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INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

1. Examine the major factors shaping the British land-revenue policy in India. How it affected
Indian society?
The direct and immediate impact of the British rule in India was on its economy. All spheres of
economic life of India were reorganized by the British to transform it into a typical colonial
structure. In this respect, land revenue measures received the maximum care and there were many
factors that worked in giving shape to it.
The most important factor in shaping the British land revenue policy in India was the recognition of
India as a colonial land. In the era of Mercantilism and later during industrialization, the prosperity
and development of the mother country was the prime concern of the British. India being an
agrarian economy, land revenue measures thus received the maximum attraction for maximum
extraction.
The company needed Indian revenues to pay for its purchase of Indian handicrafts and other goods
for export, to pay for the thousands of English officers and to meet the costs of economic and
administrative changes needed to enable colonialisation to fully penetrate Indian villages. In later
times, when the British set out to conquer other Indian powers and regions outside India, the war
costs had to be met by Indian revenue and it ultimately meant land revenue.
Moreover, the British industrial and commercial interests prevented the East India Company from
raising any substantial revenue from high custom tariffs. The company therefore had to rely on land
revenue as the principal source of income for the state.
Broadly speaking, the British adopted three types of land tenures in India viz., the Zamindari
system, the Mahalwari system and the Ryotwari system. In giving shapes of these land tenures, the
British were led by certain factors. In all these tenures, the initial assessment was fixed at a very
high level than that was prevalent before e.g. between 1765 and 1793, land revenue demand nearly
doubled. Secondly the British wanted to reduce the burden of land revenue collection to the
minimum. Thus in Permanent Settlement and Mahalwari Settlement areas, the Zamindars and
Village respectively were entrusted with collection of land revenue. Further, the British wanted to
create an aristocratic group tied to the land and owned their existence to British. Thus, the absentee
landlords, money lenders and other intermediaries were created by the new land tenures and they
became the reactionary elements of Indian society which supported the British till the end of their
rule. Further, to ensure the regular and unhindered supply of agricultural products and raw materials
for the mother country sunset rules were implemented with land revenue rules, by which the
peasant was compelled to sell his produce to meet the revenue demand of the government.
The British land revenue systems and excessive demand coupled with the new judicial and
administrative setup turned Indian rural economy upside down. The old politico-economic-social
framework of village communities broke down. The introduction of the concept of private property
in land turned land into a market commodity. New social classes like the landlord, trader, and
money lender shot into importance. On the other hand, the class of rural proletariat the peasant
proprietor, the sub-tenant and the agricultural labour multiplied in number. New modes of
production, commercialization of agriculture and linkage with the world market added a new
dimension to Indian agriculture and rural economy. And, the ultimate impact of all these on Indian
society was impoverishment, poverty and famine.
2. What do you mean by the commercialization of Indian agriculture by the British? Discuss
its results.

One of the important impacts of British political control of India was the subjugation of Indian
economy for British interest. The British made far reaching changes in Indian economy and
commercialization of agriculture was one among them.
The commercialization of agriculture refers to agricultural practices for the market and not for own
consumption. It was initiated in India by the British through their direct and indirect policies and
activities. Firstly, new land tenure system had made agricultural land a freely exchangeable
commodity. The Permanent Settlement by giving ownership right to Zamindars created a class of
wealthy landlords. They could make use of this ownership right by sale or purchase of the land.
Further, the agriculture which had been a way of life rather than a business enterprise now began to
be practiced for sale in national and international market. Moreover, crops like cotton, jute,
groundnuts, sugarcane, tobacco etc. which had high demand in the market were increasingly
cultivated. The beginning of plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber etc. heralded a new era in
agricultural practices in India. These were essentially meant for markets and thus commercialization
of agriculture took new heights with the expansion of the British rule.
A large number of factors encouraged and facilitated commercialization of agriculture. The
political unity established by the British and the resultant rise of unified national market was an
important factor. The spread of money economy replaced the barter and agricultural goods became
market items. Further, the replacement of custom and tradition by competition and contract also led
to commercialization of agriculture. Moreover, expansion of rail and road transport enabled the
transportation of agricultural products from production centres to markets. Industrialization in
England also acted as a factor in commercialization as more and more agricultural goods were
produced as raw material for the machine industry. The enlargement of international trade and entry
of British finance capital also helped commercialization of agriculture.
