phosphonates which in combination overcome their individual deficiencies.
Inorganic phosphates (especially orthophosphates) are not recommended to be used alone as
they form insoluble precipitates with water hardness salts.
Phosphonates usefully synergise with other inhibitors and can therefore be used beneficially
with inorganic phosphates. Besides, the presence of specialty copolymers based on acrylic
acid are anti fouling agents and help in dispersing insoluble matter such as silt, less soluble
salts, corrosion products and biological debris thus preventing sedimentation and deposition
of suspended matter.
We need a totally non-toxic and being a liquid formulation it is easy to handle. In actual use
situations its levels are within effluent discharge limits and hence direct discharge of treated
water into the effluent system does not cause problems.
BIOCIDAL TREATMENT (Microbial Control):
Microbial fouling is one of the major problems in the operation of a cooling water system.
Besides adversely affecting the cooling performance of the system, fouling promotes
corrosion.

Other forms of microbial infection manifest as fungal attack on wood and algae growth on
exposed surfaces. An effective micro bio control programme implemented on a regular
calendar schedule should control microbial fouling and contribute to improved
Microbial treatment is very important and should be employed from the beginning. With
chlorination, to further strengthen the microbial control program, we offer non-oxidising
biocide. They have unusually wide spectrum of biological activity and are extremely toxic to
microorganism and at the same time it are non-toxic and non-irritant to animals and birds,
non-corrosive to metal, not damaging to wood, textiles, plastic, rubber etc. The activity of
this biocide is not altered with temperature fluctuation and microorganisms do not develop
immunity towards it after prolonged use. It is readily biodegradable hence cause no effluent
problems.
OPTIONS FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL PROGRAMME:
We have specified some optional programmes for microbiological control programme to our
CWS.
Following are the options:
Option I) Only with Sodium Hypochloride
Option II) Only with Gaseous chlorine
BIODISPERSANT:
Along with our biocides we recommend use of our biodispersant. This product enhances
dispersion of slime/organic debris, and thereby increases efficacy of chlorination /chlorine
dioxide. The activity of this dispersant is not altered with temperature fluctuation. This will
disperse/penetrate slime in the system and will enable chlorine to penetrate the biofilm and
perform the necessary biocidal action.
This prevents organic and inorganic fouling. It is a liquid penetrant and dispersant for
effective control of foulants that impede heat transfer and increase maintenance costs.
DISPERSANT:
Dispersant is a polymeric scale inhibitor cum dispersing agent. It has a residual electric
charge, which is conferred on the fouling matter in the system. Each particle of fouling matter
gets an electric charge, which repels every other particle. So the fouling matter particles do
not coalesce. Hence they remain in the suspension as fine particles without causing clogging
in the system. Otherwise, the particles of fouling matter will come together and aggregate
forming larger particles which will either clog the system or result in sediment formation.
Dispersants also has a specific polymer for inhibiting Calcium Phosphate scale formation and
thus prevention of Calcium Phosphate sludge.

View of pipe section covered with corrosion byproducts

and tubercles formed by deposition & fouling

Heat Transfer and monitoring of cooling water systems

Introduction:
Heat is the thermal energy transit from one system to another. The thermal energy can
originate from any kind of energy according to the first law of thermodynamics. Transfer of
heat is due to unique property of matter, temperature, and is governed by second law of
thermodynamics, which dictates that free flow of heat is possible only from a body of higher
temperature to that at a lower temperature.
All heat transfer processes, therefore, involve the transfer of energy and obey the first as well
as the second law of thermodynamics. The energy in transit cannot be measured or observed
directly, but the effects it produces can be observed and measured. From our viewpoint, the
determination of the rate of heat transfer needs special consideration.
The transport of heat energy from one region to another occurs by any (or a combination) of
similar methods. In literature such three methods of heat transmission are recognized by the
terms conduction, convection and radiation respectively.
If the flow of heat is a result of transfer of internal energy from one molecule to other, the
process is called conduction. Through solids, this is the only possible mode of heat
transmission. In liquid and gases, however, the molecules are no longer confined to a certain
point but constantly change their positions even if the substance is at rest. The heat energy is
transported along with the motion of these molecules from one region to another. This

process is called convection. All solid bodies as well as liquids and gases have a tendency of
radiating thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and of absorbing similar
energy emerging from the neighboring bodies. This type of heat transport is known as
thermal radiation.
In industrial processes, heat transfer may occur due to one or due to a combination of more
than one of these three modes of transport.
Combined Heat transfer process:
In most of the engineering applications, however, heat is transferred in successive steps by
similar or different mechanisms.
For instance, let us consider the case of heating of water in a tube laid in a heat exchanger (or
cooling of hot fluid in shell by CW). The water will receive heat from the products of
combustion that emit and absorb radiation. The heat will flow by combination of different
modes through successive steps as indicated below (fig 1).
Steps
1 2
3
t1
t3
t2
Hot fluid
film
fig. 1.0

t4
Water film
Tube wall

It may be clarified here that the tube wall surface temperatures are different than the fluid
temperatures on the respective sides. This can be explained by assuming that a thin layer of
fluid adheres to the wall on both sides. The temperature gradient exits only within this thin
layer.
Considering the temperatures at each step and resistance to heat flow through each step (R)
where R1, R2 and R3 are resistances through step 1, 2 & 3 respectively. Since the same
quantity of heat is flowing through each step we obtain:
q = t1-t2 = t2-t3 = t3-t4
R1
R2 R3

eq. 1.0

= (t1-t2)+(t2-t3)+(t3-t4)
R1+R2+R3

eq. 1.1

q = t1 t4
R1+R2+R3

eq. 1.2

= t1-t4
R

If we designate the reciprocal of the resistance by UA, then:

