Documente Academic
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Contents
Introduction
Preface
8
10
13
13
14
14
15
16
19
19
19
39
39
41
41
43
21
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22
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24
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84
Contents
87
87
89
90
92
94
96
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102
105
106
107
108
108
109
109
109
110
112
113
115
115
115
116
117
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120
121
122
123
124
124
127
131
132
134
136
138
140
142
144
146
148
Appendix
Calculating gas heat pumps
151
Definitions
156
Conversion tables
160
163
Bibliography
164
Index
166
170
Introduction
GasTerra is of the opinion that natural gas will play an important role in the global energy supply far
into the 21st century. This view is based on facts and prognoses. It is a fact that these fossil fuels still
supply 90% or more of primary energy needs. It is also a fact that, relatively speaking, natural gas
has the best properties and the least environmental impact of all fossil fuels.
Gas reserves will last far into this century. In this era of transition to more sustainable forms of
energy, renewable sources are gaining significance. Prognoses based on current facts indicate
that renewable sources will contribute significantly to the total energy supply by the middle of
this century. Nevertheless, it remains clear that together with oil and coal, natural gas will be an
important energy source in the first half of this century - even in the event of an acceleration in the
conservation process.
This creates a twofold responsibility: we must not allow the share of natural gas to drop below its
current high level; at the same time we must find ways to shorten the transition period to a truly
sustainable energy economy.
GasTerra applies its expertise to consider transition-related opportunities in the field of natural gas:
what can be done more economically, cleanly and effectively? GasTerra also feels obligated to share
its knowledge in this field and to encourage social debate. After all, energy developments affect
everyone. There appears to be a great need for information. GasTerra has therefore decided to
publish a series of books that fill this need.
Introduction
This book explains how gas heat pumps can improve the efficiency of energy use in commercial
buildings and apartment blocks. The content has been compiled and written by Business Development
Holland b.v., in close collaboration with TNO Bouw en Ondergrond, KIWA GasTechnology and ECN.
GasTerra, in its capactiy as commissioning party, has had no contextual involvement other than this
introduction but does agree with the content of this book. The authors deserve our appreciation for this
comprehensive overview, which contributes to both the knowledge and use of efficient energy.
Previous publications in the World of Gas series pertain to natural gas and energy transition,
combined heat and power, and the history of natural gas. Planned publications will deal with space
heating and green gas. All earlier publications in this series are available upon request.
Anton Buijs
Communication Manager GasTerra B.V.
Preface
It is perhaps stating the obvious, but there is no cleaner energy than unused energy. Those who aim
to build a sustainable energy economy at times lose sight of this simple fact. Renewable sources such
as wind, sun and biomass are simply not sufficient yet. Energy efficiency is therefore an absolute
must, because by reducing the amount of fossil fuels we burn we immediately reduce CO2 emissions.
High efficiency natural gas applications can help in this respect. Natural gas is the cleanest of all
fossil fuels and is adaptable in its use. Furthermore, it is very suitable for innovative energy-efficient
solutions in the transition phase towards a fully sustainable energy economy.
GasTerra has its own energy transition programme with promising projects in the field of
smart i.e. efficient natural gas applications. An illustrative result of our active transition policy is
the successor to the condensing heating boiler, namely the micro CHP. Actually, it is a micro-sized
cogeneration plant. Cogeneration plants produce heat and power; subsequently their efficiency is
substantially higher than that of conventional power plants. On balance, large-scale use of micro
CHPs would therefore significantly reduce CO2 emissions.
10
Preface
Our company also applies itself to gas heat pumps. The advantage of these heat pumps as compared
to electric versions is that they are relatively simple to integrate into the current energy infrastructure.
The electricity grid does not need to be reinforced, for example. In time, gas heat pumps will also run
on a mixture of natural gas and green gas, thus further increasing the share of sustainable energy.
We expect that gas heat pumps will become an important transition technology in existing public
and utility buildings and collective systems.
We trust this book will contribute to this innovation.
Gertjan Lankhorst
CEO GasTerra B.V.
11
Chapter 1
13
187
200
153
150
77,696
100
13,465
100
2,092
18,726
50
73,120
Gas
Figure 1
14
Oil
Coal
80
38
Expectations are that fossil fuels will figure largely in the supply of
energy for the next 40 years. For now, Europe cannot do without
crude oil, coal and natural gas. Of the three fossil fuels natural
gas is the most attractive. Most transition scenarios therefore
base the move towards sustainability on the use of natural gas.
10
14
16
17
45
77
17
63
87
62
The world still has large quantities of natural gas in proven reserves, the largest (approximately half of the worlds gas supply)
being in Russia. Iran, Qatar and West Siberia are other countries
and regions with large proven gas reserves.
Other
member
states
91
11
33
12
Consumption
Production
15
Area
Proven reserves
Norway
2,890
4,000
6,890
The Netherlands
1,350
600
1,950
Germany
160
400
560
Great Britain
480
1,500
1,980
128
Ireland
28
100
Denmark
80
80
Austria
24
25
49
France
Italy
Hungary
160
200
360
73
100
173
Poland
100
200
300
Romania
630
400
1,030
16
17
Chapter 2
19
21%
34%
21%
24%
Households
Utility buildings
Industry
Electricity production
7%
Offices
Shops
Hotel and catering industry
Hospitals
8%
Education
Care
Other
Figure 2 Distribution of heat demand in the public and commercial sectors (180 PJ in 2020) by subsector. Source: Ecofys
Accommodation
Meeting
Swimming pool/sauna
Sport facilities
Industrial space
14%
Hotels
26%
14%
14%
12%
20%
Catering industry
Offices
Shops
Shops
Care
20
1991-2006
Hospitals
Laag met
1951-1990
Education
Before 1950
Offices
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
Number of buildings
Comments
Offices
60,000
Education
13,700
Hospitals
128
1,300
Shops
144,000
Industrial spaces
101,000
490
Hotels/conference centres
2,400
Restaurants
9,585
2,160
decrease. In the long term green gas can gradually take over the
role of natural gas in the building sector.
36% managed by
local councils
46% managed by
local councils
21
22
Things are starting to change, however. For a few years now the
air conditioning industry has generally produced heat pumps for
comfort cooling. These installations have dual functions: cooling
and heating. They can also be installed in addition to central
heating boilers and their related distribution systems.
Meanwhile, the commercial sector in the Netherlands is gaining
experience in large and small gas-fired absorption heat pumps.
Today (2010), gas engine heat pumps are still largely unknown in
the Netherlands, contrary to Japan and Italy, for instance, where
these systems are already used on a large-scale basis.
23
Pa
Total gas consumption
Heat losses (25%)
Compressor
Absorber
Heat source
Solvent cycle
Generator
Heating
system in
Pv
Heat
supply
(25%)
Vapour
Pc
(75%)
Liquid
Condenser
Evaporator
Expansion valve
Low pressure,
low temperature
High pressure,
high temperature
Heating
system return
Source: TNO
Pa
Mechanical energy
Heating
system in
Compressor
Heat source
Pv
Evaporator
Condenser
Heat
supply
Pc
Vapour
Liquid
Expansion valve
Low pressure,
low temperature
High pressure,
high temperature
Heating
system return
24
Source: TNO
heat and cool; they combine high comfort levels with relatively low
energy consumption.
In theory, air/air heat pumps do not achieve the thermal efficiency
that water/water or ground/water heat pumps can. In practice,
however, there is often little difference in efficiency and the air/air
alternative generally is significantly less expensive than the other
alternatives. Furthermore, some existing commercial buildings do
not have enough space to construct a ground source. Gas-driven
air/air heat pumps are frequently based on standard Japanesemade VRF systems, for which an enormous variety of inner parts
are available, therefore providing extensive design freedom. In
addition, the air/air heat pumps can be produced as a three-pipe
system, which enables them to cool and heat within one building
at the same time. This can be an efficient solution in distinctly
north-south facing buildings.
Air/water
Air/water heat pumps are a variant of air/air heat pumps.
This system is created by linking a gas engine-driven VRF to a
hydro module or by fitting a heat pump with a water-cooled
condenser.
Heating
Central-heating boilers
Condensing
Air
Conventional
Air
Air
Water
Water
Ground
Water
Water
Air
Air
Water
Air
Ground
Water
Source: BDH
Water/water
Gas engine heat pumps in water/water models are a recent
development. Expectations are that this configuration can achieve
high efficiencies. In the best possible situation, when all energy
flows can be used at both high and low temperatures, an
efficiency of more than 200% is feasible.
Figure 13 Air/air gas engine heat pump with hydro module and a
number of DX indoor units.
25
Figure 16 Hydro module for use with a gas engine heat pump.
Source: Gasengineering
26
Water/water
Water/water gas absorption heat pumps can be applied in
a wide range of configurations. In principle, heat and cold
storage applies when a ground source and a water-bearing
distribution system are used. The ground source can be 40%
smaller on average (and therefore less expensive) than for an
electric heat pump.
Water/water gas absorption pumps are also suitable for
situations in which heating and cooling are required over longer
periods of time. The heat required for heating is then pumped
off where cooling occurs. The ratio between heating and
cooling capacity is approximately 2:1. Lengthy simultaneous
cooling and heating occurs in swimming pools, for example.
Other efficient combinations are also feasible. For instance,
excess heat released in industrial processes can be used in
winter for space heating.
2.2.4 Reliability
In Japan approximately 650,000 gas engine heat pumps have
been installed in the commercial sector. About 45,000 gas
absorption heat pumps have been installed in Europe. These
figures show that the reliability of the technique has been
proven. Furthermore, the Netherlands has a very stable and
reliable gas network, providing very constant initial pressure and
consistent gas quality. In general, optimum and reliable functioning of any energy system in the public and commercial sectors
depends highly on the right choice of the distribution system (or
correct matching with the existing distribution systems). This is
no different for gas heat pumps.
27
Defrost valve
28
Strong
solution
Refrigerant
(vapour)
Refrigerant
(liquid)
Absorber
Condenser
Cold
water
Weak
solution
Tube-in-pipe
Inverter valve
Absorber/pre-absorber
Evaporator
* not available
Figure 22 The Netherlands has the most intricate gas network of all
European countries. Source: EnergieNed
An electric heat pump with a COP of 3.5, given the 42% central
generation efficiency therefore equals a PER of 3.5 x 0.42 = 1.47.
A properly installed gas heat pump has a similar and sometimes
even considerably higher PER.
CO2-reduction
The gas heat pump produces a CO2 reduction
of (213 169) 213 = 21%
29
In the degree day method (figure 25) the degree days are divided
by daily average outdoor temperatures. Clearly, the daily average temperature during the greater part of the year is 2 C or
more. Heat pumps are very functional at higher daily average
temperatures.
Heat demand
Heat pump
reserve capacity
Equilibrium
fpref
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.15
0.10
0.29
0.15
0.44
0.20
0.59
0.30
0.88
0.40
0.91
0.50
0.92
0.60
0.94
0.70
0.95
0.80
0.97
0.90
0.98
-10
250
25
200
20
150
15
100
10
50
Number of days
Central-heating boiler
Coldest day of the year
Potential
Heat pump
0
-5
10
15
20
Hours
Figure 24 Load/duration curve of a building with a dual system installation (heat pump and central-heating boiler). Source: TNO
30
Degree days
Number
of days
31
Figure 26 Gas absorption heat pumps in a dual system configuration with existing central-heating boilers in care home Pelsterhof in Groningen.
32
Source: BDH
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
Offices
15%
HE boiler
10%
Shops
Improved Efficiency
boiler
Hospitals
Conventional
boiler
Care
Newly installed HE
Electrical
heat pump
CHP
5%
0%
Offices
Shops
Roof insulation
Hospitals
Wall insulation
Surface insulation
Care
Glass insulation
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
HE boiler
15%
Offices
10%
Improved
Efficiency boiler
Shops
Conventional
boiler
Hospitals
Newly installed
HE
Electrical heat
pump
CHP
Care
5%
0%
Roof insulation
Offices
Shops
Wall insulation
Hospitals
Surface insulation
Glass insulation
Care
19%
Hospitals
Shops
Offices
60%
53%
65%
33
Possible Uses
Temperature in C
30 - 45
30 - 50
45 - 55
70
30 - 45
Care homes
1,300 1,900
Hospitals
1,500 2,000
Offices
900 1,600
Schools
800 1,300
Shops
No data available
Other
1,000 2,000
Table 3 Full load hours per year for the various building functions.
Source: TNO
250
200
150
100
50
Cold
Heat
0
Total demand 2020
34
Technical potential
Max. achievable
potential 2008 - 2020
2.5.1 CE mark
All gas heat pumps commercially available on the Dutch market
have a European CE label. This CE label is not a quality label but
indicates that a product meets current European rules and
regulations with respect to safety, health and the environment.
CE labels are designated by the manufacturers. The relevant
procedures are based on EU Decision 93/465/EEC.
The CE label is one of a series of measures enabling free movement
of people, goods and services within the European Union.
Furthermore, the CE label indicates a products safety.
Manufacturers and importers use CE labels to indicate that
they have drawn up a declaration of conformity for the relevant
product and that the product meets all applicable European
directives. By doing so, manufacturers and importers assume
liability for the products.
In order to attach a CE label, manufacturers and importers carry
out the necessary measurements and studies themselves, or they
contract these activities out to an institute in the relevant branch
of industry. In a number of cases EC Type Approval applies,
requiring that manufacturers use a government-approved agency,
the so-called notified body. The Dutch notified body for gasbearing equipment is KIWA Gastec Certification in Apeldoorn. The
CE label of a product with EC Type Approval can be recognised
by the four digits after the CE symbol. This code refers to the
agency that assessed the product.