The commercialization of agriculture had mixed results. For the planters, industrialists and
financers commercialization of agriculture provided opportunity to make huge profits e.g. cotton
boom of 1860s. But for Indian peasant was tied to the highly fluctuating national and international
market. He was no longer a deciding factor in agricultural practices. Further, by making agricultural
land a tradable commodity the peasant lost his security feeling. High land revenue forced demand
him to take loan from the money lender at high interest rates. Failure to repay the debt in time
meant loss of land to the money lender. It led to land alienation and increase in the number of
agricultural labourers whose conditions especially in plantation industry was pathetic.
The commercialization of agriculture was a new phenomenon in Indian agricultural scene
introduced by the British. While the upper class and the British industries benefited from it, the
Indian peasants life was tied to the fluctuations of a unified market and it ultimately led to
impoverishment of peasantry and created famines in the country side.
3. How did the British policy of trade hurt the Indian textile industries and crafts in the latter
half to the 19th century?
The collapse of Indian textile and crafts were a result of British economic policies. This collapse
was caused largely by influx of British goods at cheaper rates to Indian market.
The Act of 1813 imposed one-way trade policy on India. Indian market was soon invaded by British
manufactures particularly in cotton textiles. Indians goods made with primitive techniques could not
compete with goods produced on a mass scale by machines. Abolition of tariff rates on such imports
and hike of excise duties on Indian textiles fuelled further degeneration of industries.
The ruin of crafts particularly was furthered with development railways. British capitalists used
railway to reach every corner of India for their goods. It brought death of already fumbling rural
craft. The cotton weaving and the spinning industries were affected worst hit. Similar fate overtook
the iron, pottery, glass, paper, metal oil pressing, tanning and dyeing industries.
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The high import duties and other restrictions imposed on the import of Indian goods in to Britain led
to virtual closing of European market for Indian manufactures. Encouraged by Government to
export of Indian raw materials greatly injured Indian handicrafts and cottage industrial due to price
rise.
Thus, the British ruined Indian crafts by their economic policies. Their free trade policies made
India a net importer. It upstaged the self-sufficiency of Indian villages.
4. The British industrial policy in the nineteenth century ruined the Indian handicrafts.
Comment
During the 19th Century, India suffered a period of industrial decline which is described as deindustrialization and it was the result of British Industrial Policy.
The 19th Century was the period of industrial capitalism. Britains industrialists and trading interests
launched new economic offensive and lobbying for abolition of the companys monopoly of Indian
trade and to get further concession for British industries. This led to the formation of policies by the
politico-administrative system that was harmful to Indian interests.
The policy of enforcing free trade on India opened up India for British twist and cotton stuffs,
spelling ruination of Indian waving industry. Moreover, British imposed heavy duties on Indian
manufacturers in England. This made the Indian goods uncompetitive in England. Further, British
pursued a policy of exporting raw materials from India. Apart from that, the transit and custom
duties imposed by the British pushed up the prices of Indian goods. The British also followed a
policy of granting special privileges to the British manufactures and trade interests in India. Even
the introduction of railways was also a part of British policy measures to promote British interest in
India. Railway lines were laid from the source of raw material to the port towns.
All the above policy measures had devastating effect on Indian handicraft. The Indian handicraft
industry which withstood the ravages of time, famine and wars in the long history of the country
could not do so before the industrial policies of Britain.
5. The impact of government on the people meant essentially the impact of government on
the village. Elucidate.
India being a country with agricultural pre-dominance any impact of the government measures
essentially meant impact on the village.
During the British period India became a colony and the measures taken by the government was
oriented to extract maximum from this land, land revenue systems being one of the most important
expressions of it which led to the degeneration of Indian villages. High land revenue demand,
rigidity in collection, new landed gentry, intrusion of money lenders etc were the expressions of the
impact of British governmental policies on Indian villages. Ruination of indigenous crafts and
industry as a result of one-way free trade policy and other fiscal and administrative measures
speeded up the decline of the self-sufficient Indian villages. Further breaking up of the bonding of
agriculture and rural industrial led to the overcrowding in lands which impoverished further the
Indian villages.
Moreover, the impact of other administrative measures like railways, law and order machinery etc
felt in the remote villages of India. Though, on the positive side the railway brought the Indians
together with national consciousness it became the suction pumps to drain out resources of Indian
villages. In a similar way the new official class replaced the old Indian village panchayats,
chowkidar etc. Thus, the impact of government in India meant really an impact on villages and
these impacts had colonial tilt and orientation.