UA =
Or

1
.
R1+R2+R3

eq. 1.3

q = UA (t1 t4)

eq. 1.4

This equation represents the heat flow from the hot fluid to water. Here U is known as the
Overall unit conductance or the Overall coefficient of heat transfer.
Heat Transfer in Cooling Tower:
Two kind of heat transfer occur within the tower between warm water and air.
a) Latent heat of vaporization: Some of the liquid changes to vapor with the
absorption of heat. This energy, called the latent heat of vaporization, is that
necessary to overcome the attractive forces between molecules in the liquid state.
Absorption of latent heat accounts for 75-80 percent of the heat transferred in
cooling towers.
b) As long as the wet-bulb temperature, which is a measure of the heat content of the
atmospheric air, is lower than the water temperature heat is transferred from the
water to the air, raising its temperature and lowering that of the water. This is
called sensible heat; it accounts for the remaining 20-25 percent of heat
transferred.
Variable affecting performance of CT Heat transfer:
The rate at which heat is transferred in a cooling tower depends upon four factors: (1)
the area of the water surface in contact with air;
(2) the relative velocity of air and water;
(3) the time of contact between air and water;
(4) the difference between the wet bulb temperature of the inlet air, A, and the
temperature of the returned water, R.
Item (1) depends upon the construction of the fill; (2) can be controlled by regulating speed
of the fans; (3) is a function of (2) and the height of the tower; (4) is fixed by climate.
Wet bulb temperature can be measured with a sling psychrometer.
Under ideal conditions, when a stream of unsaturated air passes over a wetted surface water
evaporates saturating the air and lowering the temperature of the remaining water. When the
water becomes cooler than the air, sensible heat flows from the air to the water, eventually
reaching equilibrium at the wet-bulb temperature, where the loss of heat from the water by
evaporation is equal to the sensible heat. Thus, as water falls through a cooling tower, the
latent heat of vaporization and the sensible heat approach each other so that in an infinitely
high structure the temperature of the bulk water would be equal to the wet-bulb temperature
of the entering air. In a finite tower, however, it is impossible to achieve zero approach
(approach = Supply temperature wet bulb temperature) because not all the water falling
through the structure can contact fresh cool air.
One measure of the efficiency of a cooling tower is its approach, which is the difference
between the temperature of the cooled water in the basin of the tower and wet-bulb
temperature of the atmosphere.
The second measure of performance is the cooling range, which is the difference between the
supply temperature and return temperature.
The amount o heat rejected by a cooling tower can be calculated from the cooling range and
the recirculation rate. This is also known as heat duty.

1 BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one
degree F. Therefore:
Heat duty, BTU/hr = gpm (circulation rate) >< 8.34 lb/gal >< Delta T deg F
Another important characteristic of a cooling towers performance is L/G, the liquid-gas mass
transfer ratio: L/G = (water, kg/hr)/ (air, kg/hr)
Heat transfer within cooling system (heat exchanger):

Fig. 1.1
The process represented in the above figure (1.1) is one in which hot fluid is cooled by water,
which itself heated without any loss of exchanged heat. Industrial heat exchangers consist of
a number of tubes enclose in a shell. Exchangers with cooling water in the tubes, and hot
product in the shell are the most satisfactory. Fouling often occurs if water is circulated
through the shell, because the velocity of the water stream is lower in this design. Tubes are
much easier to clean than the shell. Matters are also so arranged that the pressure of the
product being cooled is higher than that of cooling water, so that the water cannot leak into
the hot product, and damage the equipment.
In the figure (t1) temperature of CW inlet; (t2) temperature of CW outlet; (T1) temperature of
process inlet; (T2) Temperature of process outlet. Here we will consider CW as cooling water
and Process as P.
Now U = Hp/tmA
Where:

(eq-1.0)

U = net effective overall heat transfer coefficient (Kcal/0C-h-m2)

H = difference in enthalpy of P at T1 and T2 (Kcal/kg)
P = flow rate of the product (m3/h)
A = area of heat transfer surface (m2)
tm = the average of the temperature differences at both ends of the exchanger
(0C)
tm = (T1-t2) +(T2-t1)
2

(eq 1.5)

Here it is assumed that the temperature of the fluid is in the shell falls continuously and
uniformly from T1 to T2, while that of the water inside the tubes rises similarly from t1 to t2.