Initially, the gas label was related mainly to safety. Only later did
the quality label turn more into a performance (and efficiency)
indicator. Nowadays the safety aspect is no longer an issue
because all gas appliances are required to meet the CE label
criteria.
To qualify for a gas heat pump label, producers must provide all
required information on the device, after which it is tested under
regulated conditions. In practice, air/air models (direct expansion)
of gas engine heat pumps are difficult to evaluate. Therefore,
the procedures for gas heat pump approval are based on an air/
water design.
The gas heat pump approval procedure has been set up and
is executed by the technical committee of the Smart Cooling
Foundation (the branch association for manufacturers and
importers of gas heat pumps) in close cooperation with TNO
Bouw en Ondergrond in Apeldoorn, the Netherlands. Within the
framework of the gas heat pump label, installations in the field
are monitored as well, in order to obtain a solid impression of
their performance in daily practice.
35
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Equivalence
Statement
Heat pump
generation
Q support
36
Source
Transfer
The mandatory energy label does not apply to new buildings. The
owner must present the calculation of the energy performance
coefficient (EPC) as a part of the building application. For owners
or administrators of buildings built after 1 January 1998, a
stamped copy of the EPC calculation suffices up to 10 years after
the date of the building application. This calculation may therefore not be more than 10 years old.
Calculation methodology
A buildings energy requirement (for such things as heating,
cooling, ventilation, lighting and supply of hot water) is defined
in the EPC on the basis of standard use. Heat pumps are considered to be black boxes. This method provides a calculation result
for the average annual use depending on the type of source
and the distribution temperature, among other things. Primary
energy use and CO2 emissions are calculated on the basis of
this method.
Fixed values
The EPN method attaches fixed values to the energetic performance
of the various installation components. These values are representative for installation components that perform poorly from an
energetic point of view. In a number of cases fixed values have
been linked to existing labels (such as the Gaskeur label for centralheating boilers). These labels are issued for appliances whose
energy performance exceeds the fixed value, as demonstrated by a
regulated measurement. This is called a quality statement.
35-45 C 45-55 C
Source
Ground
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.2
Ground water
1.35
1.25
1.15
1.35
1.25
1.15
Ambient air
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.2
1.1
37
Chapter 3
The technology
of heat pumps
This chapter reviews each individual type of gas heat pump. Some are already on the market
and quickly gaining recognition; others are less well-known and show great promise for
the near future. In addition to the diversity in types, this chapter discusses the differences in
efficiency, temperature levels and range of application, demonstrating the versatility of gas
heat pumps.
Coefficient of Performance
The Coefficient of Performance (COP) for heating is a commonly
used quantity to express the efficiency of heat pumps. For enginedriven heat pumps the COP is generally defined as the ratio of
the transferred heat and the supplied work (in figure 1: Q1/w).
For heat-driven heat pumps the COP is the ratio of the transferred
heat and the supplied heat (in Figure 1: Q1/Q2).
39
Carnot efficiency
The efficiency of heat pumps can also be expressed as a fraction
of the so-called Carnot efficiency. The Carnot cycle represents the
most efficient way in theory to convert heat into work and vice
versa. The efficiency of heat pumps can now be expressed as the
ratio of their use of energy based on the Carnot cycle and their
actual energy consumption. This ratio can be calculated for both
engine-driven heat pumps and heat-driven heat pumps. Carnot
efficiencies are also mutually comparable.
Gas engine +
compression heat pump
T2
T2
Q2
Gas
engine
Q1a
T1
Q2
Work, w
Q1
T1
Q1b
Q0
w=
T0
T2 - T1
Q
T2 * 2
Q 1a= Q 2 - w = Q 2 1Q 1b=
T2 - T 1
T2
COPcarnot =
Q0
Q 1 T2 - T 0 T1
=
Q 2 T2 * T1- T0
T1
w
T1 - T0 *
40
Examples of use
Heat
pump
T0
Gas
Source heat
Mechanical
Gas engine
coupling
Compression
heat pomp
Gas engines
The gas engines are the same as the engines used for
co-generation (CHP). The engines are based on the four-stroke
principle, whereby the process in each cylinder completes
four steps: the intake stroke, the compression stroke, the
work stroke and the exhaust stroke. The book entitled
Heat and Power in the series The World of Natural Gas
published by GasTerra provides a detailed description of how
gas engines work.
High
pressure
Q1
Condenser
Expansion
device
Compressor
Low
pressure
Q0
2
3
Evaporator
41
Field of application
Normally gas engines deliver heat at temperatures of up to
approximately 90 C. A small portion of this heat (5% to 10%)
can be increased to higher temperatures (110 C to 120 C) by
utilising the high temperature of flue gases.
The use of heat pumps is determined mainly by the temperature
of the available heat source in combination with the maximum
rise in temperature of 40K to 50K (Kelvin). When, for example,
ground water with a temperature of 10 C is used as the heat
source, the temperature of the produced heat will be at most
60 C. If the heat source is an industrial waste heat flow of
60 C, low pressure steam of 110 C can be produced. For these
high temperature applications special attention must be paid to
selecting the correct refrigerant.
The use of gas engine-driven compression heat pumps is therefore restricted to space heating and some industrial lowtemperature processes.
Efficiencies
The efficiency of a gas engine is divided into mechanical
efficiency and thermal efficiency. The mechanical efficiency is the
ratio between the shaft capacity and the energy flow of supplied
fuel and amounts to 30% to 45%. The thermal efficiency is the
ratio between the thermal capacity and the energy flow of the
supplied fuel and amounts to 45% to 70%.
The COP of the heat pump is determined mainly by the temperature of the heat source and the temperature at which the heat is
to be provided. The maximum COP can be determined by means
of the Carnot efficiency:
Tcondensation [K]
Scale
The capacity of gas engines is the same as that used for CHP.
The scale ranges from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts
mechanical capacity. Heat pumps on the scale of megawatts
Detail
COPcarnot=
There is a 5K to 7K difference between the evaporating temperature and the temperature of the heat supply. The difference
between the (lowest) source temperature and the evaporation
temperature is 4K to 6K. The COP is a maximum and therefore
theoretical value. In practice this value is not achieved due to the
efficiency of the expansion valve and the isentropic efficiency of
the compressor (the loss of energy in the compression-expansion
cycle). To calculate the COP of a heat pump one can take an efficiency of 50% to 60% of the Carnot efficiency as a preliminary
indication.
System efficiency
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
Electrical power in kW
42
273 + 97
= 1.15 kW
97-35
Ambient air
Outdoor
unit
Indoor unit
Room air
Indoor unit
Indoor unit
Room air
Room air
Development stage
The gas engine technology for stationary use is fully matured.
The engines offer high efficiency, relatively low emissions, a
long life span and high availability. The technology of compression heat pumps has also reached a mature stage. For higher
capacities (as from approximately 100 kW), heat pumps will be
designed specifically for the situation. Heat pumps for higher
temperatures (over 60 C) are rare, requiring very specialist
engineering.
The operation of the system can be reversed by means of a fourway valve in the piping system of the refrigerant. The indoor units
43
Regenerator
Displacer
Piston
Tk
Cold heat
exchanger
Qk
Th
Qh
Hot heat
exchanger
44
1 Compression
Qk
This cycle can also be completed in reverse order. The net effect is
that work must be supplied and heat is transferred from a lower
to a higher temperature: this is a heat pump. Coupling the engine
cycle to a heat pump cycle creates an integrated system forming
a heat-driven heat pump, linked by work power. These thermodynamic cycles can be executed in various ways. Three different
models are described below.
Regenerator
Regenerator
Q
Regenerator
Regenerator
Qk
Q
3.3.2 Stirling-Stirling
The first alternative is a Stirling heat pump driven by a Stirling
engine. This kind of system is called a duplex system. Figure 10
(see page 46) contains an example in the form of a heat-driven
chiller. Heat is supplied on the engine side in the high temperature heat exchanger or in a natural gas burner (or other type of
burner) that directly heats this part of the system. The heat is
transported via an ambient temperature heat exchanger. The work
produced by the engine is passed on to the heat pump by means
of a shared piston. In this system, heat is pumped up in the heat
pump from a low temperature level to an ambient temperature.
The system outlined here is just one example of many Stirling
system models. Stirling machines generally have between 500
and 4000 revolutions per minute (8 Hz to 67 Hz). The higher
the number of revolutions, the higher the power density of the
system is.
2 Heating
4 Cooling
3 Expansion
Heating
Pressure
Expansion
Cooling
Compression
Volume
45
Use
As already stated, high-pressure helium is generally applied in a
Stirling cycle. Other possible work media are hydrogen, air and
nitrogen. This means that, contrary to conventional compression or absorption heat pumps, there are hardly any restrictions
for this duplex system due to the work medium. Heat pumps
based on the Stirling cycle can therefore be used for a wide
range of applications, for both heating and cooling (to cryogenic
temperatures). Just like for the operating temperature there
are no theoretical limitations to the temperature lift of the
heat pumps. However, the performance of the heat pumps
deteriorates the higher the temperature is lifted. In most
instances the temperature of the low temperature side of the
engine is equal to the high temperature of the heat pump, but
that is not a requisite. As regards heat-driven heat pumps, one
should consider that the useful heat becomes available at the
desired temperature level in two places, namely in the engine
and in the heat pump.
Scale
The capacity of Stirling systems (mainly engines) realised to date
is relatively small. Stirling engines with an efficiency of 100 kW
do exist however and larger systems are not inconceivable. The
largest obstacle in scaling up Stirling systems is the relatively low
heat transfer in the heat exchangers. This leads to the choice of
large heat exchangers, which makes the systems rather space-
Efficiencies
The efficiency of Stirling gas heat pumps depends on the temperature levels of the application. Hardly any data is available on
the performance of integrated duplex systems. Efficiencies have
been calculated for the afore-mentioned applications, based on
the following assumptions (taken from literature on the individual components):
Stirling engines convert heat into work with an efficiency of
50% of the maximum Carnot efficiency.
Stirling engines are heated by a gas burner which keeps the
hot side of the engine at a temperature of 650 C.
The burner efficiency after recuperation is 85%. The remaining
15% can still be used for heating purposes.
Stirling chillers have an efficiency of 30% of the maximum
Carnot efficiency.
Based on these assumptions the efficiency of the engine and
the heat pump can be calculated for each temperature level.
The efficiency of the entire system is calculated by dividing
the generated heat/cold by the supply of heat at the engine.
The following table contains the performances of the defined
standard applications.
Application
High temperature
heat exchanger
Regenerator
1.6
Low temperature
heat exchanger
1.2
Regenerator
Cooling 6/12 C
1.0
Ambient temperature
heat exchanger
Displacer
Displacer
46
Source: ECN
Development stage
Shared pistonzuiger
COPth /PER
The Stirling cycle has been around since 1816. Despite extensive
research it has not yet enjoyed large-scale commercial success.
However, Stirling engines and Stirling heat pumps are actually
used in niche markets, such as in space travel and cryogenic
chillers. The application of Stirling engines in micro-CHP systems
for dwellings (photo to the right) has improved substantially
over the past few years and is now ready to market. In the
past, effort was put into developing duplex systems for use
in the built environment (Sunpower, Global Cooling), however
as far as we know there are no new activities to report in
this field.
47
Use
High-pressure helium is often used as a work medium in thermoacoustic systems. Consequently, there are hardly any restrictions
for their use. Heat pumps based on this principle can therefore
be used for a wide range of applications, both for heating and
Feedback inertance
Radiator
TA-heat pump
Burner
TA-engine
48
Scale
The maximum scale of thermo-acoustic systems is determined
mainly by the available space for the heat exchangers. That
space is partly determined by the frequency at which the system
operates; the frequency dictates the length of the system. The
diameter is limited since the system, from an acoustic point of
view, must be one-dimensional. According to model calculations it should be possible to build a system with a capacity of
some hundreds of kilowatts but this would in principle become a
relatively long system. However, the resonator can be folded to
make the system more compact, although that would be at the
expense of the performance as each change in the direction of
sound waves involves losses.
Gas Volume
Efficiencies
The efficiencies of thermo-acoustic systems are dependent,
among other things, on the temperature conditions of the
application. No data is available on commercial uses. Therefore,
the figures must be based on measurement data provided by
laboratories and on expectations as to feasible efficiencies.
The following assumptions have been used:
The engine has an efficiency of 40% of the maximum Carnot
efficiency. Its feasibility has already been demonstrated in
laboratories.
The engine is heated by a gas burner which keeps the heat
side of the engine at a temperature of 650 C.
The efficiency of the burner after recycling amounts to 85%.
The remaining 15% can be used for heating.
The heat pump also has an efficiency of 40% of the maximum Carnot efficiency. This is the same cycle as the engine,
but then in the opposite direction. As there is less difference
in temperature at the heat pump than in the engine, the
heat exchangers play a vital role in minimising temperature
losses.
10% of the efficiency of the engine is lost due to friction and
turbulence of the gas moving in the resonator.
600 C
(Burner)
20 C
20 C
(Ambient temperature)
(Ambient temperature)
Sound wave
Linear engine
Sound wave
Heat pump
Engine
Heat pump
20 C
(Ambient temperature)
-160 C
(Liquid natural gas)
20 C
(Ambient temperature)
Piezoelectric
element
-40 C
(Freezer)
400 C
(Concentrated sunlight)
Sound wave
Sound wave
Electricity
Linear generator
Heat pump
10 C
(Cooling)
Engine
20 C
(Ambient temperature)
49
Application
Sound wave
Electricity
Linear generator
COPth/PER
1.5
1.1
Cooling 6/12 C
0.9
Engine
Development stage
150 C
(Process heat)
140 C
(Waste heat)
190 C
(Process heat)
Sound wave
3.3.4 Vuilleumier
Heat pump
Engine
20 C
(Cooling)
140 C
(Waste heat)
50
Use
High-pressure helium (80 bar to 130 bar) is often used as a
work medium in Vuilleumier systems. Consequently, there are
hardly any restrictions for their use. Heat pumps based on the
Vuilleumier cycle can therefore be used for a wide range of
applications, both for heating and for cooling purposes.