6. What do you understand about Drain of Wealth during British rule? Examine its forms
and effects on Indian economy.
Drain and Wealth during the British rule refers to a large portion of national product of India
which was not available for consumption to its people, but was drained away to Britain. The Indians
were not getting adequate economic or material returns for it. It was put forward by Dadabhai
Naoroji, in his famous paper Poverty and un-British Rule in India. Its various forms of drain and
constituents were:
i)
Home charges i.e. cost of maintaining British officers (salaries and allowances) in
London for India.
ii)
Remittances, i.e. expenditure on British officials, their salaries and allowances, working
in India
iii)
Foreign trade i.e. payment of interest to British capital invested in India an tax holidays
for the foreign traders.
It resulted in poverty and underdevelopment of India. Famines were frequent due to poverty and
shortage of food. It affected employment and productivity of India. Due to lack of capital, industries
were absent. The per capita incomes became very low.
Exposure of true nature of British rule by D. Naoroji and others aroused Indians against their
exploitation. This arousing reflected fully at the time of partition of Bengal when Indian nationalists
decided to wage economic war against the British in the form of Swadeshi and Boycott, which
remained a permanent weapon till independence. Thus drain of wealth provided a cause as well as
weapon to fight against the colonial rule.
7. Write a critique on the impact of the Drain Theory of Dadabhai Nauroji in the growth of
economic nationalism.
The process of continuous plunder of Indian resources, wealth and raw materials by the company to
enrich itself at the cost of Indias growing poverty led to the formulation of the theory of Drain of
wealth by the Nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutta, M. G. Ranade and many others.
The idea for the first time was put forward by Dadabhai Nauroji in his paper Englands debt of
India which he read before a meeting of the East India Association. He also wrote Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India. The wants and means of India and on the commerce of India, which
propagated his idea on drain of wealth was declared by him to be the fundamental evil of British
rule in India.
Dadabhai Nauroji was the earliest exponent of the theory of drain of wealth and declared it as the
evil of all evils and the main cause of Indian poverty.
This theory was highlighted by him during the national movement.
The theory was officially adopted by Indian National Congress in 1896 at its Calcutta Session. It
was proclaimed that famine and poverty in India had been brought by Drain of wealth which was
continuing for years together. He opined that the loot and plunder made by the foreign invaders was
not so devastating because they immediately went back and pass was temporary, but the British
plunder was the part of existing government which was continuously increasing year by year.
8. Emergence of middle class in British India was direct consequence of establishment of new
social economy, new state system, administrative machinery and western education. Discuss.
Due to emergence of British rule in India a number of changes came about in the structure of Indian
polity. The rise of the middle class in 18th century represents one such change. Since their
emergence was connected with the spread of British rule, the middle class came up in different
areas at different times.

The modern Indian middle classes came up in response to changes in the system of law, education
and public administration. It was a direct consequence of establishment of new social economy,
new state system, administrative machinery and of course western education. Again technological
changes also gave birth to a nascent industrial bourgeoisie particularly in western India. But, the
largest party of the body of Indian middle classes belonged to Government service and professions,
rather to business and industry: professions of doctors, lawyers, teachers and journalists. The
introduction of new economy and English Education produced the classes that aspired to places of
pre-eminence in society. There was a class of Indian adventures who had offered their services to
the English company as interpreters and Agents. Their Golden Age began in Bengal with the Battle
of Plassey. The Company needed men who could help the English officials in the ever-growing task
of administering law and collecting revenues. These people who were there to help the white
superior officials took full advantage of the situation of become rich. They came to be known as
Bengali Babus. As the Companys territories were extended westward, the Bengali Babus also
moved along with their benefactors.
The middle class which had flocked to professions like teaching and law or which had always
sought jobs under the British became restless. It began to express itself through organisations and
newspapers. In this way nationalism became linked with the new middle classes. By 1880s by the
educated middle classes had emerged as leaders of the society and they began to speak on behalf of
the society.

10. What were the causes of Revolt of 1857?

Revolt of 1857 was a product of character and policies of colonial rule. The causes of the revolt
emerged from all aspect-socio-cultural, economic, and Political-of daily existence of Indian
population cutting through all sections and classes.