With this assumption it is permissible to use the average of the terminal differences for the
mean temperature difference. In more complicated heat exchangers, however, it is necessary
to use the log mean temperature difference, and when calculation the value for multipass
exchangers correction factors also must be applied to (tm).
(t)log e = (t)max - (t)min
= (T2-t1) (T1 t2)
(eq 1.6)
log e [(t)max/(t)min]
log e [(T2-t1)/(T1-t2)]
(see topic LMTD for detailed description)
In a water-tube exchanger U is likely to decrease gradually because of accumulating deposits,
or because of scale formation on the tubes. Referring to the figure, the effect of these events
on the heat transfer coefficient can be predicted qualitatively. If a thin layer of insulating
scale forms on either side of the tube T2 rises and t2 falls as less heat passes from P to CW
through the insulating layer. Thus H decreases, and as both t1 and T1 are unaffected by
conditions within the heat exchanger, tm increases. The net result is that the heat transfer
coefficient becomes smaller.
If deposits slow the flow of water, t2 and T2 both rise. In this event, however, t m may
increase and H may decrease by such small amounts that the effect on U may not be
significant.
The reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient is called the fouling resistance, this number
multiplied by one thousand is the fouling factor.
Except in unusual circumstances the
effect of fouling resistances can never be exactly known, as fouling within an actual heat
exchanger is seldom uniform, and also the net effect is a combination of conditions on both
sides of the heat transfer surface.
Condenser: In a condenser the condensing fluid (hot fluid) remains at constant temperature
throughout the exchanger while the temperature of the colder fluid gradually increases from
inlet to outlet. Similarly in an evaporator the boiling fluid (cold fluid) remains at constant
temperature while the hot fluid temperature gradually decreases. The temperature distribution
in condenser is shown below. Since the temperature of one of these fluids remains constant, it
is immaterial whether the two fluids flow in the same direction of opposite direction.

fig. 1.4

t1
t
t2o
t2i
Area

Typical values of the overall heat-transfer coefficient for various types of heat exchanger are
given below:
Log Mean Temperature difference (Temperature driving force):

Before equation (eq 1.7) can be used to determine the heat transfer area required for a given
duty, an estimate of the mean temperature difference t m must be made. This will normally be
calculated from the terminal temperature differences: the difference in the fluid temperatures
at the inlet and outlet of the exchanger. The well-known logarithmic mean temperature
difference (LMTD) is only applicable to sensible heat transfer in true co-current or counter
current flow.
In a heat exchanger the temperatures of the hot and cold fluids keep on changing from point
to point along the length of the exchanger. The question therefore arises what value of the
temperature difference should be used to compute the rate of heat flow. The need of mean
temperature difference which, when multiplied by the overall coefficient of heat transfer and
the appropriate area, will give the correct heat flow, originated. An expression for the mean
temperature difference
Counter current flow

single pass tube

1:2 exchanger (double pass tube)

T1

T1
T

T2

T2
t2

t2
t1
fig. 1.5

T m = (T max) (T min)
ln [(T max)/(T min)]

t1
fig 1.6
(eq 1.9)

Where T m = log mean temperature difference,

T1 = inlet shell side fluid temperature,
T2 = outlet shell side fluid temperature,
t1 = inlet tube side temperature,
t2 = outlet tube-side temperature,
The equation is the same for co-current flow, but the terminal temperature differences will be
(t1 t1) and (T2 t2). Strictly, equation (eq 1.9) will only apply when there is no change in
the specific heats, the overall heat-transfer coefficient is constant, and there are no heat
losses.
In most shell and tube exchangers the flow will be a mixture of co current, counter current
and cross flow. Fig1.3 show typical temperature profiles for an exchanger with one shell pass
and two tube passes (a 1:2 exchanger).
Overall heat transfer coefficient:
An important parameter in the design and monitoring of heat exchangers is the overall heat
transfer coefficient, U, between the two fluids. A value for U can be easily obtained by
knowing the followings:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mass flow of the fluid,

Specific heat of the fluid,
Difference in temperature of the fluid across the heat exchanger,
Inlet and outlet temperature of both the fluids involved in heat exchanger and
Area of the heat transfer surface.

From the equation

Q = m.cp. t
Calculating Q in watts:
Where m = mass flow in kg/hr of kg/sec
Cp= specific heat or heat content in KJ/Kg K
t= Temperature difference across the heat exchanger.
Calculating LMTD from the following equation with the inlet and outlet temperatures of the
hot and cold fluid across the heat exchanger and with the knowledge of type of heat
exchanger using:
(For multipass heat exchangers)
T m = (T max) (T min)
ln [(T max)/(T min)]
Where T m = log mean temperature difference,
T1 = inlet shell side fluid temperature,
T2 = outlet shell side fluid temperature,
t1 = inlet tube side temperature,
t2 = outlet tube-side temperature,
OR
(for single pass heat exchanger)
tm = (T1-t2) +(T2-t1)
2
We can calculate U from the equation
Q = UA tm
Where Q = heat transferred per unit time (W)
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oC)
A heat-transfer area, m2,
tm = the mean temperature difference, the temperature driving force, oC.
U=

. Q .
A tm

(eq. 1.14)

Effect of scale formation:

In most heat exchangers some scale formation will take place on both sides of the heat
transfer surface after the heat exchanger has been in use for some time (unless scale
inhibition mechanism is in place). This introduces two additional resistances in the heat flow
path. Thus the total thermal resistance becomes:
R

= Ri + Rsi +Rw + Rso + Ro

(eq. 1.27)

Where Rsi = thermal resistance due to scale formation on inside surface of inner pipe, m2 C/W
Rso = thermal resistance due to scale formation on outside surface of inner pipe, m 2
C/W
(We can here consider no scaling on outside surface of inner pipe)
Since it is difficult to ascertain accurately the thickness and thermal conductivity of the scale
formed, the effect of scale deposit on heat flow is generally taken into account by specifying
an equivalent scale heat transfer coefficient, hs.
The reciprocal of the scale heat transfer coefficient is called the fouling factor. If h si and hso
denote the heat transfer coefficient for the scale formed on the inside and outside surface of
he inner pipe, then:
Rsi

= 1/Aihsi

(eq. 1.29)

Rso

= 1/Aohso

(eq. 1.30)

And q =.

