Ideal gas

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that do not
interact except when they collide elastically. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the
ideal gas law, a simplified equation of state, and is amenable to analysis under statistical
mechanics. One mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.7 L at STP as defined by IUPAC.
At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure, most real gases behave
qualitatively like an ideal gas. Many gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, noble gases, and
some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like ideal gases within reasonable
tolerances.[1] Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower
pressure,[1] as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant
compared with the particles' kinetic energy, and the size of the molecules becomes less
significant compared to the empty space between them.
The ideal gas model tends to fail at lower temperatures or higher pressures, when intermolecular
forces and molecular size become important. It also fails for most heavy gases, such as many
refrigerants,[1] and for gases with strong intermolecular forces, notably water vapor. At high
pressures, the volume of a real gas is often considerably greater than that of an ideal gas. At low
temperatures, the pressure of a real gas is often considerably less than that of an ideal gas. At
some point of low temperature and high pressure, real gases undergo a phase transition, such as
to a liquid or a solid. The model of an ideal gas, however, does not describe or allow phase
transitions. These must be modeled by more complex equations of state. The deviation from the
ideal gas behaviour can be described by a dimensionless quantity, the compressibility factor, Z.
The ideal gas model has been explored in both the Newtonian dynamics (as in "kinetic theory")
and in quantum mechanics (as a "gas in a box"). The ideal gas model has also been used to
model the behavior of electrons in a metal (in the Drude model and the free electron model), and
it is one of the most important models in statistical mechanics.

Types of ideal gas

There are three basic classes of ideal gas:

the classical or MaxwellBoltzmann ideal gas,

the ideal quantum Bose gas, composed of bosons, and

the ideal quantum Fermi gas, composed of fermions.

The classical ideal gas can be separated into two types: The classical thermodynamic ideal gas
and the ideal quantum Boltzmann gas. Both are essentially the same, except that the classical
thermodynamic ideal gas is based on classical statistical mechanics, and certain thermodynamic

parameters such as the entropy are only specified to within an undetermined additive constant.
The ideal quantum Boltzmann gas overcomes this limitation by taking the limit of the quantum
Bose gas and quantum Fermi gas in the limit of high temperature to specify these additive
constants. The behavior of a quantum Boltzmann gas is the same as that of a classical ideal gas
except for the specification of these constants. The results of the quantum Boltzmann gas are
used in a number of cases including the SackurTetrode equation for the entropy of an ideal gas
and the Saha ionization equation for a weakly ionized plasma.

Ideal gas law

Isotherms of an ideal gas. The curved lines represent the relationship between pressure (on the
vertical, y-axis) and volume (on the horizontal, x-axis) for an ideal gas at different temperatures:
lines which are further away from the origin (that is, lines that are nearer to the top right-hand
corner of the diagram) represent higher temperatures.
The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation
to the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was
first stated by mile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of Boyle's law, Charles' law and
Avogadro's Law.[
The ideal gas law is often written as:PV=nRT
where:
P is the pressure of the gas
V is the volume of the gas
n is the amount of substance of gas (also known as number of moles)
R is the ideal, or universal, gas constant, equal to the product of the Boltzmann constant and the
Avogadro constant.
T is the temperature of the gas

The Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation is:

pV = nRT

On the whole, this is an easy equation to remember and use. The problems lie almost
entirely in the units. I am assuming below that you are working in strict SI units (as you
will be if you are doing a UK-based exam, for example).

Exploring the various terms

Pressure, p
Pressure is measured in pascals, Pa - sometimes expressed as newtons per square
metre, N m-2. These mean exactly the same thing.
Be careful if you are given pressures in kPa (kilopascals). For example, 150 kPa is
150,000 Pa. You must make that conversion before you use the ideal gas equation.
Should you want to convert from other pressure measurements:

1 atmosphere = 101,325 Pa

1 bar = 100 kPa = 100,000 Pa

Volume, V
This is the most likely place for you to go wrong when you use this equation. That's
because the SI unit of volume is the cubic metre, m3 - not cm3 or dm3.
1 m3 = 1000 dm3 = 1,000,000 cm3
So if you are inserting values of volume into the equation, you first have to convert them
into cubic metres.
You would have to divide a volume in dm3 by 1000, or in cm3 by a million.
Similarly, if you are working out a volume using the equation, remember to covert the
answer in cubic metres into dm3 or cm3 if you need to - this time by multiplying by a 1000
or a million.

If you get this wrong, you are going to end up with a silly answer, out by a factor of a
thousand or a million. So it is usually fairly obvious if you have done something wrong,
and you can check back again.
Number of moles, n
This is easy, of course - it is just a number. You already know that you work it out by
dividing the mass in grams by the mass of one mole in grams.
You will most often use the ideal gas equation by first making the substitution to give:

I don't recommend that you remember the ideal gas equation in this form, but you must
be confident that you can convert it into this form.
The gas constant, R
A value for R will be given you if you need it, or you can look it up in a data source. The
SI value for R is 8.31441 J K-1 mol-1.