Scale
The largest Vuilleumier system built to date has a thermal
capacity of 20 kW. Expectations are that, just as with Stirling
systems, problems will occur at much larger capacities as a
result of low power density and the large moving masses of the
displacers.
Efficiencies
Little data is available on Vuilleumier systems. The University of
Dortmund publishes a COP of 1.7 for heat delivered at 40 C
and a COP of 1.5 for heat delivered at 75 C. One manufacturer
reports COP values of 0.56 and 1.33 for 5.2 kW cooling and
12.2 kW heating respectively. Related to the Carnot efficiency,
efficiencies of 10% to 20% are stated, however it is not clear
whether they are model calculations or performances that have
actually been measured. Although the conditions do not entirely
correspond to the defined standard conditions, based on the
Source: Praxair/LANL
51
Development stage
The Vuilleumier cycle was invented by Rudolph Vuilleumier in
1918. His research was centred particularly on miniature chillers for
cryogenic applications. The principle was considered for development for the built environment in the 1980s. This resulted in a
16 kW (design value) heat pump at the University of Dortmund.
(This project is backed by the Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt DBU
(German Environmental Foundation)). Sanyo developed a system for
the production of hot water (12.2 kW) and cold water (5.2 kW). To
our knowledge, these developments have not been continued.
Displacer
High temperature
heat exchanger
Regenerator
Displacer
Ambient temperature
heat exchanger
Low temperature
Regenerator heat exchanger
Figure 24
52
53
COP =
Q absorption + Q condensation
Q regeneration
Pressure [Pa]
COPc =
Logarithmic
scale
P1
Increasing saturation
Sorbate displacement
Regeneration
Condensation
Heat
supply
Evaporation
P0
Heat
supply Sorbate displacement
Sorption
Heat
discharge
Low temperature
Medium temperature
High temperature
Temperature [C]
54
Pressure
Condenser K
P1
Q2
Q1.1
Generator
Expansion
valve
Heat
exchanger
Pump
Evaporator V
P0
Absorber A
Q1.0
Q0
T0
T2 Temperature
T1
Temperature lift
Use
The vapour pressure of pure ammonia is approximately 8 bar at
room temperature and 1 bar at -30 C. Ammonia-water systems
are therefore suitable for cooling purposes down to very low
temperatures. They have been used in industrial refrigerating plants
for more than a century now. Single-stage systems enable freezing
down to -50 C. Systems for double-stage ammonia cooling
are under development. These systems can reach even lower
temperatures, but have not yet been used on a commercial basis.
The ammonia-water systems initially designed to provide cooling
in the built environment, are now being developed to supply
both cold and heat. Ammonia-water systems can still operate
at low source temperatures (to -20 C). The systems can be used
for both heating and cooling purposes. The heat pumps transfer
heat at temperatures of between 30 C and 60 C. The latter
temperature also brings the production of hot water within reach.
Heat discharge
Thermal compressor
Generator
Throttle valve
Throttle valve
Pump
Evaporator
Scale
Ammonia-water systems for industrial cooling provide cooling capacities of 100 kW to a few MWs. Manufacturers supply
systems with a heating capacity of 35 kW for the built environment. Diffusion-absorption heat pumps (DAHP) have been
developed for use in single-family homes and have a heating
capacity of 4 kW. This technology, derived from camping and
hotel fridges, uses helium as a secondary gas, eliminating the
need for a pump. This heat pumps requires a gas burner in order
to supply peak power and domestic hot water.
Refrigerant
vaporization
Heat supply
Absorber
Heat discharge
55
Efficiencies
Development stage
Gas absorption heat pumps are commercially available on the
market and are used in the Netherlands in both commercial
buildings and collective housing. DAHPs have undergone several
field tests in the Netherlands. One test has recently been carried
out in Germany as well. A second generation DAHP is currently
being developed. These DAHPs will provide 10 kW heating
capacity and domestic hot water and will no longer contain a
peak burner.
An ammonia-water absorption system for domestic use is currently being developed in the United States. This heating and
cooling system has a heating capacity of 18 kW and a COP of
1.4. No information with respect to field test results and possible
market introduction is available to date.
Development stage
LiBr-H2O systems are commercially available for use in both
the residential and the commercial sector. Figure 33 (page 58)
contains pictures of a LiBr-H2O cooler for domestic and smallbusiness use with a capacity of 16 kW to 115 kW.
56
The prototype of the gas absorption heat pump (GAHP) developed by ASUE (Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Sparsamen und
Umweltfreundlichen Energieverbrauch / The Association for the
Efficient and Environmentally Friendly Use of Energy) was presented at the IEA Heat Pump Conference held in 2008 in Zrich. This
Use
Defrost valve
Scale
The GAHP prototype provides a heating capacity of 2 to 4 kW.
Its cooling capacity is around 1.5 kW when providing cooling at
temperatures between 10 C and 15 C.
Absorber
Condenser
Inverter valve
Tube-in-pipe
Evaporator
Absorber / Pre-absorber
Solution
pump
Weak
solution
Strong
solution
Refrigerant
(vapour)
Refrigerant
(liquid)
Cold water
Efficiencies
The GAHP delivers heat at temperatures of 35 C to 50 C. A
ground-source heat exchanger with a temperature of 6 C to
8 C was used as a source in a test facility. The temperature lift
amounts to 28 C, achieving a COP of 1.45. The COPc for cooling is 0.43.
Development stage
The GAHP is in the prototype and field testing stage. The system
is not yet commercially available.
Discharge
heat exchanger
High-temperature
generator
Cooled water
supply
Steam
control valve
Return
cooling-water
Discharge
Heat
recovery
Refrigerant pump
Medium pump
Low-temperature
heat exchanger
High-temperature
heat exchanger
Concentrated medium
Refrigerant
Intermediate medium
Refrigerant (vapour)
Diluted medium
57
The use of solid sorbents provides the heat pump greater orientational freedom, which is an advantage in mobile use, for example.
The most common and best known solid sorbents are silica gel
and zeolites. These are mainly used in combination with water.
Both systems are discussed in more detail below. Alternative,
innovative sorption systems based on other sorbents and/or sorbates are discussed in section 3.6.
1. Combustion
4. Cooling water
To provide cooling/
heating operation
by using natural gas.
2. Cooling
Concentrated
solution enters
absorber and
condensed water
enters ovaporator
for cooling.
3. Vacuum
Auto purge device
maintains the
interior vacuum. No
vacuum pump is needed.
5. Cooling/heating
switch
Auto cooling/heating
switch valve.
6. Hot water
80 C primary heating
water heats water in
tanks.
58
W: 1,130 mm
D: 795 mm
H: 1,960 mm
Use
Silica gel-water adsorption heat pumps are used virtually
exclusively to cool office buildings and industrial processes.
Their use as a heat pump is restricted due to the limited
temperature lift that can be achieved with this refrigerant pair.
This heat pump is used as a chiller only when a low-cost, relatively
low-temperature (as from 55 C) heat source or waste heat
source is available. It provides cooling to a minimum of 5 C.
Lower temperatures cannot be realised given the risk of the
water freezing (sorbate).
59
Scale
The technology is available for cooling in a power range of 5 kW
to 500 kW and is mainly used to cool buildings. In some cases
the technique is used in the industrial sector for process cooling.
Small-scale systems providing less than 25 kW cooling have only
just recently been introduced onto the market.
Efficiencies
The COPc of adsorption cooling systems for cooling purposes is
between 0.3 and 0.6. The efficiency is strongly influenced by the
temperatures within which the cycle occurs. Silica gel-water is a
good solution especially when the temperature of the available
heat source is too low to drive the LiBr-H2O absorption chiller
efficiently. Systems driven by heat require the lowest possible
Condenser
Development stage
It was already known in the early twentieth century that an
adsorption cooling system could be made with silica gel and
water. The first waste heat-driven machines were developed
and installed in Japan as from the 1980s, followed by dozens of
installations in Europe, mostly coupled to CHP systems. In recent
years developments have mainly been aimed at coupling with
mini-CHP and micro-CHP systems.
Isosteres Silica
20% wt
Cooling water
circuit
1% wt
P[mbar]
10.00
Cooling water
circuit
1.00
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
60
Source: ECN
Use
Zeolite heat pumps are used for heating and/or cooling purposes.
When used for cooling, the lowest temperature that can be
reached is approximately 4 C, due to the use of water as a
efrigerant (and the risk of freezing at lower temperatures). For
heating purposes, this means that the source heat for the evaporator must be above 0 C.
A ground-coupled heat exchanger is generally used in this instance.
The systems are designed for heating with a maximum supply
temperature of 75 C.
61
Development stage
Carbon-ammonia
3.6.1 Solid-ammonia
In solid-ammonia heat pumps, ammonia is adsorbed onto a solid
substance. Carbon or salts of ammonia are generally used as a
solid substance. Using ammonia instead of water has the advantage of being able to work with considerably higher pressures.
The pressures in ammonia systems are between 1 bar and 8 bar.
Also, ammonia does not freeze easily.
333
Tcon = THN
313
283
303
293
20% 15%
25%
323
Condenser
unit
Xmax
Water
Xmin
6
1
4
Tamb
Tdes
Tads = THN
273
Zeolite
unit
263
10%
253
283
293
303
5%
313
323
343
353
363
373
383
393
Condenser/sorbent
Evaporator/absorber
Control valve
2%
333
403
62
Figure 41 Two designs of zeolite-gas heat pumps for use in the built
environment. Source: Viessmann
and a waste heat-driven air-conditioner for cars. The first prototype of the gas-fired heat pump on the basis of carbon and
ammonia is expected in 2010. Model calculations indicate a COP
of 1.5. Capacities vary between 7 kW and 11 kW.
Salt-ammonia
Finally, there are hybrid systems in which a carbon structure containing salt acts as a solid. The ammonia is chemically bonded
onto the salt. The carbon is mainly for purposes of supplying and
removing the heat and immobilising the salt. It has little effect on
the systems sorption characteristic.
63
3.6.2 LiCl-H2O
A liquid sorption-solid sorption heat pump has been developed in
Sweden. This system uses LiCl-H2O, whereby the fluid transforms
into a solid during regeneration. The system therefore has a thermal storage function. It has been developed for the use of low
grade heat from solar collectors, district heating or CHP systems
(with temperatures of 75 C or higher), so there is no direct gas
heating. The Swedish system provides 25 kW heating capacity
and has a heat storage capacity of 76 kWh. The COP comes to
1.6. It also delivers 10 kW cooling capacity at a COPc of 0.7.
Besides, it provides up to 60 kW cold storage. With dimensions
of 120 cm wide, 80 cm deep and 160 cm high, the system is fairly
compact (see figure 44). The first market for solar-driven cooling
is the Mediterranean.
64
65
Chapter 4
67
The figures below show the heat flows of the various types of
heat pumps, along with their generally accepted efficiencies. In
figure 1 the usual fuel mix (natural gas and coal) is supplied to
a power station. This energy quantity is set at 100 units. The
power station (including distribution) has an electrical efficiency
of 42% of lower heating value or 39% of upper heating value,
rounded up to 40% in the figure. This means that (of lower
heating value) 60% of the supplied primary energy is lost. This
electricity is subsequently used to drive an electric heat pump
with a COP (Coefficient of Performance, see section 3.1) of
4. The heat pump delivers 160 units of energy (120 units are
taken from the environment). This means that ultimately 160
units of heat are supplied with 100 units of primary energy
(the fuel mix of the power station). The PER (Primary Energy
Ratio) then comes to 1.6 (or 160%). If this electricity drives an
electric absorption pump (situation 4) the total PER drops to 0.64
(or 64%). Thus from an energy point of view, the systems performance is substantially less than that of a conventional system.
In gas engine heat pumps (figures 2, 4 and 5) natural gas is converted into a mechanical movement that drives a compressor.
The total efficiency of this conversion is 30%. Of the supplied 100
units, 70 units of energy are released as heat, some of which (30
Primary
energy
100%
Primary
energy
100%
Power station
efficiency 40%
Gas engine
efficiency 30%
Loss 60%
40%
Source 120%
Electric
heat pump
COP = 4
30%
Delivery 160%
Source 90%
68
Mechanically driven
heat pump
COP = 4
Cooling
water 40%
120%
Delivery
160%
units) flow via the flue gas discharge pipe into the environment.
The remainder (40 units) is transferred to the water that is heated
by the heat pump. If the heat pump share has a COP of 4 in
this situation as well, the heat pump provides 120 units of
heat. Combined with the heat from the gas engine (40 units)
the total useful quantity of supplied heat amounts to 160 units,
equalling a PER of 1.6 (or 160%). Therefore, in theory, the systems
efficiency is similar to that of the electric heat pump in figure 1. It
should be noted that the exact efficiency of an installation greatly
depends on the specific situation and on the configuration of the
heat pump.
The engine heat in standard gas engine heat pumps is used in
heating operation to prevent the evaporator from being covered
with white frost in cold outdoor temperatures (figure 5). In
cooling operation or in warm outdoor temperature conditions
this heat is generally released into the environment and must
therefore be considered lost. Many of these systems can remove
the engine heat via a separate circuit. During heating operation
in warm outdoor temperature conditions (when no heat is
needed to prevent white frost on the evaporator) this share of the
engine heat can also be applied usefully (figure 4), for example
to produce hot water.