Economic Causes:East India Company destroyed the traditional economic fiber of the Indian society. Heavy taxation
under new revenue settlement-peasants resorted to loans from money lenders/traders at spurious
rates. These money lenders and traders emerged as the new landlords, while the scourge of
indebtedness has continued to plague Indian society to this day. British rule also meant misery to
the artisans and handicraftsment. British policy discouraged Indian handicrafts and promoted
British goods.

Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products was yet another factor, Zamindars, the
traditional landed autocracy often saw their land rights forfeited resulted in a loss of status for them
in villages. The ruination of Indian industry increased the pressure on agriculture and land, the
lopsided development which resulted in pauperization of the country in general.
Political Causes:The East India Companys greedy policy of aggrandizement accompanied by broken pledges and
oaths resulted in loss of political prestige for it, on the one hand caused suspicion in the minds of
almost all ruling princes in India.
Absentee sovereignty-ship was the character of British-rule. British interference in socio-religious
affairs of Indian public was the hallmark.
Administrative Causes:Rampant corruption in the companys administration, especially among the police, petty officials
and lower law courts, absentee sovereignty-ship character of British rule imparted a foreign and
alien look to it in the eyes of Indians.
Socio-Religious Causes:The attempts at Socio-religious reform such as abolition of sati, support to widow-remarriage and
womens education were seen by a large section of the population as interference in social and
religious domain of Indian society by outsiders. There fans were further compounded by
governments decision to tax mosque and temple lands and legislative measures, such as the
religious.
Disabilities Act, 1856:It modified Hindu customs for instance declaring that a change of religion did not debar a son from
inheriting the property of his father.
Influence of outside Events:The revolt of 1857 coincide with certain outside events in which British suffered serious loses the
first Afghan War (1838-42), Punjab Wars (1845-49), Crimean Wars (1854-56), Santhal Rebellion
(1855-57). These had obvious psychological repercussion.
Discontent among Sepoys:The conditions in the companys arms and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the
religious beliefs and prejudices of sepoys. Restrictions on wearing caste and sectarian marks and
secret runner of proselytizing (to convert) activities of chaplains were interpreted by Indian sepoys,
who were generally conservative by nature, as interference in their religious affairs.
To the religious Hindu of the time, crossing the seas meant loss of caste. In 1856 lord Cannings
government passed the General Service Enlistment Act which decreed that all future recruits of
Bengal army would have to give an undertaking to serve anywhere. This caused resentment.
Indian sepoys were unhappy with their emoluments compared to his British counterpart. A more
immediate cause of the sepoys dissatisfaction was the order that they would not be given the
Foreign Service Allowance (bhatta) when serving in Sindh or in Punjab.
Discrimination in matters of promotion and privileges was another factor for sepoys discontent.
Finally, there had been a long history of revolts in the British Indian army in Bengal (1764), Vellore
(1806), Barrackpore (1825) and during Afghan wars (1838-42) to mention just a few.
11. What were the main causes of failure of Revolt of 1857? What were its achievements?
The causes of failure of the rebellion were many. First and foremost was the lack of organization
among the rebels. The Rebellion remained confined to parts of North India. More important than
this was the lack of common ideal among the leaders of the revolt, who were wrapped up in their
own individual grievances. It was mainly feudal in character.
The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels, who were ill organised
and ill-equipped. The only common bond of unity among the rebels was their anti-foreign or anti-

9. British vision of India had no single coherent set of ideas. On the contrary, the ideas. On
the contrary, the ideas were shot through with contradictions and inconsistencies. Discuss.
Considering the nature and motives of East Indian Company, the British were not in a position to
evolve a single coherent set of ideas. A combination of factors at varying level contributed to the
rise of British rule. At the political level the contradictions can be seen in the Battle of Plassey and
Buxar and Anglo-Maratha, Carnatic wars. In the revenue settlement the British wanted to have
direct relations with the ryots in Ryotwari and but due to limitation of proper British machinery in
Bihar, Orissa and Bengal, the British introduced Permanent settlement in which indirect relations
were established with ryots,; similarly in social legislation they went for massive reforms before
1857 but after the revolt of 1857, they changed their mind to create a social basis in India. In the
administrative set up, they introduced a number of changes in pre-1857 period but thereafter never
tried to see beyond the need to preserve the power of the Governor General and Viceroy of India. At
the economic level, British wanted to drain the wealth in the first and second stage of colonialism
but in the third stage they reversed the process by adopting finance capital. In the first half British
pursued a liberal and rational approach towards reforms but reversed the process in the second half
by adopting more conservative approach towards reform.