(ti - to)
1/Aihi + 1/Aihsi + ln (ro/ri) +1/Aohso + 1/Aoho
2LKw

(eq. 1.31)

Ui

=.
1
1/hi +1/hsi + Ai ln (ro/ri) +[Ai/Ao]. 1/hso +[Ai/Ao]. 1/ho
2LKw

Ui

(eq. 1.32)

or
1
1/hi +1/hsi +[ri/kw] ln (ro/ri) + [ri/ro]. 1/hso+ [ri/ro]. 1/ho

(eq. 1.33)

The fouling factor (1/hs) for some representative applications is listed in following table:
Fluid
Fouling factor (1/hs) (m2/K/W)
Distilled water
0.000086
Sea water
0.000172
Well water
0.000344
Treated boiler feed water
0.000172
Fuel oil and crude oil
0.00086
Steam, non-oil bearing
0.00009
Condensation of steam:
Steam is frequently used as heating medium. The mean temperature difference is given here:
A pure, saturated, vapour will condense at a fixed temperature, at constant pressure. For an
isothermal process such as this, the simple LMTD can be used in equation 1.3; no correction
factor for multiple passes is needed. The LMTD will be given by:
T m =
(t2 t1)
[(Tsat-t1)/ (Tsat-t2)]
Where T sat =

(eq. 1.34)

saturation temperature of the vapour,

ln

t1
t2

=
=

inlet coolant temperature,

outlet coolant temperature.

When the condensation process is not exactly isothermal but the temperature change is small;
such as where here is a significant change in pressure; the LMTD can still be used but the
temperature correction factor will be needed for multipass condensers. The appropriate
terminal temperatures should be used in the calculation.
Condenser, where the hot fluid temperature varies:
In some type of heat exchanger, the temperature of both the fluids is varying and there fore
logarithmic mean temperature will have to be calculated. The temperature changes of water
and hot fluid may be represented graphically by the following figure. During the process the
hot fluid will reject heat in the following manner:
(a)
To cool down to saturation temperature, (process DC)
(b)
To liquefy (process CB)
(c)
To subcool the liquid (process BA)
At the same time the water will receive heat and will get heated from tc1 to tc2.
This type of condenser may be assumed to consist of three sections i.e. (i) desuperheater (ii)
liquefier (iii) subcooler.

Subcooling

Condensation

Desuperheating
th1

th3

th2

th4

tc2

tc1
A

Heat transfer in a condenser

Here if th1, 2, 3 & 4 is known then LMTD of each section can be calculated and average mean
temperature difference is approximately given by:
T m =

total heat rejection (HR) (kJ/min)

(HRD-C/ T m (D-C)) + (HRC-B/ T m (C-B)) + (HRB-A/ T m (B-A))

(eq. 1.35)

And then with this LMTD values for Q and/or U can be calculated.
Significance of pressure:
The cold and hot fluid inlet and outlet temperature and P of the fluids across the heat
exchangers are very significant in determination of the health of that heat exchanger. In
condensers, the steam/condensate P is shown as vacuum. Any increase in cooling waterside
P or decrease in steam/condensate vacuum is an indication of fouling or decrease in flow
rate of the fluids.
Increase in P for hot fluid when the inlet hot fluid P remains same, across a heat exchanger
could be due to fouling on the heat-exchanging surface exposed to the hot fluid. The same
applies to CW side. An increase of P with an increase in inlet P is very much possible.
In condensers the decrease in vacuum could be due to fouling on heat-exchanging surface on
both or either side. Most probably it will be due to fouling of heat-exchanger surface on CW
side. In condensers the decrease in vacuum could also be due to leakage from the heatexchanging surface or from the surface exposed to atmosphere.
Change in P
Increase, in hot fluid
Decrease, in hot fluid
Increase, in cold fluid

Decrease, in cold fluid

Indication

Increase in flow-rate of hot fluid

Fouling on HE surface on hot-fluid side

Decrease in flow-rate of hot fluid

Leakage on hot fluid path.

Increase in flow-rate of cold fluid

Fouling on HE surface on cold-fluid

side

Decrease in flow-rate of cold fluid

Leakage on cold fluid path.

It is important to know the design pressure on both sides (hot & cold). The high-pressure
fluid may ingress in low-pressure fluid. Normally the hot fluid pressure is higher than cold
fluid pressure.
Significance of flow-rates:
Flow-rates and any change in flow-rates have different effects on Q and U values. Following
are the effects:
Changes
If hot fluid flow rate is increased

If hot fluid flow rate is decreased

Effects

The P of hot fluid across the heat exchanger

will increase.

The inlet P of hot fluid will increase

The T of hot fluid will decrease

The T of cold fluid will increase

The Q value will increase

Vice-versa of the above effects

If cold fluid flow rate is increased

The P of cold fluid across the heat exchanger

will increase.

The inlet P of cold fluid will increase

The T of cold fluid will decrease

The T of hot fluid will increase

The Q value will increase

The fouling/scaling propensity of Cold fluid

will decrease

The flow induced corrosion/erosion may

increase
If cold fluid flow rate is decreased
The P of cold fluid across the heat exchanger
will decrease.