Source 54%
Gas absorption
heat pump
COP = 1.6
30%
Source 50%
Mechanically driven
heat pump
COP = 4
Delivery 120%
Primary
energy
100%
Flue gas loss 30%
Gas engine
efficiency 30%
30%
Delivery 144%
Gas engine
efficiency 30%
Primary
energy
100%
Primary
energy
100%
Source useful
cooling 90%
Mechanically driven
heat pump
COP = 4
Delivery 120%
69
With a separate circuit for the engine heat, some of this heat can
be put to good use (figure 5) when in cooling operation as well.
In this (cooling) situation the heat that is extracted by the heat
pump is discharged into the environment. This heat cannot be
put to good use.
Conclusion: The efficiency of gas engine heat pumps is
higher than that of gas absorption pumps and comparable to
that of electric heat pumps. Gas heat pumps are highly suitable
for situations in which heating and cooling is carried out simultaneously. Electric heat pumps have the highest efficiency
when only the cooling function is required. The ratio between
the demand for heating and the demand for cooling figures
largely in the choice of heat pump. Table 3 shows the ratio
between the heating capacity and the simultaneously available
Drive
Mechanical Compressor
Thermal Compressor
Gas
Electric
n/a
Thermal
n/a
Table 1 The PER of the various types of heat pumps during heating.
Source: TNO
Drive
Mechanical Compressor
Thermal Compressor
Gas
Electric
n/a
Thermal
n/a
Table 2 The PER of the various types of heat pumps during cooling.
Source: TNO
Drive
Gas
Electric
n/a
Thermal
n/a
Table 3 Ratio between the heating capacity and the cooling capacity
of various types of heat pumps (Pheating/Pcooling). Source: TNO
70
2.5
7
6
Pheating/Pcooling [-]
PER [-]
1.5
4
3
2
0.5
1
0
Gas engine
heat pump
Electrical
compression
heat pump
Absorption
heat pump
(gas-driven)
Absorption
heat pump
(thermally driven)
Gas engine
heat pump
Electrical
compression
heat pump
Absorption
heat pump
(gas-driven)
Absorption
heat pump
(thermally driven)
1.8
ASPECT
1.6
SYSTEM
1.4
Climate
1.2
Users
Investment costs
PER [-]
Building
Operational cost
Regulation
Real estate value
Transfer systems
0.8
Ownership ratios
0.6
Inform
Specifications
0.4
Design
Development
Implementation
Use/after care
0.2
PROCESS
0
Gas engine
heat pump
Electrical
compression
heat pump
Absorption
heat pump
(gas-driven)
Absorption
heat pump
(thermally driven)
Source: TNO
Figure 9
71
Development phase
Management phase
Government
Financiers
Consultants
Project developer
Civil-law notary
Architect
Architectural Consultant
Contractor
Subcontractor
Investor
Technical Consultant
Administrator
Technical
fitters
Subcontractors
Administrator
Tenant/user
Yes
Yes
No
2. Is cooling required?
No
No
Yes
72
Offices
60,000
Education
13,700
Hospitals
Nursing and care
128
1,300
Shops
144,000
Industrial halls
101,000
81% rental
490
Hotels/conference centres
2,400
Restaurants
9,585
2,160
79% rental
Care
Number of buildings
1,300
Reference building
Heat demand
Normal
Normal
Cooling demand
Simultaneous cooling
and heating demand
High
High
Gas consumption
Electricity consumption
Required reliability of
climate control
Very high
High
73
4.4 Offices
The office market is diverse; there are as many small office
buildings as there are large ones. Large office buildings in particular can sometimes be architectural tours de force and are often
difficult to air-condition. Furthermore, dominant demand for
cooling is not uncommon in these buildings. Heat and cold
storage systems are often a good option because of the scale of
the buildings. Heat demand often dominates in smaller existing
office buildings coupled to warehouses or production halls, where
gas heat pumps would be the best choice.
60,000 offices
6,000 m2 GFA
19,000 m2 GFA
Heat demand
0.38 GJ/m2/year
Cooling demand
0.025 GJ/m2/year
Low
Low
Gas consumption
15 m3/m2/year
Electricity consumption
88 kWh/m2/year
Low
74
2,400
Reference building
Heat demand
Standard
Cooling demand
Often
Relatively often
Gas consumption
35 m3/m2/year (indicative)
Electricity consumption
High
75
46,827 m3/year
Electricity consumption
739,543 kWh/year
Cooling
326,753 kWh/year
35.5
Freezing
141,064 kWh/year
15.3
Lighting
111,832 kWh/year
12.2
Heating
46,827 m3/year
19.6
Ventilation
34,730 kWh/year
3.8
Other
125,164 kWh/year
13.6
76
Source: AgentschapNL
Many heat pump systems are bivalent systems. This means that a
heat or cold generator is deployed in addition to the heat pump.
The energy efficiency of this extra device is often lower than the
heat pumps, but requires a considerably lower investment per
kilowatt of thermal power. The base load is supplied by the heat
pump (this is the preferential device and runs many operating
hours) and the non-preferential device kicks in on an incidental
basis to help cover peak demand. The energetic performance of
bivalent systems is slightly lower than that of heat pumps that are
designed for peak demand, but the difference is relatively small
as little use is made of the additional device. Bivalent systems
are interesting options as they can be optimised with regard to
energy and cost.
These strategies apply not only to the heating function, but also
to cooling and to producing hot water. Moreover, a different
strategy may apply to space heating than to space cooling or to
the production of hot water. The manner in which the operations
are regulated is very important as regards the energetic performances and the functioning of the entire system. Depending on
the difference in efficiency the performance of the total system
can drop drastically if regulated incorrectly. It is therefore essential that sufficient attention is paid to the regulating strategy
when designing a system. The same applies to the start-up of
the installation; finely tuned control is necessary to guarantee the
system is regulated as intended under all operating conditions.
77
Gas heat pumps transfer their heat to the air by means of special
heat exchangers that are also used in VRF systems (section
3.2.2). This is the standard solution particularly for gas engine
heat pumps.
In order to reach the highest possible efficiency, the distribution systems design temperature must be as low as possible.
This is why surface heating or concrete core activation is often
combined with heat pumps. There are also mixed systems with
surface heating and low temperature radiators or fan coils. A
standard mixing control is generally used with surface heating
-15
-15
-10
-10
Deployment of non-preferential generator
-5
0
3
5
Dimensioning point
10
15
0
3
5
Dimensioning point
10
15
20
20
Days in
heating season
78
-5
Days in
heating season
4.7.2 Buffers
Heat pump systems are often fitted with a heat buffer. There are
separate buffers for separate purposes, namely:
To completely separate the primary and secondary circuits
(open distributor);
To help the heat pump run more smoothly (less rapid
temperature changes, less switching on and off);
To bridge periods without electricity or gas. This function
resembles the first one as regards switching but its capacity is
different as it is geared to the demand for heat over a certain
period of time.
Heat pump suppliers generally recommend a minimum volume
flow over the condenser. This is necessary, for instance, to ensure
Recommendations
Select equal design temperatures for all distribution systems,
even when the systems differ.
Apply surface heating and concrete core activation without
mixing control and without an additional pump.
79
Recommendations
When designing a bypass, pay attention to the heat content of
the by-passed circuit; this may be not too small.
Do not use buffers in series with the heat pump.
4.7.3 Sources
The heat source is one of the most important subsystems of
the entire heat pump system. This is not always recognised.
The heat source generally delivers free ambient heat, giving
the energy generated by the heat pump a sustainable character. Unusable ambient heat (low temperature) is upgraded
by the addition of relatively little high-grade energy to a
temperature that provides useful heat. The performances and
80
T
T
Gaswarmtepomp
Gas heat pump
Source: TNO
Gaswarmtepomp
Gas
heat pump
81
Recommendations
Select a heat pump that is geared and guaranteed to work on
the quality of the available groundwater.
Ensure the extraction and injection wells are far enough apart.
Have an expert design and realise the source system.
82
Recommendations
Do not scrimp on the length of the vertical ground-coupled heat
exchanger, especially when there are uncertainties, for instance
as regards the geohydrological data. Use calculation programs
that are sufficiently precise in calculating the operating hours
profile of the heat pump.
Take into account the required pump capacity when designing
the ground-coupled heat system. Also bear in mind the amount
of noise the system produces and the absorbed power of the
source pump; take sound-proofing measures if necessary.
Return
Ground level
Supply
83
84
85
Chapter 5
5.1 Efficiencies
The efficiency of gas-fired heat pumps is defined in chapters 3
and 4. In principle, the efficiency of a gas appliance can never
exceed 100% of higher heating value as useful energy cannot be
created from nothing. Energy (in the form of heat) can, however,
be pumped and that is exactly what heat pumps do. Heat pumps
use energy to increase the temperature of a large amount of heat
(from the environment) to a higher level so as to turn it into useful heat.
For a clear understanding, the efficiency of heat pumps is compared
with that of a very well known gas appliance: the condensing
HE boiler. While the HE boiler condenses vapour contained in
flue gases, it is able to exploit most of the heat released upon
the combustion of natural gas. In theory, the highest feasible
87
difference between this efficiency and the hypothetical maximum, which can only be improved through major modifications
to the current HE boilers.
The term efficiency cannot be applied univocally to all heat
pumps, as only some of the energy that heat pumps use is a purchased form of energy (natural gas or electricity). The remainder
Type of heat pump
COP
PER
1.2 2.4
1.2 2.4
Absorption
1.3 1.8
1.3 1.8
Adsorption
1.2 1.4
1.2 1.4
Electrical
3.0 5.0
1.4 2.2
Table 1 Typical COP and PER values of various heat pumps for heating. Source: KGT
Type of heat pump
COP
PER
1.0 1.2
1.0 1.2
Absorption
0.2 0.7
0.2 0.7
Adsorption
0.2 0.4
0.2 0.4
Electrical
2.5 4.0
1.1 1.6
Table 2 Typical COP and PER values of various heat pumps for
cooling. Source: KGT
1.15
GEHP improved
GEHP existing
2.5
GAHP
EHP
1.05
HE boiler
PER [-]
1.10
1.00
HE condensing
boiler
1.5
0.95
1
0.90
0.5
0.85
0.80
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
88
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Test condition
T1
T2
T3
T4
Air/
water
With defrost
cycle
A7(6)/W50
A2(1.5)/W35
A15(12)/
W50
A-7(-8)/
W50
Without
defrost cycle
A7(6)/W50
A15(12)/W50 A7(6)/W35
Ventilation air/water
A20(12)/W50 A20(12)/W35
Water/water
W10/W50
W10/W35
W15/W50
Brine/water
B0/W50
B0/W35
B-5/W50
With defrost
cycle
A7(6)/
W20(12)
A2(1,5)/
A20(12)
A-7(-8)/
A20(12)
Without
defrost cycle
A7(6)/
W20(12)
A15(12)/
A20(12)
Ventilation/recirculation air
A20(12)/
A20(12)
Ventilation/fresh air
A7(6)/
W20(12)
Ambient
air or
recirculation
air
Water/recirculation air
W10/A20(12) W15/A20(12)
Brine/recirculation air
B0/A20(12)
W20/A20(12)
Table 3
B-5/A20(12)
the supply medium is stated after the slash. As an example, condition A7(6)/W50 means that the temperature of the heat source
(air) is 7 C (A7), whilst the (supply) temperature of the transfer
medium (water) is 50 C (W50). Antifreeze, a mixture of water
and glycol, is also used in addition to air and water. This mixture
is called brine and abbreviated to B in the table. The temperature
condition for air still comprises two temperatures: the dry-bulb
temperature and the wet-bulb temperature. The wet-bulb temperature is shown between brackets.
89
Radiators
Centralheating
pump
Heat exchanger
engine cooling Condenser
Gas engine
Primary
energy
100%
Heat exchanger
condensing
combustion gases
Heat
exchanger
combustion
gases
Compressor
Gas engine
efficiency 30%
Expansion
valve
30%
Evaporator
Source 90%
Mechanically driven
heat pump
COP = 4
Cooling
water 40%
120%
Delivery
160%
Ambient air
90
the ice. The hot gas from the compressor can also be conducted
directly to the outdoor heat exchanger to thaw the heat exchanger.
In the event of an open water source the evaporator temperature
should not drop below freezing. As a rule, antifreeze is added in
the event of a closed source.
Natural gas
Engine heat
Gas engine
Compressor
Evaporator
Ambient
and/or
ventilation air
Condenser
Heat
delivery
Expansion valve
91
the heat pump and then conducted to the relevant spaces. Rarely
are climate systems installed in Dutch homes based on air. Air
systems are more popular in public and commercial buildings,
usually in combination with a ventilation system.
Japanese gas engine heat pumps also have an attribute that
keeps vapour from freezing on the surface of the evaporator in
low outdoor temperatures. In the design in figure 5 the engine
heat that is withdrawn to cool the engine flows to the evaporator, providing enough heat to vaporise the refrigerant even in
low outdoor temperatures (for example -20 C).
For outdoor temperatures below 0 C the COP equates to
approximately one. Designers can increase the efficiency of the
heat pump by adding additional heat exchangers that transfer
the engine heat at high temperature to the central-heating water,
as shown in figure 3.
As already mentioned, gas engine heat pumps contain a gas engine,
heat exchangers, an expansion valve and a compressor. These
main components are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Emissions
Gas engines fall under the Besluit emissie-eisen stookinstallaties
(BEES) (Decree on Emission Standards for Burners). The upper
limit for the emission of NOx by gas engines is set at 140 g/GJ
multiplied by one-thirtieth of the engines efficiency (in
percentages). The standard for a shaft power of 50 kW or less
is 800 g/GJ multiplied by one-thirtieth of the engines efficiency.
Combustion processes are `stoichiometric' when the amount of
92
Maintenance
Gas engines require maintenance just like any other combustion engine. Users can conclude a maintenance contract with
the supplier. Regular visual inspection (for instance, of leaks
and wear or ageing of the drive belts and hose connections) is
advisable for large installations or installations with old engines.