British sentiment. The peasants and lower castes showed no active sympathies. Finally since the
princes and zamindars in general, sided with the British it was an unequal fight between their rich
resources and those of poor common participants.
The foremost result of the events of 1857 was the abolition of the East Indian Company and the
taking over of Indian administration by the Crown. The Act of 1858 ended the dualism in the
control of Indian affairs and made the Crown directly responsible for management of Indian affairs.
Following this fundamental changes in the administrative set up of India were made in the
executive, legislative and judicial administration of India by passing the Indian Councils Act of
1861. Indian High Court Act of 1861 and the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861. Socially there was a
growing racial estrangement between the rulers and the ruled. Finally the British policies towards
Indian States changed radically and the States were now treated as the bulwark of the empire
against future contingencies. The policy of annexation was abandoned.
12. Discuss the nature and character of the Revolt of 1857. Can it be called first war of
independence or a sepoy mutiny?
Historians have held divergent views about the nature of the Rebellion. The Anglo-European
historians though it to be a sepoys mutiny and nothing more. They called it as unholy unpatriotic
and selfish sepoy munity with no native leadership and no popular support. This view is totally
unsatisfactory, because although the Rebellion began as a military rising, it was not everywhere
confined to the army. The rebels came from every section of the population. Similarly, other views
held by different European historians regarding the nature of the rebellion a war of fanatic
religionists against Christians (L.E.R Reese): a war of races (Medley); a conflict between
civilization and barbarism (T.R Holmes), A Mohammedian conspiracy making capital of Hindu
grievances (Outram and Taylor), etc But the explanations given in support of these views are
totally unsatisfactory.
With the growth of nationalist ideology in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the so-called
Mutiny came to be regarded as the First War of independence. The famous revolutionary V.D.
Savarkar in his book of the same title gave his new interpretation.
Two distinguished Indian historians, Dr. R.C. Majumdar and Dr. S.N. Sen propounded two new
theories. Dr. Majumdar believes that the uprising was not a war of Independence. Dr. S.N. Sen
came to the conclusion that Rebellion of 1857 was a counter-attack on the part of the obscurantist
and conservative elements of Indian society against the slow out certain social revolution that
British administration was bringing about.
The outbreak could be called nationalist, as both Hindus and Muslims, participated in equal
measure and there was close co-operation between the two communities. However, the concept of
common nationality and nationhood was completely missing and therefore, it is better to call it a
Revolt. But it is grossly misleading to call it a Mutiny or First war of Indian Independence.
13. Whatever might have been its original character of Revolt of 1857, it soon became a
symbol of challenge to the mighty British power in India Elucidate.
The nature of the 1857 revolt shows that it was a challenge to the mighty British Empire. The
spread, intensity of the revolt, and the measures taken by the British to suppress it shows its
challenging nature.
The very geographical spread of the revolt was a challenge to the British. The whole north India
from Punjab to Bihar rose against the British, Also, the participation of, it (Rebellion of 1857) soon
became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British power in India.

The nature of the 1857 revolt shows that it was a challenge to the mighty British Empire. The
spread, intensity of the revolt, and the measures taken by the British to suppress it shows its
challenging nature.
The very geographical spread of the revolt was a challenge to the British. The whole north India
from Punjab to Bihar rose against the British, Also, the participation of different sections of the
society like peasants, workers, traders, old zamindars, religious mendicants and soldiers ensured the
uprising a massive nature and a real challenge to the British. This was in total contrast to the early
uprisings of peasants and tribals in which a narrow section of the society participated. Further, the
participation of soldiers, who had been trained and paid by the British proved to be a mighty
challenge to the British. The Sepoys had been instrumental in building a British empire in India but
during the revolt they turned the weapons and war tactics provided by the British against their
masters themselves, which shocked the British.
The success of the rebels also shows that it was a mighty challenge to the British. In many places
like Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc the British power was overthrown. In Delhi the Mughal
king Bahadur Shah II was declared as the Emperor of Hindustan. Further, many of the able military
generals like Nicholson, Sir Hugh Wheeler etc were proved incapable during the revolt. And above
all the British had to channelise all their resources for the suppression of the revolt, which shows its
mighty and challenging nature. Moreover, the administrative, military and policy changes made
after the 1857 revolt were intended to prevent such an outbreak in future, for the British had fully
realized that in such a situation their Indian empire would be a transient event in history.