The inlet P of cold fluid will decrease

The T of cold fluid will increase

The Q value will decrease

The fouling/scaling propensity of Cold fluid

will increase Avoid such situations

Methods of checking steam condenser performance:

It is desirable to get a rated load or some agreed-upon load on the turbine which will be the
same for each successive check and read the load, air leakage, inlet water temperature, outlet
water temperature and the absolute pressure in the condenser, and convert the absolute
pressure into the corresponding saturated steam temperature; also, calculate the temperature
rise, initial temperature difference and terminal difference.
The terminal difference is the difference between the steam temperature and the outlet water
temperature; the temperature rise is the increase in the CW temperature. The initial
temperature difference is the difference between the inlet water temperature and the steam
temperature (or the saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure).
If this data is recorded periodically and checked, any deviation will give the operator the best
indication of what has been happening to his condenser.
During a period of high air leakage, when air blankets tube surfaces, the absolute pressure, air
leakage, steam temperature and terminal difference will rise and again upon correcting the
leakage, will return to normal. Also, during a period of dirty condenser tubes, the absolute
pressure, steam temperature and terminal difference increases and after cleaning will return to
normal. This holds true with non-condenser type heat exchanger.
Other factors:
Other factors, which would affect the condenser trend, are the change in water inlet
temperatures and change in loads. These changes do not affect the condenser performance
although they change most of the condenser temperature values and do change the condenser
backpressure. As a guide to condenser performance the terminal difference gives the operator
the alarm and should be watched carefully.
Data taken at a different lad may be compared to that at the desired load by the following
device. Load to the condenser, either in terms of BTU per hour or kw load plotted against rise
and initial temperature difference. Rise will be a straight line from zero at no load to
maximum rise at full load. Disregarding the effects of air leakage and vacuum pump capacity
and some of these matters in the very low load range, the initial temperature difference will
also be a straight line.

Operators should watch pump discharge pressures and pump horsepower for clues as to tube
sheets plugged by rubbish accumulation. These indications can also be obtained from delta P
of CW across the condenser.
Poor heat transfer due to tube fouling will affect vacuum performance at all loads but will be
most noticeable at high loads.
Circulating water pump data to approximate water flow, which with rise in circulating water
temperature gives another approximation of heat load.
The condenser performance is evaluated, expressed as percentage:
% = U actual >< 100
U designed
U actual can be calculated as: U = Q/ATlmtd
U actual = actual heat transfer rate, btu/hr/sq ft/deg F Lmtd
Q = duty, Btu/hr

Boiler Tube Failures mechanism & Corrective Actions

FAILURES IN POWER BOILERS
Boiler tube failures are main cause of forced outages in electric utility steam
generating boilers. Single tube failure in a 250 MW costs approximately Rs. 1.1
Crores (replacement power charges for 1 day to repair) besides affecting Plant Morale
and downstream operations.
ANALYSIS CYCLE
The actions following a failure include:
Collection of information and data regarding failure
Failure descriptions, operating conditions, historical records and tube samples for
analysis

Immediate corrective actions based on initial investigations to be approved and

implementation of repair
Follow-up corrective actions in a planned way based on complete investigation (Root
Cause Analysis)

Boiler Tube Failures 22 Mechanisms

Inspection
Check the header and clear of debris and foreign material
Check the failed tube & adjacent tubes for choking with weld metal and or foreign
material
Check the drum level before failure and calibration of measuring and controlling
instruments
Check the firing rate as per OEM recommendations
Check the adequate Opening of vent valves and HPLP bypass system valves during
start up
Check if similar failures and at similar location had occurred earlier and if so take up
with OEM
Corrective Actions:
Replace all damaged portions of the tubes.
The headers, and tubes including adjacent circuit to be cleared off foreign / external
material
Also conduct lab analysis of the failed tube sample
Review the as existing protection logic of the unit and clarify with OEM.
The drum level measuring instruments to be Re-calibrated
Ensure firing rate as per OEM recommendation
Ensure adequate opening of Vent & HPLP bypass valves during start up
In case of repeated failure of the similar tube take up with OEM for design
verification

2. Long Term Overheating and Creep

Inspection:
Check for partial blockages like excessive weld penetration in the nearby welds and in
the header nipple area
Check deposits that restrict the transfer of heat
Measure the wall thickness and outside diameter to verify that the stress level has not
increased due to erosion/ corrosion
Check for boiler coolant circulation
Check the gas temp and the tube material properties.
If the failure is on the lower grade material near to the material transition weld then
verify if the installed material is as specified in the drg.
Inspect the adjacent tubes and assemblies for similar type of failure.
Conduct material survey for confirmation to spec using alloy analyzer.
Conduct RLA and in-situ oxide scale thickness survey using UT techniques
Analysis of the failed tube sample to ascertain the nature of failure and material
properties
Corrective Actions
Replace all the damaged portion of the tubes.
Clear off the debris if any found in the header nipple

High pressure fluid flushing or chemical cleaning to remove internal scales, deposits
and blockages and hence. Reduce the tube metal temp.
Tube shielding, padding or thermal spray coating to reduce the rate of any wall
thinning caused by corrosion or erosion.
Additional metal temperature thermocouples may be peened in the damaged circuits
to verify the actual metal temp and find the adequacy of the selected material
If the blockages in the gas path result in overheating at some locations then, try to
minimise the same by operation of soot blower etc.
Upgraded material to provide more creep resistance at the location of high temp.
Replace the wrong material if any found during inspection with alloy analyzer
Repair/ Replace based on RLA testing

3. Dissimilar Metal Weld Failures

Inspections

4.