Boyle's law
This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with
a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external linking. (December 2015)
An animation showing the relationship between pressure and volume when amount and
temperature are held constant.
Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the BoyleMariotte law, or Mariotte's law[1]) is an
experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of
a gas decreases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is
The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the
volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed
system.[2][3]
Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as
PV=k

where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, and k is a constant.
The equation states that product of pressure and volume is a constant for a given mass of
confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. For comparing the same substance under two
different sets of condition, the law can be usefully expressed as:
P1V1=P2V2
The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion.
Similarly, as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases. The law was named after
chemist and physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662.

Charles's law
An animation demonstrating the relationship between volume and temperature.
law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases
tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles' law is:
When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the
volume will be directly related.[1]
this directly proportional relationship can be written as
V/T=k
where:
V is the volume of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin).
k is a constant.
This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases; conversely, a decrease in
temperature will lead to a decrease in volume. For comparing the same substance under two
different sets of conditions, the law can be written as:
V1/T1=V2/T2 or V2/T1=T2/VI or VIT2=V2T1.
The equation shows that, as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also increases
in proportion.!

GayLussac law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Gay-Lussac's law)

Continuum mechanics

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The expression Gay-Lussac's law is used for each of the two relationships named after the
French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which concern the properties of gases, though it is
more usually applied to his law of combining volumes, the first listed here. The first law relates
to volumes before and after a chemical reaction while the second concerns the pressure and
temperature relationship for a sample of gas often known as Amontons' Law.

Contents

1 Law of combining volumes

2 Pressure-temperature law

3 See also

4 References

5 Further reading

6 External links

Law of combining volumes

Under STP, a reaction between three cubic meters of hydrogen gas and one cubic meter of
nitrogen gas will produce circa two cubic meters of ammonia
The law of combining volumes states that, when gases react together to form other gases, all
volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure
The ratio between the volumes of the reactant gases and the products can be expressed in
simple whole numbers.
For example, Gay-Lussac found that 2 volumes of Hydrogen and 1 volume of Oxygen would
react to form 2 volumes of gaseous water. Based on Gay-Lussac's results, Amedeo Avogadro
theorized that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gas contain equal
numbers of molecules (Avogadro's law). This hypothesis meant that the previously stated result
2 volumes of Hydrogen + 1 volume of Oxygen = 2 volumes of gaseous water
could also be expressed as
2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 2 molecule of water.
The law of combining gases was made public by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808.[1][2]
Avogadro's hypothesis, however, was not initially accepted by chemists until the Italian chemist
Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to convince the First International Chemical Congress in 1860.[3]

Pressure-temperature law

This law is often referred to as Amontons's Law of Pressure-Temperature after Guillaume

Amontons, who, between 1700 and 1702, discovered the relationship between the pressure and
temperature of a fixed mass of gas kept at a constant volume.[4][5][6] Amontons discovered this
while building an "air thermometer".
The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and fixed volume is directly proportional to the gas's
absolute temperature.
If a gas's temperature increases, then so does its pressure if the mass and volume of the gas are
held constant. The law has a particularly simple mathematical form if the temperature is
measured on an absolute scale, such as in kelvins. The law can then be expressed mathematically
as:
P/T=k
where:
P is the pressure of the gas
T is the temperature of the gas (measured in kelvin).
k is a constant.
This law holds true because temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a
substance; as the kinetic energy of a gas increases, its particles collide with the container walls
more rapidly, thereby exerting increased pressure.
For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written
as:
P1/T1=P2/T2 OR P1T2=P2T2
Because Amontons discovered the law beforehand, Gay-Lussac's name is now generally
associated within chemistry with the law of combining volumes discussed in the section above.
Some introductory physics textbooks still define the pressure-temperature relationship as GayLussac's law.[7][8] Gay-Lussac primarily investigated the relationship between volume and
temperature and published it in 1802, but his work did cover some comparison between pressure
and temperature.[9] Given the relative technology available to both men, Amonton was only able
to work with air as a gas, where Gay-Lussac was able to experiment with multiple types of
common gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.[10] Gay-Lussac did attribute his findings
to Jacques Charles because he used much of Charles's unpublished data from 1787 - hence, the
law became known as Charles's law or the Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac[11] However, in recent
years the term has fallen out of favor.
Gay-Lussac's (Amontons') Law, Charles' Law, and Boyle's law form the combined gas law.
These three gas laws in combination with Avogadro's Law can be generalized by the ideal gas
law.

Molecular Mass and Mole Concept

Molecular Mass
Back to Top
The molecular mass of a substance is the relative mass of its molecule as compared
with the mass of a 12C atom taken as 12-units. It indicates the number of times; one
molecule of the substance is heavier than

atom.
Calculation of Molecular Mass
Back to Top
Molecular mass is equal to sum of the atomic masses of all atoms present in one
molecule of the substance.Example: H2OMass of H atom = 1Mass of 2H atoms =
2Mass of O atom = 16Molecular mass = 2 + 16 = 18g
Relative Molecular Mass
Back to Top
Relative molecular mass or RMM is the molecular weight of an element or a
compound. It is the number of times one molecule of the substance is heavier than
1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon (12C).