14. What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence, for there is not the
slightest doubt that the rebels wanted to get rid of alien government and restore the order of
which the King of Delhi was rightful representative. Do you support this view point?
The revolt of 1857 was first organized attempt of Indians to get rid of the British. It was a civil
rebellion led by the Sepoys.
The revolt of 1857 began on religious note. The Indian soldiers were forced to work where their
religious beliefs were antagonistic. The suppressed discontent burst out with the use of greased
cartridges in the Enfield Rifles. They revolted against the British on the news that they had to tear
off the cover of cartridges made of cow and pig fats by mouth which would be a toll on their
religion. Once they rebelled, their age old demands and discontents joined their rebellion. Spread of
the revolt brought many areas within its ambit and diverse discontent among the people. The motive
became to oust the British and bring independence.
The revolt soon spread to Kanpur, Allahabad, Avadh, Banaras, Agra, Jhansi and other areas. The
symbols of British dominance were decimated. They fought to get rid of alien government. But their
motive was to restore the old order. The first and foremost example was restoration of Bahadur
Shah Zaffar as the sovereign of India. He represented the medieval Mughal dynasty. The kings
deposed, reestablished themselves. Zamindars fought to get back their rights from the British. Thus
everywhere the battle was waged to get back to the Pre-British order, not for the concept of
nationhood.
Thus, the 1857 effort was more anti-British than pro-nationalist. It was the first mass scale struggle
to wipe out the alien dominance. But the motive was to restore back the old order. This aspect made
the movement distrustable for the Indian intelligentsia of the time.
15. The tribal and peasant rebellions laid the foundation of the revolt of 1857 Comment.
The roots of the 1857 revolt can be traced to the Battle of Plassey and British political ascendancy
in India. The hundred years from 1757 to 1857 saw numerous tribal and peasant rebellions which
culminated in the 1857 Revolt. The pinch of the loss of independence, foreign intrusion into local
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area and culture, administrative innovations, excessive land revenue demands, dislocation of
economy, activities of missionaries were important causes for the tribal and peasant rebellions.
The unrest started in Bengal with Sanyasi rebellion in 70s of 18th Century and continued to occur in
other parts of the country with the expansion of British political control. Some of the important
peasant and tribal rebellions during this period were kol risings, Santhal risings, Khasi rising, Ahom
revolt, Pagal Panthi revolt, Bhil rising, Koli rising, Savantvadi revolts and Santhal revolt.
Though these rebellions were localized and fragmented in nature they created a tradition of
resistance in the country. They also expressed peoples discontentment against an imposed rule.
Though different rebellions had different grievances, all of them had a common factor-hatred
against British rule. It was this hatred found expression the form of the Great Revolt of 1857 on a
wider geographical spectrum.
16. Discuss the character of major tribal uprisings in British India in the 19th century?
The ethnic ties were a basic feature of the tribal rebellions. The rebels saw themselves not as a
discreet class but as having a tribal identity. Fellow tribal were never attacked unless they had
collaborated with the enemy.
The rebellions normally began at a point where the tribal felt so oppressed that they felt that they
had no alternative but to fight. This often took the form of spontaneous attack on outsiders, looting
their property and expelling them from their villages. Often religious and charismatic leaders
emerged at this stage and promised divine intervention and an end to their suffering at the hands of
outsiders and asked their fellow tribal to rise and rebel against the foreign authority. The warfare
between the tribal rebels and the British armed forces was totally unequal.
17. What administrative changes were introduced in India after 1857? What were the
objectives of these changes?
The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its
reorganization inevitable.
An Act of Parliament in 1858 transferred the power to govern from East India Company to British
Crown. Now the power was to be exercised by a Secretary of the State for India aided by a council.
The Secretary of State was a member of British Cabinet and as such, was responsible to the British
Parliament. In India the Act of 1858 provided that the Governor General would have an Executive
Council, whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisors.
But the Governor General had the power to override any important decision of the Council.