Maintenance intervals vary per gas engine. Maintenance
should be carried out every 1,000 to 1,500 operating hours.
Maintenance includes:
Adjusting the valves;
Inspecting the spark plugs (and replacing if necessary);
Changing the oil and air filter;
Inspecting the fuel/air ratio;
Measuring the compression on all cylinders;
Cleaning the crankcase ventilator.
Starting up
The engines are kept from starting and stopping too frequently
and unnecessarily by controlling the capacity of the gas engine
heat pumps. Batteries can be used to start the engine but they
can malfunction or die. Reliability increases if the start engine
uses electricity from the grid.
Shaft efficiency
The maximum shaft efficiency varies per brand, type and power.
The full load efficiency varies between 25% and 38%. Larger
45
Misfiring
Detonation (knocking)
16
12
11
14
BMEP
38
36
CxHy
34
NOx
32
CO
30
Emissions [g/kWh]
BMEP [bar]
40
10
10
42
12
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
40
18
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
1
4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Excess
air ()
0
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
Source: KGT
93
Capacity control
The capacity control of a gas engine heat pump greatly influences
its efficiency. The efficiency of the gas engine is high when the
engine is required to provide a high torque. The gas consumption
of a gas engine is plotted against the torque in figure 9. The
power of the heat pump is controlled by means of speed control. The power increases or decreases along with the number
of revolutions, whilst the torque remains the same. Japanese gas
engine heat pumps use several small belt-driven scroll compressors. The capacity of gas engine heat pumps is not only regulated
by means of the number of revolutions of the engine, but also by
activating and deactivating the individual compressors by means
of magnetic couplings. Figure 11 provides the heat factor of a
gas heat pump as a function of the heating capacity and the
capacity of the compressor, illustrating the impact of activating
and deactivating.
5.2.3 Compressors
The compressor is a key component in mechanical heat pump
systems (gas engine heat pumps). The efficiency of the compressor largely determines the COP of the heat pump. Several popular
compressors are discussed below. Heat pumps have the potential
risk of refrigerant leaking at the spot where the compressor drive
enters the housing. Electric heat pumps can house the compressor and the electric drive in one housing, consequently requiring
only one opening for the power supply. This does not apply to
gas engine heat pumps as their rotating shaft must always pass
through the compressor housing.
Reciprocating compressors
Reciprocating compressors (figure 8) are very suitable for
realising large compression ratios. The volume flows for
capacities ranging between 1 kW and less up to 16 MW and
higher are between 1 m3/hour and 50,000 m3/hour. Oil is the
predominant lubricant for reciprocating compressors. The
gaseous refrigerant in reciprocating compressors is ingested
into a cylinder on the downstroke of the piston. The intake
valve closes on the upstroke, compressing the gas. When the
pressure level is high enough, the exhaust valve opens and
the compressed gas in the pipe can flow into the condenser. The
intake valve and the exhaust valve are usually closed by steel
springs. The valve opens at a certain differential pressure. The
94
Figure 8
40
70
Engine heat
30
50
Percentage of Carnot
60
Combustion heat
20
10
40
30
20
4 Cylinders
3 Cylinders
10
2 Cylinders
1 Cylinder
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
950
1,050
1,150
80
40
1,500 rev/min
2,000 rev/min
2,500 rev/min
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Source: KGT
1,350
1,450
1,550
10
1,250
275
3- 4 Cylinders
2 Cylinders on / off
2 - 3 Cylinders
250
1 - 2 Cylinders
225
1 Cylinder on / off
200
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
95
Scroll compressors
Selection criteria
Refrigeration engineering makes large-scale use of scroll compressors (also called spiral compressors), particularly for smaller
capacities. Scroll compressors are attractive due to their small
number of moving parts, their low noise level and low vibration.
Scroll compressors are generally more efficient in comparison
with reciprocating compressors. The compression ratios they can
achieve are in the same order as those of reciprocating compressors. The higher the compression ratios, the less efficient scroll
compressors are.
Category
Displacement compressors
Roots (Rolling piston compressors)
Screw compressors
Rotary vane compressors
Reciprocating compressors
Scroll compressors
1 1.1
26
1 13
46
1 10
40 65%
60 80%
40 60%
50 67%
40 60%
Twin screw compressors (figure 15) have two rotors (with interlocking spiral teeth). One or two rotors are driven. The gas is trapped between the rotor lobes and the rotating rotors increasingly
reduce the volume, thus increasing the pressure. A variant is the
screw compressor with a single rotor. A toothed disk on both
sides of the screw rotor takes over the function of the second
rotor. All screw compressors are oiled. Oil seals better, lubricates and discharges heat. The internal geometry of some screw
compressors is adjusted to the required pressure ratio between
evaporator and condenser.
Expansion valves are available in two different models: thermostatic (mechanical) and electronic. Electronic expansion valves
are mainly used in larger systems. The valve position is tuned with
a stepper motor (or step motor), enabling the electronic valve
to adjust the flow of refrigerant more accurately to changing
conditions. This has a favourable impact on the efficiency of the
heat pump system. Electronic expansion valves can usually enable
two-way flows, whereas thermostatic expansion valves enable
flow in one direction only. Electronic expansion valves also have
a more extensive regulating range.
Screw compressors
96
Vapour in
Vapour/liquid out
Source: KGT
97
98
Rotor
Stator
Obturator
Intake
O-ring
Stator
Locking ring
Torsion spring
Stator
Pressure compensation
pipe
Temperature sensor
Water
Source: KGT
Superheated vapour
P1
P2
Evaporation
P3
Water
Refrigeran
Superheating
Refrigerant
Out
C
Liquid
Refrigerant
In
Figure 18 Cross section of a thermostatic expansion valve with thermal element (1), capillary tube with sensor (2), valve seat
(3), spring (4) and pressure compensation connection (5).
Source: KGT
Water
Drainage of lubricant
(if heavier than refrigerant)
99
Superheating
Superheating is the difference between the evaporation temperature
of the refrigerant and the actual temperature of the vapour coming
from the evaporator. The actual temperature is measured at the
sensor on the suction pipe. Figure 20 provides an example of a
(thermostatic) expansion valve in a heat pump. The expansion
valve uses superheating as an indicator for adjusting the amount
of refrigerant going into the evaporator.
There are two reasons for superheating the refrigerant:
To protect the compressor. Refrigerants need a certain pressure
and temperature to vaporise. Depending on the liquid-vapour
line of the relevant refrigerant a slight drop in pressure can
cause the refrigerant to partially return to its liquid form.
This can severely damage the compressor which is not made
to process liquids. Superheating keeps the refrigerant from
recondensing.
Better control of the refrigerant flow. When the refrigerant flow
is regulated under conditions close to the co-existence range
(in which the refrigerant can be both vapour and liquid), the
amount of refrigerant that enters the evaporator is difficult or
impossible to control as pressure and temperature are constant
in the co-existence range. By superheating the refrigerant,
pressure and temperature can change independently of each
other and the refrigerant can be controlled.
If the superheating temperature is set too low, the valve can
become unstable (this is also referred to as hunting) creating
the risk of fluid flowing to the compressor. If the superheating
temperature is set too high, it reduces the evaporator surface for
evaporating the incoming refrigerant. This means that a greater
difference in temperature is required between the evaporator
and the heat source. Higher superheating temperatures require
ingestion of larger vapour volumes, because of the lower vapour
density. Depending on the refrigerant that is used this can lead
to a high final temperature upon compression and to greater or
lesser capacity, depending on the specific heat of the refrigerant
vapour.
100
Undercooling
Undercooling is the difference between the condensation temperature and the temperature at which the condensation exits
the condenser. Undercooling is an important precondition for
achieving the highest COP and necessary to prevent vapour bubbles
in the refrigerant ahead of the expansion valve. Vapour bubbles
in the refrigerant significantly reduce the capacity of the expansion valve.
Condenser
A condenser is a heat exchanger in which superheated, gaseous
refrigerant condenses. The condenser discharges the refrigerants
condensation heat into air or water. The indoor heat
exchanger is the condenser when the heat pump is used for
heating. The heat is transferred to the central-heating water,
for instance, or directly into the air. When the heat pump is
used for cooling, the outdoor heat exchanger is the condenser
When the heat pump system is used for cooling purposes the
condenser must be able to discharge the heat absorbed by
the refrigerant. The greater the difference in temperature, the
better the heat transfer is between the condensing refrigerant
and the discharge medium (the ambient air or water, for
example). However, the greater the temperature difference the
lower the efficiency of a heat pump becomes and therefore an
economical and efficient optimum must be sought. Figure 25
(page 103) depicts two heat exchangers: one for transferring
heat between refrigerant and central-heating water and one for
transferring refrigerant to air.
C
Cooling
The temperature
buckles here
Undercooling
Condensing
A. Normal
B. Limit, low volume flow
C. Limit, low temperature
% Load
Evaporator
In the evaporator, ambient heat converts the liquid refrigerant
into vapour. The type of evaporator depends on the purpose of
the heat pump. The type of heat source (air or water) influences the design of the evaporator. To prevent liquid refrigerant
from exiting the evaporator along with the vapour, most controls
superheat to 2 to 3 K upon exiting. Because the volume of
refrigerant vapour is much larger than that of refrigerant in liquid
form, approximately one-fourth of the cooling surface is needed
for superheating.
If the evaporation temperature is below 0 C, vapour in the air
can freeze onto the evaporator. If so, the heat transfer from heat
source to refrigerant suffers. The evaporator will eventually need
to be defrosted in order to continue functioning.
Intercooler
The intercooler is a heat exchanger enabling the exchange of
heat between the refrigerant flowing from the evaporator and
the condenser. Figure 26 contains a schematic diagram. The use
of an intercooler improves the heat transfer in the evaporator and
the condenser, because superheating and undercooling (whose
101
Refrigerants
The condenser temperature of gas engine heat pumps is usually
between 25 C and 55 C. The temperature lift varies between
20 C and 45 C. The application limits are determined partly
by the characteristics of the refrigerant. However, if the correct
refrigerant is used the compressor determines the limits. Various
characteristics figure largely in the choice of refrigerant: the
strain on the environment, combustibility, toxicity, corrosiveness,
the levels for evaporation and condensation pressures, the
specific volume and the cost price.
As from the end of the 20th century substances that destroy
the ozone layer or strengthen the greenhouse effect are gradually being phased out. This has led to a shift in the composition
of many refrigerants. Halons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) in particular present a problem. CFCs disintegrate in the
upper layers of the atmosphere under the influence of UV light,
whereupon the released halogen atoms act as a catalyst for the
reaction that converts ozone into oxygen. As a consequence, the
ozone concentration decreases and thus also the protection of
the earths surface against harmful UVB radiation.
The extent to which a substance is able to damage the ozone
layer is called the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). In principle,
the ODP of trichlorofluoromethane (R-11) has been set at 1 for
a period of 100 years. The ODP of CFCs is of the same order
and the ODP of substances containing bromine is between 5
and 15. Ideally, only refrigerants with zero ODP should be used.
Refrigerants currently used belong to the hydrofluorocarbons
group (HFCs) and their ODP varies between 0 and 0.2. This lower
ODP is mainly due to the shorter life span of HFCs in lower parts
of the atmosphere, keeping them from reaching higher layers.
The fact that no catalytic substances (chlorine, bromine) can be
released also contributes to their low ODP.
A GWP (Global Warming Potential) is attached to refrigerants in
addition to an ODP. The GWP indicates a substances greenhouse
effect in relation to carbon dioxide (CO2). By definition the GWP
of CO2 equals 1.
Popular refrigerants in the Netherlands are R410a and R134a
(both are HFCs), R290 (propane), R717 (ammonia) and R407C (a
mixture of HFCs). The choice of refrigerant influences the heat
transfer in the evaporator and the condenser. The manufacturer
of smaller, domestic devices decides on the refrigerant. The
refrigerant in larger installations depends on the optimisation of
the entire cycle.
102
Temperature levels
Gas engine heat pumps have four temperature levels for
heating purposes, one being the heat that the refrigerant gives
off, which has a relatively low temperature of 30 C to 60 C.
The three other temperature levels are linked to the flue gases
and the engine cooling. Most gas engine heat pumps use only
the heat from the engine cooling and then only in low outdoor
temperatures. Usually, the heat contained in the flue gases is
Figure 23 Plate heat exchanger (left). The flow directions are shown
on the right. Source: KGT
Figure 25 Evaporator/condenser for transferring heat from a refrigerant to central-heating water (left) and an evaporator/
condenser for transferring heat from a refrigerant to air.
Source: Alfa Laval
Intercooler
Evaporator
Compressor
Expansion valve
Condenser
103
Figure 27 An open gas engine heat pump (top left), a close-up of a scroll compressor (top right) and a picture of the gas engine (below).
104
Source: Gasengineering
Capacity
All commercially available gas engine heat pumps are equipped
with a speed-controlled gas engine and several compressors. The
capacity of the heat pump can therefore be modulated. When
the required capacity exceeds that of a single heat pump, a series
Hot water
Most gas engine heat pumps can produce hot water, in which
case they are linked to what is called a hot water module. They
can use up to 30% of the consumed (gas) capacity to produce
hot water of 70 C.
Most types of gas engine heat pumps can heat and cool atthe
same time. Heat pumps with a three-pipe or four-pipe distribution
system can heat and cool several rooms simultaniously. This is an
interesting option for public and commercial buildings. The advantage of simultaneous cooling and heating is that the best possible
use is made of the energy already present within the building
to meet both demands. Also see section 4.7.1. Some practical
examples are provided in chapter 7.