Check actual operating temp and applied stresses experienced during the service
lifetime
This failure is Time-Temperature Stress dependent. Hence after about 10 years of
operation conduct NDT inspection like UT (with ferritic filler metal) & RT for
identifying the deterioration of joints.
Corrective Actions
Replace all the defective and damaged weld joints. It is preferable to get dissimilar
joint made at OEM / approved boiler manufacturers works and site welding is
restricted to only similar metal joint.
Relocate the weld joint to a position at a lower temp if possible
Minimize the stress developed at joint by
a) Use Nickel base filler metal to lower the stresses from differences in
thermal expansion coefficient
b) Frequent inspection and maintenance of tube hangers, supports and spacers
to prevent malfunctioning.
Caustic Gouging

Inspections:
Check the amount of feed water corrosion product deposition on the boiler tubes
Check condenser leakage from fresh water-cooling bodies
Irregular weld causing accumulation of chemical
deposit
Thickness survey may be conducted using UT (Ultrasonic Testing) to find out the
extent of metal wastage inside the tube.
Corrective Actions
Replace all the failed tubes.
Conduct lab analysis of the failed tube sample.

Control the boiler water chemistry and minimize ingress of feed water corrosion
products to minimize this type of failure.
Minimize condenser leakage.
If the corrosion deposit / scale is found in the failed sample then sent the failed sample
for lab analysis for finding out the deposit quantity and constituents for removal of
corrosion product deposits by suitable chemical cleaning.

5. Hydrogen Embrittlement

Inspections:
Check the amount of feed water corrosion product deposition on the boiler tubes
Check condenser leakage from fresh water-cooling bodies
Irregular weld causing accumulation of chemical deposit
Thickness survey may be conducted using UT (Ultrasonic Testing) to find out the
extent of metal wastage inside the tube.
Corrective Actions
All the damaged tubes are to be replaced.
Lab analyses of the failed sample are to be conducted to ascertain the exact nature of
failure and requirement of chemical cleaning if any.
Restoration of boiler water chemistry to the proper PH values
Conduct boiler post operational chemical cleaning to remove the internal deposits and
to stop further generation of hydrogen on tube surface.
NOTE - Chemical cleaning should be considered when the boiler water pH has been below 7
for more than one hour.
PRECAUTION - If significant wall thinning has occurred, the tube will have to be replaced
to prevent a ductile type fracture later in service

6. Pitting Corrosion

Inspection
Check the level of oxygen entering the economizer, during start-up and low load
operation period
Check de-aerating heater functioning, adequacy of oxygen injection scavenger
chemicals, excessive air in-leakage in low-pressure heaters.
Tube sampling to reveal the formation of any localized corrosion cells.
Corrective Actions:
Control the oxygen level in the economizer feed water and protects the tubing during
non-operating periods.
NOTE- When oxygen levels exceed 10ppb in the feed water, steps must be taken to
immediately locate and isolate the source of the oxygen and remove it by
mechanical and chemical de-aeration method.
Nitrogen-blankets or caps of the steam-cooled circuits can provide protection during
short-term outages of 4 days or less. For long-term protection, the tubes must be filled
with condensate that contains hydrazine and ammonia.
In case of long duration shut down of more than 4 days hot draining of the re-heater
will help to reduce the pooling of condensate in the bottom bend as well as in sagged
horizontal section
7. Stress Corrosion Cracking

Inspections
Check the source of corrosive material like chlorides, sulphates and hydroxides.

Fluorescent dye- penetrant inspection in case of external cracks and UT inspection

with special probes for detecting tight cracks typical of this failure
External tube deposit analysis to find out the cause of external failure.
Failed tube sample may be analysed to find the nature of failure and origin of the
failure if it is from internal or external surface of the tube
Corrective Actions
Surveillance for carryover from the drum and observation of the source of the
attemperator spray water can prevent the introduction of corrosive chemicals during
boiler operation.
Heat treatment of bends and control of installation welding can reduce the tensile
stresses.
In case of external surface failure, preventive action may be taken in case the presence
of corrodents is seen.
Based on NDT inspection defective tubes may be replaced.
8. Dew Point (Low Temperature) Corrosion

Inspection:
Determine the acid dew point temp of flue gas and metal to ascertain that they are
above the acid dew point.
Visual inspection and UT examination of tube thickness
Corrective Actions
Raise the gas and metal temp above the acid dew point temp by using Steam Coil Air
Pre-heater (SCAPH) and/or lower the acid dew point temp by reducing the excess air
plus adding fuel additives
Based on the visual inspection survey and or UT examination of tube thickness,
damaged tubes are to be replaced

9. Water Wall Fuel Side Corrosion

Inspection
Check the corrosiveness of the fuel by analysing the fuel at Lab
Completeness of the combustion process by checking the CO 2 level near the burner
and un-burnt carbon in ash.
Deposits of corrosion product found at or near the failed area may be analysed at Lab
Evenness of heat transfer
Visual examination and UT survey of tube thickness.
Corrective Actions:
Replace all the damaged tube based on the visual examination and / or UT survey
Take following corrective action on:
- Short term Measures
a) Bleed air into the sidewall area
b) Increase coal fineness.
c) Adjust burner alignment
d) Spray thermal corrosion-resistance coatings.
- Long term measures:
a) Furnace modification for better combustion.
b) Replacement with improved / corrosion resistant material for very high corrosion prone
area. (Adjacent to burner)