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor Generals Council for the purpose of
making laws. The Governor General was authorized to add to his executive council between 6 to 12
members of whom at least half had to be non-officials who could be Indian or English. The Imperial
Legislative Council possessed no real powers. It was merely an advisory body. The British had
divided India for administrative convenience into provinces three of which Bengal, Madras and
Bombay were known as Presidencies. The presidencies were administered by a governor and his
executive council of three, who were appointed by the Crown. The presidency government
possessed mere rights and powers than the governments of other provinces. The evil of extreme
centralization was ended and the separation of provincial finances was taken up in 1870 by Lord
Mayo. Financial difficulties led the government to further decentralized the administration by
promoting local government.
Moreover, the Indian army was carefully organized. The domination of army by its European
branch was carefully granted. In addition the maximum age for entry into the Civil Services was
gradually reduced from 23 to 19 in 1978. The princely States for their role in 1857 in favour of

British were rewarded. Their right to adopt heirs could be respected and the integrity of their
territories granted against future annexation.
18. The Revolt of 1857 seemed to call the very presence of the British into question. What it
did not do was reverse these changes. Elucidate.
Though the revolt of 1857- with its intensive and widespread nature-shook the British
administration from its foundations and threatened its existence, it failed to put an end to it.
Ever since the Battle of Plassey, the British expanded its presence and introduced changes
political, administrative, economic and socio-cultural-of far reaching consequences in India. The
hundred years since then witnessed expansion, experimentation and exploitation which brought in
misery and ruination of the natives. The new political system, administrative machinery,
transplanted judicial system, ruthless taxation system and intrusive socio-culture policies were the
expressions of the changes introduced by the British during the period.
It was against these changes that the Revolt took place in 1857. It broke out in Meerut on May 10,
1857 as Sepoy Mutiny and soon spread to other parts of northern and central India. The wide
participation by the peasantry, the artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers and zamindars gave it
tremendous sweep, breadth and depth of a massive nature.
But, due to the inherent limitations, the revolt could not achieve what it sought to change. The
revolt was localized, restricted and poorly organised. The rebels had no common ideal before them
and lacked a forward looking programme or a social alternative. On the other hand, the British had
enormous resources men, material and technological which could be effectively channelized to
suppress the Revolt. And, above all lack of nationalism to bring all Indians on a nationalistic
platform greatly hindered it from being successful. Thus, the revolt though a mighty event which
could have swept away the very existence of the British and the changes introduced by it, eventually
failed. But, even in failure, the revolt was pregnant with lessons lessons that could transform India
from a feudal stage to progressive stage.
19. What were the main provisions of Government of India Act, 1858? Add a note on Queens
Proclamation.
After the uprising of 1857, the assumption of the Government by the Crown was signified by the
Government of India Act, 1858. The main provisions of the Act were:
The Act of 1858 made the Governor General in the power of superintendence, direction and control
of the civil and military administration of India.
A Minister in the British Cabinet was designated as the Secretary of States for India, who was to
perform all the powers and duties relating to the Government of Revenues of India.
There was to be a Council of India, to aid the Secretary of State.
The salaries of the Secretary of State, his staff and the Council members were to be paid out the
revenues of India.
A Durbar was held by Lord Canning at Allahabad on November 1, 1858 to declare the assumption
of the Government of India by the Crown. On the occasion, Lord Canning also read out the Queens
proclamation assuring the Indian princes that their territories will not be annexed by the British
Government and they shall be given the right of adoption. Equal rights and opportunities were
guaranteed to the Indians along with other British subjects. This declaration marks the end of the
British imperialism and remained the basis of Indian Administration upto 1917 when a new
declaration was made by the British Government with regard to India.
20. The policies of the British Indian Government during 1885-1905 were aimed at preventing
another revolt of the masses. Elucidate.
10

The Revolt of 1857 was a formidable challenge for the British to be reckoned with. The political
exercise over the causes of such fierce revolt convinced the British to channelize all their energy
and efforts to prevent the bursting up of such a revolt in future. This was mirrored in their attitude
and policies of post-1857 era.
Existence of princely states conceived as of political interest for the British. The Princes were
bestowed with monetary and territorial awards. A special order of knighthood was created in 1861
and bestowed to prominent princes. Doctrine of lapse was abolished and assurances were given
on perpetuate existence of princely states.
The Indian intelligentsia was given due concern by the government for opposing the revolt. The
subsequent acts were made to keep them pleased. They were given seats in the legislature. Their
associations were groomed as the safety valve for the government.