105
Distribution
For gas-fired absorption heat pumps the maximum supply
and return temperatures of central-heating water are 55 C
and 45 C respectively for standard models, and 65 C and
55 C respectively for HT models (HT = high temperature). This
distinction in return temperatures is useful for determining
which type of heat pump should be used. In new-build situations, installation designers can allow for a low distribution
temperature, for example by applying surface heating or other
low temperature systems. Existing structures generally do not
have surface heating and so radiators must be used in the
heating system. HT absorption heat pumps are suitable for
this purpose.
kW
137.2
210.2
285.4
kW
61.8
87.9
111.4
kW
105.8
168.2
229.4
Compressor power
consumption
kW
33.6
45.3
60.5
Gas consumption NL
Natural gas
mn3/h
11.89
16.92
21.41
kW
110.4
157.1
199.0
PER Heating
1.80
1.90
1.99
2.97
3.15
PER total
2.76
E-power supply
3 phase + neutral
Voltage
400
Max. E-power
kW
2.5
2.5
Air supply
m3/h
1000
1500
1500
NW 32
NW 80
NW 80
NW 100
dB(A)
72
Without housing
dB(A)
90
Capacity
Gas absorption heat pumps can modulate up to 50% of the
given capacity. If necessary, a series of heat pumps can be
installed, in which case the entire system is regulated with
one control. Economically speaking, it is worthwhile to dimension
a heat pump based on a portion of the planned boiler capacity.
The most favourable dimension is somewhere between 25%
and 35% of boiler capacity. At 15% of boiler capacity the heat
pump provides 70% of the heat demand. The remainder is peak
capacity that can best be met with a conventional boiler.
Exhaust
Ventilator
Air supply
Accumulator
Compressor
Heat source
Air-water heat pumps generally use outdoor air and occasionally
exhaust air as a heat source. Water-water heat pumps can use
surface water or ground water as a heat source, but also the
ground itself, in which case ground-coupled heat exchangers
apply. If ground-coupled heat exchangers were only to use water
to extract heat there would be the risk of the water freezing in the
106
Hot water
All commercially available absorption heat pumps can produce hot
water at a maximum temperature of 70 C. The water is heated
indirectly in a boiler tank.
Source 54%
Transfer
Gas absorption
heat pump
COP = 1.6
Delivery 144%
107
Capacity
The capacities of most heat pumps can be modulated up to 10%
of nominal capacity.
Heat source
Large-scale absorption heat pumps can use air, water and ground
as a heat source, as can small-scale installations.
Flue gas
loss 2
Radiation and
convection
loss 2
Flue gas
30
Flue gas
heat exchanger
27
50 C
Heat 33 80 C
Gas engine
228
Mechanical
35
Compressor
COPw = 4.75
Heat
168 50 C
Source
133 7 C
Gas
100
108
the process. The control must take into account the minimum
number of revolutions at which the manufacturer still guarantees proper lubrication.
Valve lifting. By lifting the piston valve(s) during the compression stroke some of the ingested gas is conducted back to the
suction pipe.
Pressure gas circulation. Circulation regulation controlling
the supply in the refrigerant cycle. The shifted compressor
volume remains the same.
During valve lifting and speed control the consumed power
of the compressor is in proportion to the supplied capacity. In
the event of pressure gas circulation the consumed power
is always constant whereas the capacity varies. The energy
efficiency of this method is therefore lower than of the two
other methods.
Combustion gases
Economiser
5.5 Control
Condenser
Centralheating
pump
Generator
Radiators
Burner
Internal
heat
exchanger
Solution
Pump
Expansion valve
Expansion valve
Evaporator
Open air
Absorber
Reciprocating compressors
The capacity of reciprocating compressors (for engine capacities
in excess of 7.5 kW) is controlled in one of the following ways:
Speed control. The speed can be controlled up to the point
at which the beats of the piston movement start to disrupt
Source: BDH/KGT
109
Screw compressors
Standard control
110
80
T supply HP
Total
Heat pump
T return
Gas HP
60
Temperature [C]
Capacity [kW]
5
4
3
50
70 min.
40
60 min.
115 min.
30
10
1
0
0
-5
10
15
20
16
17
18
19
21
22
Source: KGT
80
80
Flow
70
70
Return
60
Heat pump
Temperature [C]
60
50
40
50
40
T supply HP
T supply boiler
T return
Gas HP
30
20
30
20
-10
20
Time [hour]
Temperature [C]
15
m.
20
-10
T supply boiler
70
10
-5
10
15
20
8:00
8:10
8:20
8:30
8:40
Time [hour]
Figure 38 Heat pump and boiler switch on and off more smoothly
with a pulse-pause control. Source: KGT
111
temperatures varying between 3C and 5 C below outdoor temperatures. In many instances the existing heat distribution system
can be used to transfer cooling (which is actually heat absorption), although the system may need to be modified.
Evaporator
Expansion valve
Compressor
Four-way valve
Cooling or heating
Condenser
Condenser
Four-way valve
Evaporator
112
The market for gas heat pumps for public and commercial buildings is still relatively small in the Netherlands. Several manufacturers offer these devices. Table 6 contains the specifications of
gas heat pumps subdivided by operating principle and range of
application.
Absorption
Utility
Unit
Gas engine
and
Compressor
NH3/H2O
Indirect/1-stage
Direct/2-stage
Absorption*
Heating
Cooling
kW
kW
15 to 15,000
10 to 10,000
43
17
15 tot 18,000
5
-
PER heating
1.2 2.4
1.3 1.8
1.3 1.8
2.2
1.2 1.4
PER cooling
1.0 1.2
0.2 0.7
0.5 0.8
0.7 1.3
0.2 0.4
Refrigerant/
Substances pair
Various
Entity
H2O/LiBr
Capacity range
Noise
Weight
dB(A)
kg
Dimensions
Width
Depth
Height
mm
mm
mm
H2O/Zeo
H2O/Si
H2O/LiBr
NH3/H2O
65
65
40
40
Unknown
From
From
From
From
From
48
45
380
300
500
2.000
140
From
From
From
From
From
1,100
500
1,740
850
690
1,300
1,350
790
1,450
2,500
2,200
1,300
600
595
1,875
H2O = water; NH3 = ammonia; LiBr = lithium bromide; Si = Silica gel; Zeo = Zeolite. In substances pairs the refrigerant is always stated first.
* Only in domestic model.
Table 6 Indicators for various types of gas heat pumps. Source: KGT
113
Chapter 6
Economic analysis
Having provided technical details in the previous chapter, this book now provides economic
analyses including exploitation costs, investment costs and the influence of gas and electricity
prices. Energy markets, subsidies, tax aspects and maintenance are also discussed in this chapter.
115
Split incentive
Ownership alone
Lease alone
Ownership with others
Lease with others
Other
Total
53%
28%
5%
10%
4%
Outsourcing
116
This inspection includes visual inspection and cleaning (if necessary) of the outside evaporator/condenser and takes roughly half
a working day. In principle, the hermetically sealed refrigerant
circuit is maintenance-free.
If a hydro module has been placed between the outdoor unit and
the water-bearing distribution system, it too is subject to mandatory
inspection. The compressors (usually scroll compressors) are entirely
maintenance-free. Maintenance on the gas engine is initially
limited to an annual visual inspection. The engine oil, spark plugs
and V-belt must be replaced every 10,000 operating hours. It
takes approximately half a working day to inspect a standard
installation. Every 30,000 operating hours the system requires
an overhaul, during which components in the periphery of the
engine are replaced as a precautionary measure. The revolving
part of the engine remains unaltered. The technical life span of
gas heat pumps is at least fifteen years if maintained according to
manufacturer regulations.
117
Source
System number
AA = Ambient air
Generation
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
AA & G-W
10
AA & G-W
11
AA & G-W
12
AA & G-W
13
AA & G-W
14
AA & G-W
AA
15
AA
AA
NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E
AA & G-W
NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E NG&E
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
550/30
0/ 30
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
660/40
0/ 40
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
770/50
0/ 50
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
880/60
0/ 60
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
990/70
0/ 70
Forced-air
convectors
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
550/30
0/ 30
Forced-air
convectors
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
6
0/ 40
60/40
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
Forced-air
convectors
7
0/ 50
70/50
Oppervlakt
syst emen
Surface esystems
(wall( Wandheating en
andvloerverwarming)
floor heating)
6
0/ 40
60/40
Surface esystems
(wall( heating
andvloerverwarming)
floor heating)
Oppervlakt
syst emen
Wand- en
5
0/ 30
50/30
Surface systems
(wall(heating
floor heating)
Oppervlakt
e syst emen
Wand- and
en vloerverwarming)
4
5/ 25
45/25
Surface systems
(wall(heating
floor heating)
Oppervlakt
e syst emen
Wand- and
en vloerverwarming)
3
5/ 25
35/25
Air-conditioning
unit
Lucht
behandelingskast
Air-conditioning
unit
Lucht
behandelingskast
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
550/30
0/ 30
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
660/40
0/ 40
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
770/50
0/ 50
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
880/60
0/ 60
Radiat
oren, convent
ionele convect
oren
Radiators,
conventional
convectors
990/70
0/ 70
Forced-air
convectors
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
550/30
0/ 30
Forced-air
convectors
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
660/40
0/ 40
Convect oren
met geforceerde
lucht st room
Forced-air
convectors
770/50
0/ 50
Oppervlakt
syst emen
Surface esystems
(wall( Wandheating en
andvloerverwarming)
floor heating)
660/40
0/ 40
Surface esystems
(wall( heating
andvloerverwarming)
floor heating)
Oppervlakt
syst emen
Wand- en
550/30
0/ 30
Oppervlakt
e syst emen
Wand- and
en vloerverwarming)
Surface systems
(wall(heating
floor heating)
445/25
5/ 25
Oppervlakt
e syst emen
Wand- and
en vloerverwarming)
Surface systems
(wall(heating
floor heating)
335/25
5/ 25
Lucht
behandelingskast
Air-conditioning
unit
Lucht
behandelingskast
Air-conditioning
unit
Direct
expansie
binnendelen
in dein uit
voeringen:
Direct
expansion
internal parts
models:
Plafond
onderbouw,
4 -zijdig
2 -zijdig
casset t e,
Ceiling-mounted,
4-sided
anden
2-sided
cassettes,
sat
elliet , wall.
wand.
satellite,
The transfer
temperatures
the space
are regulated
by
De afgift
e t emperat
uren in deinruimt
e worden
bij V RF direct
VRFgeregeld
direct expansion
the combination
the internal met
expansie
door de by
combinat
ie van deofbinnendelen
components
and
the
external
component,
het buit endeel, op basis van de gevraagde ruimt e t emperat uur.
based on the demanded space temperature.
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
G-W
G-W
G-W
G-W
10
G-W
* The
influence of the central-heating distribution system on the performances of the heat pump is largely determined by the distribution temperatu
Base = Base load optimisation concept whereby the gas heat pump dimensioned at approximately 30% of the total heating capacity can
meet 85% of the annual heat demand. Source: BDH
118
11
1
1
11
22
3
3
22
11
2
2
11
11
11
22
3
3
22
11
NIEUWBOUW
New build
2
2
22
Renovation
RENOV ATIE
22
BASIS
Base
Renovation
RENOV ATIE
New build
NIEUWBOUW
Replacement
V ERV ANGING
11
11
BASIS
Base
2
2
NIEUWBOUW
New build
2
2
2
2
RENOV ATIE
Renovation
Replacement
V ERV ANGING
1
1
1
1
BASIS
Base
NIEUWBOUW
New build
1
1
1
1
BASIS
Base
22
22
NIEUWBOUW
Nieuwbouw
New build
RENOV ATIE
Renovation
RECREATIE
Recreation
Replacement
V ERV ANGING
WINKELS
Shops
KANTOREN
Offices
1
1
RENOV ATIE
Renovatie
Renovation
Replacement
V ERV ANGING
ZIEKENHUIS
Hospital
1
1
BASIS
Basis
Base
Vervanging
Replacement
V ERV ANGING
V
ERZORGING
Care
Verzorging
2
2
33
3
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
33
22
3
3
33
22
22
2
2
22
3
3
33
22
3
3
44
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
33
3
3
33
4
4
33
33
33
4
4
3
3
3
3
33
3
3
44
33
4
4
44
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
44
4
4
44
4
4
44
44
44
4
4
4
4
4
4
44
4
4
44
44
1
1
22
1
1
1
1
2
2
11
22
2
2
11
11
11
22
3
3
22
11
1
1
22
1
1
1
1
2
2
11
22
2
2
11
11
11
22
3
3
22
11
3
3
33
3
3
3
3
33
3
3
33
3
3
33
3
3
33
33
33
3
3
3
3
33
33
33
33
1
1
22
3
3
1
1
11
2
2
33
1
1
11
2
2
33
11
11
2
2
3
3
1
1
11
22
33
11
1
1
22
3
3
1
1
22
33
22
2
2
33
11
11
22
22
33
11
1
1
22
3
3
1
1
11
2
2
33
1
1
11
2
2
33
11
11
2
2
3
3
1
1
11
22
33
11
1
1
22
3
3
1
1
11
2
2
33
1
1
11
2
2
33
11
11
2
2
3
3
1
1
11
22
33
11
2
2
11
1
1
1
1
11
11
1
1
1
1
22
11
11
2
2
11
1
1
1
1
11
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
22
11
11
44
22
1
1
4
4
22
1
1
4
4
22
11
4
4
2
2
1
1
44
22
11
N.v.t.
N.V
.T.
1
1
1
1
N.v.t.
N.V
.T.
1
1
1
1
N.v.t.
N.V
.T.
22
22
N.v.t.
N.V
.T.
N.v.t.
N.V
.T.