10. High Temperature Coal Ash Corrosion

Inspection
Check the temperature on the tube surface to check whether the metal temp is within
the range to produce molten form of deposit. Temporary T/c may be installed if
required
Check the coal constituents like Chloride less than 0.2% and sulphur less than 3.0%
does not produce significant corrosion rate.
Combustion deposits on the tube may be analysed at lab for chemical and melting
point of ash.
Conduct thickness measurement on the un-failed tubes to determine remaining life.
Corrosion rate more than 0.025 m is considered to be significant.
Corrective Actions
Based on thickness survey if tube metal thickness is less than minimum required as
per design or trend shows that minimum design thickness may be reached before next
planned s/d then replace them
Lower the metal temp by modification of the final steam outlet temp OR redesign the
tubing circuits
Use higher grade corrosion resistant alloy, co-extruded tube steel
Blend the coal to reduce the corrosive constituents in the ash.
Corrosion resistant thermal spraying.
Shielding of the tube to reduce the corrosion of the parent metal.

11. Oil Ash Corrosion

Inspection
Determine the corrosiveness of the oil ash viz vanadium, sodium and sulphur are
present. Also find out the ash melting point to decide if the molten ash is present
during operation (the corrosion products results in maximum damage if present in
molten form) If the ratio of sodium oxide to vanadium oxide is 1:5 max corrosion
occurs
Check tube metal temp. under the ash deposit by installing T/cs (facility to
continuously capture this data in the S/W)
Conduct thickness measurement on the un-failed tubes to determine remaining life.
Corrosion rate more than 0.025 m is considered to be significant
Corrective Actions
Based on thickness survey if tube metal thickness is less than minimum required as
per design or trend shows that minimum design thickness may be reached before next
planned s/d then replace them
Fuel additives to increase the ash melting point like Magnesium oxide which form
magnesium vanadate may be added.
Lower the metal temp by modification of the final steam outlet temp OR redesign the
tubing circuits
Control of excess air to about 0.8 % may be beneficial to some extent.
Corrosion resistant thermal spraying.
Shielding of the tube to reduce the corrosion of the parent metal.
12. Flue Gas Erosion

Inspection
Check the reason for non-uniform or excessive gas flow at the location of erosion
Check for misalignment of tubing
Check for misalignment of flow guides & tubes
Build-up of ash.
Use Cold air velocity test to correlate between areas of high velocity and location of
failures.
Conduct thickness survey at all erosion prone location and map the measurements on
tubes.
Conduct flow model study to correlate and work out suggestive arrangement for
minimising the erosion rate.
Corrective Actions
Reduce the amount and velocity of ash striking the tube
Increase the wear resistance of the tube material
Install in-line tube geometry in economizer action instead of staggered tube geometry.
Change the boiler operating condition such as- lower excess air level, balance
airflows, preventing ash accumulation.
Calculate the metal wastage trend from thickness survey and replacement schedule
may be worked out
Install sacrificial protective shields and the same may be periodically replaced
13. Falling Slag Erosion
Dented Appearance due to falling clinkers - Thinning and flat appearance

Inspection
Check the slagging potential of the fuel base to acid ratio = (Fe2O3+ CaO+ MgO+
Na2O+ K2O) / (SiO2 +Al2O3+TiO2) should be between 0.3 to 3, Fe2O3 < CaO + MgO
Ash fusion temperature T1 <1100 C
Conduct tube thickness survey
Corrective Actions
Change fuel to non slagging type of coal
If a change in fuel is not justified, increase tube wall thickness or install wear bars to
provide additional time before failure will occur.
14. Soot Blower Erosion
Flat spots due to metal removal
Thin-edged fracture surface
Gouges in the tube wall with deep indentations.
Soot Blower Erosion

INSPECTION
Investigate the operation of soot blower device or the soot blower draining system
Visually check for the misalignment of soot blower
Measure blowing pressure, test moisture traps/ moisture removal system, check travel
and sequence time to determine malfunctioning of soot blower
Conduct visual exam and if necessary tube thickness mapping around the soot blower
level.
Check the distance between the wall blower nozzle and water wall tube to be as
specified during shut down
Check the damaged soot blower nozzle during shutdown
CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
If blower are located very close to the corner relocation of the same may be studied
with OEM.

Surveillance and improved maintenance of soot blower and its system components.
Check & correct the misalignment during the shutdown
Distance of the nozzle from tube wall may be checked and corrected
Soot blower steam pressure may be checked during soot blower operation and
corrected if necessary.
Use shielding, spray coatings or pad welding to minimize the erosion of the tubes.

