Acting

For the legal meaning, see Acting (law). For the military characterin theatre, television, lm, radio, or any other
sense, see Acting (rank).
medium that makes use of the mimetic mode.
Acting is an activity in which a story is told by means
Acting involves a broad range of skills, including a welldeveloped imagination, emotional facility, physical expressivity, vocal projection, clarity of speech, and the
ability to interpret drama. Acting also often demands an
ability to employ dialects, accents, improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. Many
actors train at length in specialist programmes or colleges
to develop these skills. The vast majority of professional
actors have undergone extensive training. Actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for
a full range of training involving singing, scene-work, audition techniques, and acting for camera.
Most early sources in the West that examine the art of
acting (Greek: , hypokrisis) discuss it as part
of rhetoric.[1]

1 The rst actor

One of the rst actors is believed to have been an ancient
Greek called Thespis of Icaria. Writing two centuries after the event, Aristotle in his Poetics (c. 335 BCE) suggests that Thespis stepped out of the dithyrambic chorus
and addressed it as a separate character. Before Thespis, the chorus narrated (for example, Dionysus did this,
Dionysus said that). When Thespis stepped out from
the chorus, he spoke as if he was the character (for example, I am Dionysus. I did this). To distinguish between these dierent modes of storytellingenactment
and narrationAristotle uses the terms "mimesis" (via
enactment) and "diegesis" (via narration). From Thespis
name derives the word thespian.

French stage and early lm actress Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet

2 Professional and amateur acting

Further information: Actor and Amateur theatre
A professional actor is someone who is paid to act. Professional actors sometimes undertake unpaid work for a
variety of reasons, including educational purposes or for
charity events. Amateur actors are those who do not receive payment for performances.

Actors in samurai and ronin costume at the Kyoto Eigamura lm

set

Not all people working as actors in lm, television, or

theatre are professionally trained. Bob Hoskins, for example, had no formal training before becoming an actor.

of its enactment by an actor or actress who adopts a

1

4 IMPROVISATION

Training

Further information: Drama school

Conservatories and drama schools typically oer two-

Two masked characters from the commedia dell'arte, whose

"lazzi" involved a signicant degree of improvisation.

Members of the First Studio, with whom Stanislavski began to

develop his 'system' of actor training, which forms the basis for
most professional training in the West.

to four-year training on all aspects of acting. Universities mostly oer three- to four-year programs, in which
a student is often able to choose to focus on acting,
whilst continuing to learn about other aspects of theatre.
Schools vary in their approach, but in North America the
most popular method taught derives from the 'system' of
Konstantin Stanislavski, which was developed and popularised in America as method acting by Lee Strasberg,
Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, and others.

Improvisation as an approach to acting formed an important part of the Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin
Stanislavski's 'system' of actor training, which he developed from the 1910s onwards. Late in 1910, the playwright Maxim Gorky invited Stanislavski to join him in
Capri, where they discussed training and Stanislavskis
emerging grammar of acting.[2] Inspired by a popular
theatre performance in Naples that utilised the techniques
of the commedia dell'arte, Gorky suggested that they form
a company, modelled on the medieval strolling players,
in which a playwright and group of young actors would
devise new plays together by means of improvisation.[3]
Stanislavski would develop this use of improvisation in
his work with his First Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre.[4] Stanislavskis use was extended further in the approaches to acting developed by his students, Michael
Chekhov and Maria Knebel.

Other approaches may include a more physically based

orientation, such as that promoted by theatre practitioners as diverse as Anne Bogart, Jacques Lecoq, Jerzy
Grotowski, or Vsevolod Meyerhold. Classes may also
include psychotechnique, mask work, physical theatre, In the United Kingdom, the use of improvisation was
improvisation, and acting for camera.
pioneered by Joan Littlewood from the 1930s onwards
Regardless of a schools approach, students should ex- and, later, by Keith Johnstone and Clive Barker. In the
pect intensive training in textual interpretation, voice, United States, it was promoted by Viola Spolin, after
and movement. Applications to drama programmes and working with Neva Boyd at a Hull House in Chicago, Illiconservatories usually involve extensive auditions. Any- nois (Spolin was Boyds student from 1924 to 1927). Like
body over the age of 18 can usually apply. Training may the British practitioners, Spolin felt that playing games
also start at a very young age. Acting classes and pro- was a useful means of training actors and helped to imfessional schools targeted at under-18s are widespread. prove an actors performance. With improvisation, she
These classes introduce young actors to dierent aspects argued, people may nd expressive freedom, since they
do not know how an improvised situation will turn out.
of acting and theatre, including scene study.
Improvisation demands an open mind in order to maintain spontaneity, rather than pre-planning a response. A
character is created by the actor, often without reference
to a dramatic text, and a drama is developed out of the
4 Improvisation
spontenous interactions with other actors. This approach
Further information:
Improvisational theatre and to creating new drama has been developed most substantially by the British lmmaker Mike Leigh, in lms such
Devised theatre
Some classical forms of acting involve a substantial as Secrets & Lies (1996), Vera Drake (2004), Another
element of improvised performance. Most notable is its Year (2010), and Mr. Turner (2014).
use by the troupes of the commedia dell'arte, a form of Improvisation is also used to cover up if an actor or actress
masked comedy that originated in Italy.
makes a mistake.