Hot water
Cooling - active
Heating
Cooling - passive
Table 2
Degree of economic feasibility
1 = Optimal
2 = Good
3 = Fair
4 = Challenge
11
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
11
22
22
11
22
33
22
11
11
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
11
22
22
11
22
33
22
11
22
33
33
22
22
33
33
22
22
33
33
22
22
33
33
22
22
33
33
11
33
44
33
33
33
44
33
33
33
44
33
33
33
44
33
33
33
33
44
11
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
11
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
11
22
22
11
22
33
22
11
11
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
22
22
11
11
11
22
22
11
22
33
22
11
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
22
22
33
11
22
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
22
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
11
22
33
11
22
11
11
22
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
22
11
11
22
11
11
22
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
22
11
11
ure
119
120
The Netherlands has introduced several schemes aimed at stimulating new technologies for conserving energy. These schemes
should definitely be taken into account when determining the
payback period of a sustainable energy option as they can have
a considerable impact on total costs. The principal schemes are
discussed below.
i =1
SUM CF
(1+DV)^P
[]
Investment subsidies
An investment subsidy is a means to reduce initial costs. Two
national investment subsidies are currently available for gas
engine heat pumps. Agentschap NLs Duurzame Warmtesubsidie
(Sustainable Heat Subsidy) is available for the use of gas engine
heat pumps in existing apartment blocks. Tax schemes apply for
energy investments (EIA) and for environment-related investments (MIA/Vamil) and help reduce the costs for entrepreneurs
who run a profitable company. These schemes were discussed in
the previous section.
121
Maintenance costs
40
Low
Laagwith
Low
met distribution
distributie
35
High
30
ct/m 3
25
Energy costs
20
The total costs of energy comprise the costs for gas and electricity. Heat pumps consume considerably less gas as compared to
HE boilers. Their electricity consumption is slightly higher than
that of the reference boiler. On balance, the costs of energy for
gas heat pumps are considerably lower than for HE boilers.
15
10
0
ss
b -1,000 u
b - 2,500 u
b - 4,000 u
b - 8,000 u
45.00
TTF Forward 2008 settlement
TTF Forward 2009 settlement
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
2/4/2009
2/1/2009
2/10/2008
2/7/2008
2/4/2008
2/1/2008
2/10/2007
2/7/2007
2/4/2007
2/1/2007
15.00
Figure 2 TTF gas prices (x e 0.01 per m3) for future supplies in the
period 2007 - 2009. Source: www.endex.nl
122
Commodity share
Two options apply to the commodity share in the gas price:
price related to the price of oil and fixed price. The price of
the first option is determined per quarter (bulk consumption)
Distribution
Local distribution network costs (8 bar and lower) and transport
costs are calculated separately. These are the distribution costs.
The rates depend on the capacity of the connection. Smallscale consumer rates apply to connections up to and including
40 m3/h, after which bulk consumer rates apply.
Item
Amount dependent on
Costs
Flexibility
Entry rate
Additional capacity
Approx 100,-/m3/h
14,15/m3/h
Entry rate
additional capacity
Additional capacity
18,56/m3/h
Exit rate
Contracted capacity
3,- to 40,-/m3/h
Connection rate
Contracted capacity
0,50 to 50,-/m3/h
Amount dependent on
Fixed rate
Capacity share
Metering Service
Amount dependent on
Constant
Capacity share
Metering Service
123
Commodity
Electricity is traded on several markets, each having its own
characteristics. One of the principal markets is Endex, on which
the prices for supply in future months, quarters and years are
determined (see figure 4). Suppliers trade on this wholesale
market and charge their end customers a surcharge, which includes, among other things, a margin for the supplier.
Network
Power companies also make a distinction between small-scale
consumers and bulk consumers of electricity particularly when
charging network costs. The connection capacity of small-scale
consumers is up to and including 3 x 80 Amps. Considering a
mains voltage of 230 V this comes to a maximum connectable
capacity of approximately 55 kilowatts. The items distinguished
for small-scale consumers can be found in table 6. Bulk consumers have connections at various voltage levels with specific,
contracted capacities. The items that apply to bulk consumers
can be found in table 7.
System services
Power companies charge both small-scale and bulk consumers
an amount for system services for each consumed kilowatt hour.
6.2.3 Taxes
Item
Amount dependent on
Constant
Capacity share
Metering Service
Amount dependent on
Voltage level
Contracted capacity
Contracted capacity
Consumption normal
Consumed kWh
Consumption low
Consumed kWh
Electricity
Sliding scale (m )
3
Rate
(x 0,01/m3)
Rate
(x 0,01/kWh)
0 5,000
15.80
0 10,000
10.85
5,001 170,000
13.85
10,001 50,000
3.98
3.84
50,001 10,000,000
1.06
1,000,001 10,000,000
1.22
10,000,001>
0.05
10,000,001 >
0.80
170,001 1,000,000
124
Energy taxes and VAT are levied on natural gas and electricity.
The energy tax is based on a sliding scale. The sliding scales for
natural gas and electricity and their corresponding amounts are
shown in table 8 (2009). Energy tax is charged for each connection. The total amount charged for every electricity connection is
reduced by tax credits of 318.62 (2009).
18
16
PC
14
Grid
12
[ct/m3]
[ect/kWh]
Supply
10
8
16
2006
14
2007
12
2008
2009
10
8
4
2
0
0 5,000 m3
140
120
5,001 170,000 m3
12
Peak 10
Off-peak 10
Peak 11
2006
10
2007
Off-peak 11
100
Peak 12
[ct/kWh]
[/MWh]
60
2008
Off-peak 12
80
170,001 1,000,000 m3
Sliding scales
2009
6
40
2
2/1/2007
2/2/2007
2/3/2007
2/4/2007
2/5/2007
2/6/2007
2/7/2007
2/8/2007
2/9/2007
2/10/2007
2/11/2007
2/12/2007
2/1/2008
2/2/2008
2/3/2008
2/4/2008
2/5/2008
2/6/2008
2/7/2008
2/8/2008
2/9/2008
2/10/2008
2/11/2008
2/12/2008
2/1/2009
2/2/2009
2/3/2009
2/4/2009
2/5/2009
2/6/2009
20
0 - 10,000 kWh
Sliding scales
125
Susceptibility analysis
By integrating a gas heat pump less gas need be purchased to
meet the same demand. As a result, annual energy costs decrease
and susceptibility to price fluctuations is also reduced. If gas
prices increase by 50% the saving increases to 15% due to the
heat pump. If gas prices drop by 50% the saving amounts to
almost 6%.
Heat demand
584,646 kWh
400 kW
Boiler efficiency
95%
1,460
155%
0.4
0.93
3,500
0.23 /m3
0.11 /m3
0.08 /kWh
0.0398 /kWh
10 jaar
Discount rate
6%
6.3 Financing
When financing projects for existing as well as new commercial
buildings, parties look beyond the investment itself. Management
costs, maintenance sensitivity, costs of energy and flexibility (the
possibility of adapting the installation to a different use) are
highly important, in addition to the primary investments. The
calculation period is relatively long, generally some 10 years. In
41,571
26,605
833
1,982
1,600
2,160
Table 11 Energy and maintenance costs per year. Source: Cogen Projects
Reference
Investment
Present value
Total costs over course of
life span
Heat pump
32,000
79,610
323,877
241,014
355,877
318,623
126
Figure 7
VAT
The VAT is a fixed percentage of total energy costs (commodity,
transport and energy tax). The standard 19% VAT applies to all
purchased energy. VAT is an additional expense for parties who are
not eligible for VAT refund (such as care centres).
127
128
129
Chapter 7
Demonstration projects
The nine demonstration projects provided in this chapter illustrate the variety of possible uses and
the praiseworthy performances of gas heat pumps in practical situations. These projects are representative of the entire utility sector. They include both large and small utility buildings with widely
divergent heating and cooling demands. Three projects involve gas absorption heat pumps and six
involve gas engine heat pumps. Bivalent installations are also addressed.
1. Three gas engine heat pumps heat and cool a modern cinema
complex in Schagen, the Netherlands. The climate system
provides fresh air, heating and cooling. When necessary, the
system exchanges heating and cooling between the various
areas in the building.
2. A dental practice with surgeries and operating rooms was
established in ordinary office premises. The specific climate
conditions were met by means of gas engine heat pumps.
3. A unique climate system comprising, amongst other things,
four gas engine heat pumps was installed in modern sports
facilities that include a swimming pool and a wellness centre.
The installation saves a substantial amount of energy whilst
providing a high comfort level.
4. Nine apartment buildings in the Schalkwijk district of the
city of Haarlem were renovated and insulated. The owner
opted for large-scale use of solar energy and heat pumps.
Sixteen gas absorption heat pumps were installed. The energy
consumption per dwelling dropped by 70% on average.
5. A bivalent installation comprising gas absorption heat pumps
and two HE boilers produces energy savings of 30% to 50% in
day-care centre De Lotusbloem (Lotus Flower) in the town of
131
7.1
CineMagnus Schagen
Use
Cinema
Location
Grotewallerweg 2
1742 NM Schagen
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2006 - 2007
Type of installation
Make
Sanyo
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
20 C (plus or minus 2 C)
Heat source
Ambient air
Transfer system
Water temperature
n/a
132
Figure 2 Gas engine heat pump installed on the roof. Source: ICE
133
Project
Orfeokliniek Zoetermeer
Use
Dental clinic
Location
Orfeoschouw 38
2726 JG Zoetermeer
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2008
Type of installation
Make
Sanyo
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
20 C
Heat source
Ambient air
Transfer system
Water temperature
Heating: 40 C 45 C
Cooling: 7 C 12 C
Yes
Monitored energy
performance
No
Source: ICE
134
Figure 3 Two gas engine heat pumps on the roof of the clinic. Source: BDH
135
Project
Use
Location
Hammerweg 8b
8101 NE Raalte
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2008 2009
Type of installation
Make
Sanyo
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
Heat source
Ambient air
Transfer system
Water temperature
35 C 55 C for heating
75 C for foot-bath, swimming pool and Air
Handling Unit (Waste heat during cooling operation)
136
Figure 6 Four gas engine heat pumps positioned on the roof. Source: ICE
137
Project
Use
Location
Schalkwijk
Haarlem
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2002
Type of installation
Make
Robur
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
20C
Heat source
Transfer system
Water (Radiators)
Water temperature
Yes
138
Figure 7 Block of buildings in the Schalkwijk district in the city of Haarlem. Source: Techneco
139
Project
Use
Location
Apollostraat 66
1431 WT Aalsmeer
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2009
Type of installation
Make
Robur
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
20 C
Heat source
Ambient air
Transfer system
Water temperature
45/35C
Staefa Control
140
to the mix group of the swimming pool and the groups of the
surface heating. The heat pumps and central-heating boilers can
be switched by means of two shuttle valves. The gas absorption
heat pump saves the day-care centre 30% to 50% of their total
energy consumption. The day-care centre opted for a low-noise
heat pump installed on the roof.
Figure 10 The gas absorption heat pump on the roof. Source: Techneco
141
Project
Use
Location
Building size
Year of completion
2009
Type of installation
Make
Robur
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
30 C (zwembadwater)
Heat source
Ambient air
Transfer system
Water
Water temperature
30 C
No
142
Figure 11 The gas absorption heat pump on the roof of the swimming pool in Didam. Source: Sportfondsen Nederland
Figure 12 The gas absorption heat pump on the roof of the swimming pool in Rotterdam. Source: Sportfondsen Nederland
143
Project
Use
Retail trade
Location
Building size
Approximately 11,500 m2
Year of completion
2008
Type of installation
Make
AISIN Toyota
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
A7/W35
Heat source
Transfer system
Water
Water temperature
Yes
144
Figure 13 Gas engine heat pumps on the roof of the shopping centre in Geleen. Source: Gasengineering
Figure 14 The gas engine heat pumps from a different angle. Source: Gasengineering
145
Natuurcentrum Ameland
Use
Location
Strandweg 38
9163 GN Nes
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2008
Type of installation
Make
AISIN Toyota
Energy supply
Functionality
Space heating and cooling. Simultaneous cooling and heating during transitional seasons.
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
Offices: 21 C
Exhibition areas: 18 C
Heat source
Transfer system
Water temperature
146
Figure 16 Two gas engine heat pumps placed next to the building. Source: BDH
147
Use
Location
Bedrijfsweg 16
1613 DX Grootebroek
The Netherlands
Building size
Year of completion
2009
Type of installation
Make
AISIN Toyota
Energy supply
Functionality
Capacity
Design temperature at -7 C
22 C
Heat source
Transfer system
Water
Water temperature
148
Figure 17 The new premises of technical consultancy firm Genie BV. Source: Gasengineering
149
Appendix
Calculating gas
heat pumps
In order to properly compare the efficiency of various heat pump systems the energetic performances must first be converted into primary energy. This appendix provides an overview of the
key quantities, definitions and system limits from which a number of formulas for calculating
system efficiencies can be derived.
Definitions
151
into account the electric energy for the pumps and the control.
The COP and the GUE can be established both momentarily and
over a certain period of time.