15. Coal Particle Erosion

Thinning of the tube wall
Thin-edged fracture.
The failure is on the tube adjacent to burners

INSPECTION
Check the condition of wear resistant liners and refractory coatings that have been
installed to protect the boiler tubing
Observation of the flow pattern, established in the burner from the introduction of
secondary and tertiary air, to check the location of significant erosion.
Check the thro hole erosion in nozzle tip and nozzle body
Visual examination and tube thickness survey if required during annual overhaul.
Check the ash content of the coal from coal analysis record.
CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
Surveillance and replacement of the wear-resistant liners and refractory coatings.
Adjustment of secondary and tertiary air inlet dampers to change flow patterns in the
burner to control erosion rates of the tubes, protective liners and coatings.
Replacement of the wear prone burner nozzle before formation of thro hole.
Operation of boiler with design coal and with less ash contend
Mill airflow is restricted to design value.
Installation of sacrificial shield ( half sleeve) on erosion prone tubes in the burner
panel

16. Vibration Fatigue

Vibration Fatigue
Reduce the Tube vibration produced by gas-flow-induced forces.

NOTE- Vibration produced may be directly by the energy in the flue gas or indirectly by
vortex or eddy current shedding
Corrective Actions
Modify the tubings vibration characteristics so that it will not respond to the
excitation forces.
Any corrective action taken has to be evaluated at the same boiler flow conditions that
caused the vibrations before a complete solution can be assured.
Installation of vibration snubbers.

17. Thermal Fatigue

INSPECTION
Observe the operation of water control system in the bottom ash hoppers
Check the operation of condensate draining soot blower system.
Install thermocouple for monitoring of economizer inlet temp. to find the magnitude
of feed water temp fluctuations
Monitoring of DESH outlet temperature
Corrective Actions
Replace all the damaged tubes.
Send the primary failed tube to lab for analysis.
Periodic inspection of the overflow drains the bottom ash hoppers
Observe the drains when the boiler is in service and during soot blower operation
Control of feed water temp. to be established to prevent cracking of economizer inlet
tubes and headers
Operation of DESH sprays water control system.
Try to increase the downstream link length of DESH

18. Corrosion Fatigue

INSPECTION
Evaluate the cyclic stresses and the environmental conditions at the failure location.
Stress analysis of tubing attachments and connections to headers to determine the
stress levels applied during changes in metal temp and steam pressure.
NDT inspection using LPI and MPI for external cracks and RT and UT for internal
cracks.
Corrective Actions:
Replace the failed tubes
Send a sample for lab analysis with ref to nature of failure and internal deposit
analysis.
Redesign of tube attachments to eliminate or reduce restraints to thermal expansion.
Restrict the amount of cyclic operation to assure boiler reliability if corrosion fatigue
failures are frequent.
Contouring of welds, heat treatment of bends, and flexible connections to eliminate
cracking problems
Timely performance of chemical cleaning to remove tube deposits before pitting
occurs.
Redesign of fixed tie with flexible type arrangements if possible.

19. Maintenance Cleaning Damage

INSPECTION
Inspect by visual examination and test the tubing after the cleaning activity.
UT survey on the tubes cleaned by grit / sand blasting.
Hydrostatic testing of tubes after cleaning of the tubes by dynamiting and hammering.
Corrective Actions:
In order to establish the cause lab analysis of the failed tube may be carried out
Documentation and evaluation of the damage prior to return of the tubing to service.
Quality control measures such as preparation of cleaning procedures and training of
cleaning personnel to minimize the possibility that damage will occur from the
cleaning process.
Avoid the process using excessive force on the tubes.
20. Chemical Excursion Damage

INSPECTION
Review chemical cleaning procedure, chemical pumping system, and chemical
control logs.
Review water quality monitoring records and chemical control operating instructions.
Tube samples may be taken and analysed at lab for finding nature of failure.
Ultrasonic thickness (UT) survey may be conducted if the failed sample reveals
severe thinning.
Corrective Action
All the damaged tube may have to be identified and Replaced

Quality control activities such as preparation of cleaning procedures, training of

cleaning personnel, monitoring of cleaning parameters, and verifying pumping
circuits and valve line-up.
Water quality audits of the water chemistry control program should be conducted to
ascertain the adequacy of the plants personnel, procedures, practices and facilities.

21. Material Defects

Inspection:
Pertinent quality control records during material specification for manufacturing the
tube.
Metallurgical analysis pertinent records to assign the root cause of a failure, stock
issuance documents, manufacturing and installation inspections.
If lab analysis indicates that the material is away from specification then conduct
material spec survey using alloy analyzer.
If the lab analysis indicates any tube manufacturing/ fabrication defect appropriate
testing may have to be done to minimize such failure
Corrective and Preventive Actions
Quality control measures necessary to assure
inspection and documentation of the manufacturing
shipping,
Storage
Installation activities.

22. Weld Defects

INSPECTION
Review of welding procedures, welders qualifications, the welding inspection
records, and the welding material control reports
Check whether copper is there on internal surface which indicate that
Liquid metal embrittlement of the steel occurred when pad or butt-welding was
performed.
Check for the stress rupture (short term over heating) failure if any in the same circuit
after recent weld repairs, which indicate that welding debris might have entered the
tube circuit and blocked coolant flow.
Analyze a small specimen to verify graphitization of welds
MPI (Magnetic Particle Inspection), RT and UT inspection may have to be carried
depending upon the type of defect.
Corrective Actions
Replace all the damaged tubes.
Based on NDT survey defective joints if any identified then repair / replace them
Quality control measures necessary to assure Qualification of welding procedures, welders, and welding operators
Certification of welding inspectors and non-destructive testing examiners
Calibration of welding equipment and testing devices
Documentation of welding and testing methods, materials and equipments.