Semiotics of acting

cess that he describes as establishing the "not/but" element in a performed physical "gestus" within context of
the plays overal "Fabel". Eugenio Barba argues that actors ought not to concern themselves with the signicance
of their performance behaviour; this aspect is the responsibility, he feels, of the director, who weaves the signifying elements of an actors performance into the directors
dramaturgical montage.
The theatre semiotician Patrice Pavis, alluding to the
contrast between Stanislavskis 'system' and Brechts
demonstrating performerand, beyond that, to Denis
Diderot's foundational essay on the art of acting, Paradox
of the Actor (c. 177078)argues that:

Antonin Artaud compared the eect of an actors performance

on an audience in his "Theatre of Cruelty" with the way in which
a snake charmer aects snakes.

The semiotics of acting involves a study of the ways in

which aspects of a performance come to operate for its
audience as signs. This process largely involves the production of meaning, whereby elements of an actors performance acquire signicance, both within the broader
context of the dramatic action and in the relations each
establishes with the real world.
Following the ideas proposed by the Surrealist theorist
Antonin Artaud, however, it may also be possible to understand communication with an audience that occurs
'beneath' signicance and meaning (which the semiotician Flix Guattari described as a process involving the
transmission of a-signifying signs). In his The Theatre
and its Double (1938), Artaud compared this interaction
to the way in which a snake charmer communicates with
a snake, a process which he identied as "mimesis"the
same term that Aristotle in his Poetics (c. 335 BCE) used
to describe the mode in which drama communicates its
story, by virtue of its embodiment by the actor enacting it, as distinct from "diegesis", or the way in which a
narrator may describe it. These vibrations passing from
the actor to the audience may not necessarily precipiate
into signicant elements as such (that is, consciously perceived meanings), but rather may operate by means of
the circulation of "aects".
The approach to acting adopted by other theatre practitioners involve varying degrees of concern with the semiotics of acting. Konstantin Stanislavski, for example, addresses the ways in which an actor, building on what he
calls the experiencing of a role, should also shape and
adjust a performance in order to support the overall signicance of the dramaa process that he calls establishing the perspective of the role. The semiotics of
acting plays a far more central role in Bertolt Brecht's
epic theatre, in which an actor is concerned to bring out
clearly the sociohistorical signicance of behaviour and
action by means of specic performance choicesa pro-

Acting was long seen in terms of the actors sincerity or hypocrisyshould he believe
in what he is saying and be moved by it, or
should he distance himself and convey his role
in a detached manner? The answer varies according to how one sees the eect to be produced in the audience and the social function
of theatre.[5]
Elements of a semiotics of acting include the actors gestures, facial expressions, intonation and other vocal qualities, rhythm, and the ways in which these aspects of an individual performance relate to the drama and the theatrical event (or lm, television programme, or radio broadcast, each of which involves dierent semiotic systems)
considered as a whole.[5] A semiotics of acting recognises that all forms of acting involve conventions and
codes by means of which performance behaviour acquires
signicanceincluding those approaches, such as Stanislvaskis or the closely related method acting developed in
the United States, that oer themselves as a natural kind
of acting that can do without conventions and be received
as self-evident and universal.[5] Pavis goes on to argue
that:
Any acting is based on a codied system (even if the audience does not see it as
such) of behaviour and actions that are considered to be believable and realistic or articial and theatrical. To advocate the natural, the
spontaneous, and the instinctive is only to attempt to produce natural eects, governed by
an ideological code that determines, at a particular historical time, and for a given audience, what is natural and believable and what
is declamatory and theatrical.[5]
The conventions that govern acting in general are related
to structured forms of play, which involve, in each specic experience, "rules of the game.[6] This aspect was
rst explored by Johan Huizinga (in Homo Ludens, 1938)
and Roger Caillois (in Man, Play and Games, 1958).[7]
Caillois, for example, distinguishes four apects of play