Gram Molecular Mass

Back to Top
Molecular mass expressed in grams is numerically equal to gram molecular mass of
the substance.Molecular mass of O2 = 32Gram molecular mass of O2 = 32gGram
molecular mass is the relative molecular mass expressed in grams.Note that
relative atomic mass is a ratio and has no units while gram molecular mass and
gram atomic mass are expressed in grams.
Mole Concept
Back to Top
Since it is not possible to calculate the weight of particles individually, a collection
of such particles called mole is taken for all practical purposes. It was discovered
that the number of atoms present in 12g of carbon of 12C isotope is 6.023 x 1023
atoms. This is referred to as Avogadro number after the discoverer Avogadro. A
mole of a gas is the amount of a substance containing 6.023 x 10 23 particles. It is a
basic unit of the amount or quantity of a substance. The substance may be atoms,
molecules, ions or group of ions.

Avogadro discovered that under standard conditions of temperature and pressure, (1 atm and 273
K) a sample of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L.

Molar Volume
Back to Top
One mole of any gas at STP will have a volume of 22.4 L. This is called molar
volume.

The molar volume [22.4 L at STP] plays a vital role in stoichiometric calculations
because it is the link between volume and mass in reactions involving gases.
Relationship Between Gram Molecular Weight and Gram Molecular Volume

Back to Top
Gram molecular weight (GMW) or mole is the relative molecular mass of a
substance expressed in grams. It is also called gram molecular weight of that
element.

Gram molecular volume (GMV) or molar volume is the volume occupied by one-gram
molecular weight of a gas at STP (Standard temperature and pressure).
All gases of equal volumes contain same number of molecules under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure. Equal number of molecules of different
gases will occupy equal volumes under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

One mole of gas = 6.023 x 1023 molecules

1 mole of a gas = 22.4 L at STP

The Relationship between Pressure and Volume
Robert Boyle (16271691)

As the pressure on a gas increases, the volume of the gas decreases because the gas particles are
forced closer together. Conversely, as the pressure on a gas decreases, the gas volume increases
because the gas particles can now move farther apart. Weather balloons get larger as they rise
through the atmosphere to regions of lower pressure because the volume of the gas has
increased; that is, the atmospheric gas exerts less pressure on the surface of the balloon, so the
interior gas expands until the internal and external pressures are equal.
The Relationship between Temperature and Volume
Jacques Alexandre Csar Charles (17461823) and Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac
(17781850)

Hot air rises, which is why hot-air balloons ascend through the atmosphere and why warm air
collects near the ceiling and cooler air collects at ground level. Because of this behavior, heating
registers are placed on or near the floor, and vents for air-conditioning are placed on or near the
ceiling. The fundamental reason for this behavior is that gases expand when they are heated.
Because the same amount of substance now occupies a greater volume, hot air is less dense than

cold air. The substance with the lower densityin this case hot airrises through the substance
with the higher density, the cooler air.

The Relationship between Temperature and Pressure

For a fixed mass of gas, at a constant volume, the pressure (p) is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature (T)."
Summary
Boyle showed that the volume of a sample of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure
(Boyles law), Charles and Gay-Lussac demonstrated that the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its temperature (in kelvins) at constant pressure (Charless law), and Avogadro
postulated that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present
(Avogadros law). Plots of the volume of gases versus temperature extrapolate to zero volume at
273.15C, which is absolute zero (0 K), the lowest temperature possible. Charless law implies
that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

Summary=DRUGS
Most of the time, medicines make our lives better. They reduce aches and pains,
fight infections, and control problems such as high blood pressure or diabetes. But
medicines can also cause unwanted reactions.

The problem is that there is often a lock-and-key interaction between our bodies and the
compounds that act upon themonly one of the two possible hands of a compound can "shake
hands" and fit appropriately. In fact, one version will often have a beneficial effect on the body
while the other will have a completely different and sometimes detrimental effect. Therefore, it is
important to be able to selectively produce the compound with the desired handedness. For this
reason, the FDA has increasingly required that the molecules in a particular drug be present in
just one form.
A drug is any substance other than food, that when inhaled, injected, smoked,
consumed, absorbed via a patch on the skin or dissolved under the tongue causes a
physiological change in the body.
What is a drug?

A drug is any chemical you take that affects the way your body works. Alcohol, caffeine, aspirin
and nicotine are all drugs. A drug must be able to pass from your body into your brain. Once
inside your brain, drugs can change the messages your brain cells are sending to each other, and
to the rest of your body. They do this by interfering with your brain's own chemical signals:
neurotransmitters that transfer signals across synapses.