The COP of electric heat pumps is the quotient of the energy
delivered by the heat pump (QHP) and the driving energy of the
heat pump (EHP, drive). Therefore, the following formula applies to
electric heat pumps:
COPEHP =
SPF =
SPFprim =
E HP, drive
GUEGHP =
PERGHP =
Q Tap + Q SH
GHP, drive
[]
= PERsys[]
G HP, drive
[]
Q HP
Q Tap + Q SH
HP, drive
/el
Q HP
Q tap + Q SH
[]
[]
Q Tap + Q SH
= PERsys[]
n/a
EHP, drive
1
*
C
SPFprim =
[]
Coverage percentage = C =
Q HP
[]
152
Q HP
GUEGHP =
n/a
Q HP
SPF
COP EHP
[]
Combi performance =
systeem =
[]
E HP, drive
Q HP
n/a
PEREHP =
Q HP
COPEHP =
[]
HP, drive
/el
SPF
system
Quantities
QHP
Qtap
QSH
Qheat
Qcooling
Q H P, heat
Q H P, cooling
GHP, drive
The amount of gas consumed by the heat pump converted into the amount of energy based on the lower
heating value
Gco-heating
el
EHP, drive
Eco-heating
Eco-cooling
Eaux
EauxGHP
COPHP
QHP
EHP, drive
HP
Qtap
Etotal
Eco-heating
Qtotal
QSH
Eaux
Source: TNO
153
SPF =
Q tap + Q SH + Q cooling
1
PERGHP
Q tap+Q SH
Etotal*PERGHP
154
system=
system =
[]
The SPF is preferably calculated for a full season, but of course
it can also be calculated for a shorter length of time (per heating season or season or quarter). The numerator in the fraction
is the heat delivered for the domestic water function (Qtap), the
space heating function (QSH) and the cooling function (Qcooling).
The denominator is the total amount of (electric) energy supplied
to the system. This energy flow consists of the driving energy
(natural gas) for the heat pump (GHP, drive), the auxiliary energy for
driving the pumps, the ventilators, the control and the security
(EauxGHP).
system=
system =
Q tap+ Q SH
PERGHP
Q tap+ Q SH
Etotal*PERGHP
GHP, drive
* G
+ EauxGHP
HP, drive
1
*
C
Coverage percentage: C =
Q HP
Q tap + Q SH
SPF =
[]
EHP, drive
GHP, drive + EauxGHP
[]
1
PERGHP
C * *
SPFprim =
Q tap + Q SH + Q cooling
(GHP, drive+ EauxGHP /el+ Gco-heating
= PERsys []
SPF
combi performance
Combi performanceprim =
Combi performanceprim =
Q heat + Q cooling
EHP, drive + Eco-heating + Eco-cooling + Eaux
= []
EHP, drive
Q HP, heat+ Q HP, cool
Q heat + Q cooling
Q HP, cooling + Q HP, heat
In this formula the numerator is the total heat delivered by the
heat pump system and the denominator is the amount of heat
that would have been generated if the total electricity input
Etotal had been used to drive the heat pump.
The following also applies:
[]
Coverage percentage Ccooling =
SPFprim=
= []
SPF =
Q heat+ Q cooling
Q heat + Q cooling
(EHP, drive+ Eco-heating + Eco-cooling + Eaux )/el + GHP, drive+ Gco-heating
Q HP, cooling
Q cooling
=PERsys []
[]
GHP, drive
The useful amount of heat and the useful amount of cooling are
included in the numerator. The total amount of energy needed to
realise this is in the denominator.
155
Definitions
156
Definitions
157
Low temperature system Central-heating system designed for a temperature range of 45 C/30 C for example; therefore considerably lower than
the usual range of 90 C/70 C.
Main control Capacity control that adjusts the capacity of an installation
to the heating or cooling demand.
Misfiring Misfiring occurs when the fuel-air mixture in a combustion
engine fails to ignite.
Sankey diagram A flow diagram depicting several flows (of energy, for
example) providing insight into the volume and direction of the flows.
Single stage In the case of a sorption heat pump single stage indicates
that the refrigerant in the evaporator is heated by the source medium. The
alternative is a double stage sorption heat pump.
158
Speed control Capacity control based on varying the number of revolutions of an engine or compressor. Speed control is possible up to the point
that the beats of the piston movement start to disturb the process.
Stoichiometric combustion Combustion with just enough air to completely combust the supplied fuel in a combustion engine.
Substance pair Combination of refrigerant and absorbent/adsorbent
that is suitable for enabling a sorption heat pump to operate.
Superheating Difference between the temperature at which the refrigerant evaporates and the actual (higher) temperature of the vapour in the
evaporator. In most heat pumps the vapour is slightly overheated to keep it
from condensing too soon in the pipe to the condenser.
Definitions
159
Conversion tables
SI units
Prefixes
Symbol
Name
Unit
Multiple
Prefix
Symbol
Speed
1012
tera
Mass
kg (kilogramme)
109
giga
Acceleration
106
mega
Force
N (Newton)
103
kilo
Pressure
Pa (Pascal)
102
hecto
Weight
N (Newton)
10
deca
da
Energy
J (Joule)
10-1
deci
Power
W (Watt)
10-2
centi
10-3
milli
10-6
micro
10-9
nano
10-12
pico
10-15
femto
10-18
atto
Source: Agentschap NL
Afgeleide eenheden
Name
Unit
Speed
Acceleration
Force
Pressure
Work
Power
Energy
Source: Agentschap NL
160
Conversion tables
Energy
Fuel
Unit
Natural gas
equivalent (Nm3)
kW
0.26
litre
1.20
Fuel oil
litre
1.30
Coal
kg
0.93
Liquid propane
litre
0.73
litre
0.95
Diesel
litre
1.13
Petrol
litre
1.04
Hydrogen
kg
4.00
Dry timber
kg
0.48
1 kWh electricity
0.26
1.2
1,300
1 ton coal
925
0.73
1 litre LPG
0.95
1 litre diesel
1.13
1.04
X*
1 kg gaseous H2
4.0
1 ton gaseous O2
104
Crude
kg
42.7
73.3
1 ton liquid O2
260
kg
44.0
63.1
1 ton gaseous N2
65
1 ton liquid N2
208
49
Engine petrol
kg
44.0
72
Aviation kerosene
kg
43.5
71.5
Petroleum
kg
43.1
71.9
Shale oil
kg
36.0
73.3
kg
41.7
74.3
kg
41.0
77.4
LPG
kg
45.2
66.7
Ethane
kg
45.2
61.6
Naphthas
kg
44.0
73.3
80.7
3
3
3
3
* Factor X follows from the lower heating value in MJ/ Nm3 of the deployed natural gas divided
by 31.65 MJ/ Nm3.
Source: Agentschap NL
Unit
CO2
(kg)
NOX
(g)
SO2
(g)
Acid unit
Unit
Heating
value
CO2 emission
factor (kg/GJ)
Gas (conventional)
m3
1.780
2.00
0.016
0.04450
Bitumen
kg
41.9
m3
1.780
0.55
0.016
0.01260
Lubricants
kg
41.4
73.3
litre
2.700
2.90
6.000
0.25000
Petroleum coke
kg
35.2
100.8
Electricity
kWh
0.574
0.15
0.425
0.01648
kg
44.8
73.3
Refinery gas
kg
45.2
66.7
kg
45.2
66.7
Other oils
kg
40.2
73.3
Anthracite
kg
26.6
98.3
Coke
kg
28.7
94.0
kg
28.7
95.4
kg
28.7
89.8
kg
24.5
94.7
161
Main category
Unit
Heating
value
CO2 emission
factor (kg/GJ)
Sub-bituminous coal
kg
20.7
96.1
Brown coal
kg
20.0
101.2
Bituminous shale
kg
9.4
106.7
Peat
kg
10.8
106.0
kg
23.5
94.6
kg
28.5
111.9
MJ
1.0
41.2
MJ
1.0
247.4
MJ
1.0
191.9
Nm3
11.6
149.5
Natural gas
Nm3
31.7
56.8
Carbon monoxide
Nm3
12.6
155.2
Methane
Nm3
35.9
54.9
Hydrogen
Nm3
10.8
0.0
Biomass solid
kg
15.1
109.6
Biomass liquid
kg
39.4
71.2
Biomass gaseous
Nm3
21.8
90.8
RWZI* biogas
Nm3
23.3
84.2
Landfill gas
Nm3
19.5
100.7
Nm3
23.3
84.2
kg
34.4
73.6
Biomass
Other fuels
Waste (not biogenic)
162
PER Primary Energy Ratio. The PER indicates how many units of primary
energy (for example natural gas) are needed to deliver one unit of heat. By
means of the PER, gas-fired heat pumps and electric heat pumps can be
compared more accurately based on the COP.
W.., B.., A.. Letter and number combinations used to typify heat pumps.
W stands for water, B for brine and A for air. The value after the letter
indicates the (supply) temperature of the relevant medium. The combination
for the heat source is usually stated first, followed by the combination for
the transfer medium. Source and transfer medium are separated in this
document by means of a hyphen.
163
Bibliography
164
Bibliography
Stratus, Energiemonitor gebouwde omgeving U-bouwpanel (Energy monitor for built environment Utility building panel).
165
Index
166
Index
Energy performance 21, 35-37, 40, 67, 116, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142,
144, 146, 148, 165
Energy Performance Regulation for Buildings 40
Energy supply 8, 14, 15, 117, 128, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146,
148, 165, 170
Energy transition 9, 10, 13, 14, 16, 164
Engine-driven 24, 25, 39-44
Environmental impact 8, 28, 120
European Standard 89
Evaporator Fixed value
Excess air 87, 92, 134, 157
Exhaust air 106
Existing building 19, 20, 31, 33, 35, 67, 70, 73-76, 83, 120, 128
Expansion valve 24, 42, 43, 90, 92, 96, 98-100, 109, 157, 159
Exploitation calculation 124
Feasibility 48, 116, 117, 120, 132
Financing 126, 127
Fitness 4, 136, 137
Floor cooling 57
Floor heating 23, 57
Free cooling 80, 83
Gas absorption heat pump 24, 27, 28, 32, 37, 56, 59, 89, 105-107, 117,
119, 131, 138-143
Gas-driven 25, 31, 35, 37, 43, 50, 61, 67, 68, 72, 75, 80, 152, 153, 155
Gas engine 23-28, 35, 37, 39-43, 68-70, 75, 78, 80, 87-95, 102, 104-106,
108, 112, 113, 117, 119, 121,131-134, 136, 137, 144-148, 156, 158,
163, 164
Gas engine heat pump 23-28, 35, 37, 40, 68-70, 75, 78, 80, 89-95, 102,
104-106, 108, 112, 117, 119, 121, 131, 134-137, 144-148, 156
Gas supply 15
Generator temperature 89, 157
Green gas 9, 11, 16, 21, 67
Greenhouse gas 15
Ground-coupled 60, 61, 82, 83, 88, 106, 107, 157
Ground source 21, 24, 25, 27, 30
Ground water 37, 41, 42, 106, 138
GWP (Global warming potential) 102, 163
Heat and cold storage 74, 75, 138, 148
Heat demand 19, 20, 31, 33, 34, 50, 70, 72-75, 79, 80, 105, 106, 110, 120,
124, 126, 146, 154, 158
Heat exchange 55
Heat factor 94, 95
167
Heating 9, 10, 13, 19-23, 25, 27, 29-31, 33-37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 48, 51,
54-58, 60, 61, 64, 68-81, 83, 87-91, 93-95, 101, 102, 105, 106, 108113, 115-117, 119, 128, 131, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146,
148, 151, 153-155, 157, 158, 161, 164, 165
Heating curve 79, 80, 110-112, 157
Heating function 77, 154
Heat output 159
Heat pump 9, 11, 19, 21, 23-37, 39-65, 67-84, 87-96, 98, 100-113, 115117, 119-124, 126, 131-148, 151-159, 163-165
Heat source 21, 42, 59, 60, 67, 80, 82, 83, 89, 90, 98, 100, 101, 106-108,
120, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 148, 156-158, 163
Hotel 19, 21, 36, 55, 72, 74, 75
Hunting 100, 157
Hydro module 25, 26, 91, 117, 149
Hydrocarbon 92, 157, 159
Industrial halls 72
Insulation measures 15, 31
Integrated design 70
Intercooler 101-103, 157
Internal control 109, 157
Investment costs 24, 77, 115, 121, 127
Investment subsidy 121
Leisure and accommodation industry 21, 30
Liquid-vapour line 100, 156, 157
Liquid sorption system 54
Lithium bromide 54, 56, 68, 113
Low temperature heat 39, 44, 56, 60, 88
Maintenance 27, 68, 70, 84, 92-94, 115, 117, 121, 122, 126-128
Maintenance costs 70, 121, 122, 126
Mechanical compressor 68, 70
Methane 14, 92, 162
Micro CHP 10
Misfiring 92, 158
Natural gas 8-11, 13-16, 19-21, 28, 29, 31, 35, 39, 41-43, 45, 49-51, 58,
67, 68, 87, 88, 106, 116, 117, 122-126, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 142,
144, 146, 148, 153, 154, 157, 161-164, 170
New buildings 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 67, 73-76
NVOE 82
ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential) 102, 163
Offices 19-21, 30, 31, 34, 72, 74, 76, 116, 132, 136, 146, 148, 158, 165
Office building 21, 29, 36, 59, 74, 75, 134
Optimisation 102, 108, 109, 128
168
Index
169
GasTerra is an international company trading in natural gas. It operates on the European energy
market and has a significant share of the Dutch gas market. It also provides gas-related services.
The company has a strong purchasing position and has over 40 years experience in purchasing and
selling natural gas.
GasTerra fulfils a public role regarding the implementation of the Dutch governments small
fields policy. The aim of this policy is to promote the production of Dutch natural gas from the
smaller gas fields. GasTerra is customer-oriented and strives to maintain long-term relationships with
market players and to put in place sales contracts which express the market value of natural gas and
related services.
GasTerra is committed to sustainable development as a guiding principle for its strategy and actions.
The economic and social value of natural gas as a source of energy gives the company an important
role in utilising the domestic gas reserves and in energy supply in the Netherlands and the EU.
GasTerra promotes the safe and efficient consumption of natural gas and takes active steps to develop
further applications. The company recognises the great importance of a transition to sustainable
energy supplies and initiates projects in that context.
Our actions are based on our code of conduct, the cornerstones of which are integrity and respect.
170