relevant to acting: mimesis (simulation), agon (conict or

competition), alea (chance), and illinx (vertigo, or vertiginous psychological situations involving the spectators identication or catharsis).[6] This connection with
play as an activity was rst proposed by Aristotle in his
Poetics, in which he denes the desire to imitate in play
as an essential part of being human and our rst means
of learning as children:
For it is an instinct of human beings, from
childhood, to engage in mimesis (indeed, this
distinguishes them from other animals: man
is the most mimetic of all, and it is through
mimesis that he develops his earliest understanding); and equally natural that everyone enjoys mimetic objects. (IV, 1448b)[8]
This connection with play also informed the words used
in English (as was the analogous case in many other European languages) for drama: the word "play" or game
(translating the Anglo-Saxon plga or Latin ludus) was the
standard term used until William Shakespeare's time for
a dramatic entertainmentjust as its creator was a playmaker rather than a dramatist, the person acting was
known as a player, and, when in the Elizabethan era
specic buildings for acting were built, they was known
as play-houses rather than "theatres.[9]

REFERENCES

Anne Bogart
Bertolt Brecht
Peter Brook
Joseph Chaikin
Michael Chekhov
Jacques Copeau
Jerzy Grotowski
Maria Knebel
Jacques Lecoq
Joan Littlewood
Sanford Meisner
Vsevolod Meyerhold
Ariane Mnouchkine
Michel Saint-Denis
Wodzimierz Staniewski
Konstantin Stanislavski
Lee Strasberg

Rehearsing

Rehearsal is a process in which actors prepare and practise a performance, exploring the vicissitudes of conict
between characters, testing specic actions in the scene,
and nding means to convey a particular sense. Some actors continue to rehearse a scene throughout the run of a
show in order to keep the scene fresh in their minds and
exciting for the audience.

8 References
[1] Csapo and Slater (1994, 257); hypokrisis, which literally means acting, was the word used in discussions of
rhetorical delivery.
[2] Benedetti (1999, 203) and Magarshack (1950, 320).
[3] Benedetti (1999, 203-204) and Magarshack (1950, 320321).

See also
Biomechanics
Meisner technique
Method acting
Presentational and representational acting
Stanislavskis system
Viewpoints
Stella Adler
Eugenio Barba
Augusto Boal

[4] Benedetti (1999, 204) and Magarshack (1950, 320-322,

332-333).
[5] Pavis (1998, 7).
[6] Pavis (1998, 8-9).
[7] Pavis (1998, 8).
[8] Halliwell (1995, 37).
[9] Wickham (1959, 3241; 1969, 133; 1981, 6869).
The sense of the creator of plays as a maker rather than
a writer is preserved in the word "playwright. The Theatre, one of the rst purpose-built playhouses in London,
was a self-conscious latinism to describe one particular
playhouse rather than a term for the buildings in general
(1967, 133). The word 'dramatist' was at that time still
unknown in the English language (1981, 68).

Sources
Boleslavsky, Richard. 1933 Acting: the First Six
Lessons. New York: Theatre Arts, 1987. ISBN 0878-30000-7.
Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and
Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in
1988. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1.
Brustein, Robert. 2005. Letters to a Young Actor
New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00806-2.
Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08275-2.
Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and
Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York:
Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9.
Hagen, Uta and Haskel Frankel. 1973. Respect
for Acting. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02547390-5.
Halliwell, Stephen, ed. and trans. 1995. Aristotle Poetics. Loeb Classical Library ser. Aristotle
vol. 23. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-99563-5.
Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. Twentieth Century Actor
Training. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN
0-415-19452-0.
Magarshack, David. 1950. Stanislavsky: A Life.
London and Boston: Faber, 1986. ISBN 0-57113791-1.
Meisner, Sanford, and Dennis Longwell. 1987.
Sanford Meisner on Acting. New York: Vintage.
ISBN 978-0-394-75059-0.
Pavis, Patrice. 1998. Dictionary of the Theatre:
Terms, Concepts, and Analysis. Trans. Christine
Shantz. Toronto and Bualo: University of Toronto
Press. ISBN 0802081630.
Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1938. An Actors Work:
A Students Diary. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti.
London and New York: Routledge, 2008. ISBN 0415-42223-X.
Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1957. An Actors Work on
a Role. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and
New York: Routledge, 2010. ISBN 0-415-461294.
Wickham, Glynne. 1959. Early English Stages:
13001660. Vol. 1. London: Routledge.
Wickham, Glynne. 1969. Shakespeares Dramatic
Heritage: Collected Studies in Mediaeval, Tudor and
Shakespearean Drama. London: Routledge. ISBN
0-710-06069-6.

Wickham, Glynne. 1981. Early English Stages:

13001660. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. ISBN
0-710-00218-1.
Zarrilli, Phillip B., ed.
2002.
Acting
(Re)Considered: A Theoretical and Practical
Guide. Worlds of Performance Ser. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN
0-415-26300-X.

10 External links

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