The division and counterpoise method was adopted. They organized the administration in such a
way that class division alienated the common man from higher classes. Muslims were purged so as
to create communal divide.
The higher classes became westernized to help the alien dominance.
The British followed a pro-Zamindar attitude; they restored their lands pledged to protect their
interests and hailed them as traditional leaders of the Indian people. By such attempt they created a
class very loyal to them. When the national movement began, this class was at the forefront of
protecting the British interests.
The government followed an anti reforms policy so as not to clash with the personal and socioeconomic beliefs of the people. They became more cautious and pursued the policy of least
intervention in the traditional fabrics of the society. They were little interested in modernization
process.
Thus, the-core aspect of British attitude after the revolt was increasingly severing off their
connection with the progressive elements. They collaborated with reactionary ones and their
objective was to forge a unity of such forces which stood against the progressive ideas like
democracy and freedom.
21. How did the British illustrate Lord Cannings policy in treating the Indian Prince as
break waters of the storm?
During the 1857 revolt, Canning realized the need of effective alliance with Indian Princes to curb
any such revolt in future. This realization was echoed in Queen Victorias Proclamation Assurances
were given not to annex their territories. Princes were allowed to have adopted sons. The presence
of the British residents and retaining of regiments of army in princely states were agreeing
Cannings policy. When national movement gathered strength, the British due to their direct relation
with princes tried to use them as counter weight to the demand of people. The Government of India
Act 1935 allotted 125 out of 250 seats to the Princes. It effectively checked the Congress. Even
when demand for independence of India became acute, the Princes were used as brutal machines of
oppression to curb nationalists. Thus, the British policy followed what Canning realized the
immense usefulness of the Princes, to safeguard British Empire from trouble in India.
22. What was Illbert Bill controversy? What lesson Indians look from this episode?
The Illbert Bill was introduced in 1883, in the legislative council by Sir Courtney Illbert, the law
number of the Viceroys Executive Council, and this was meant to remove the judicial
disqualification which was based on race distinction. As the law was in force then, no Indian
magistrate could try any European British subject, though the English subordinate to the Indian
magistrate could try him.

11

Viceroy Ripon wanted to do away with this invidious distinction. But the European residents
opposed it. The opposition was based on the ground of racial superiority. The liberal Viceroy was
compelled to amend the bill to appease the British community.
The Indian community watched this struggle with interest to know how the Englishmen had
succeeded in their effort by raising their voice in unison. It was plain that memorandums and
petitions by Indians were altogether inadequate to secure their basic elementary rights and it was
realized that a national organization should be built to mobilize public opinion and carry the
agitation to the mass.
23. Examine the policy of Subordinate Union towards Princely States. Account for the shift
from the policy of Subordinate Isolation.
The policy of Subordinate Union was adopted by the British Government towards Indian Princely
states from 1857 to 1935. They abandoned the policy of annexation and accepted right to adopt heir.
The Act of 1858 transferred powers into the hands of the crown. The authority of Princes over their
territory was not accepted as their right but as a gift from the paramount power. The Queen adopted
the title of Kaiser-i-Hind and later on Lord Curzon cleared that princes exercises their control as
agents of the crown. The Government had right to interfere in internal spheres of states as well as
external controls over them. Even Lord Curzons approach was the view that the princes were
required to work side-by-side with the Governor General of India. All these new schemes resulted
in an integrated Indian political system. Further, the Chamber of Princes divides the Indian states
into three categories.
a) Directly represented
b) Represented though representatives
c) Jagirs or feudal holdings
The shift was made to take princes in confidence as under the policy of subordinate isolation. The
company annexed states whenever and whichever possible. Six states were annexed by Lord
Dalhousie including Samra, Nagpur, etc.
The policy of subordinate union was adopted to use these princely states as break waters in political
storms if arise in future. They were given comparatively liberal treatment due to their loyalty to the
British Government in the 1857 Revolt.
24. What was the Masterly Inactivity Policy? Why was it abandoned?
The policy of Masterly Inactivity was the policy followed by the British towards Afghanistan from
1860-76. It was conceived by John Lawrence.
The Masterly Inactivity was opposed to the policy of misdirected war and activity. As long as
Russia was out of Afghanistan, the British remained inactive in Afghan affairs. But, they had a
hawk-eye on the affairs with readiness to strike if their interests were belied.
It was an outcome of practical commonsense and intimate knowledge of the frontiers. It was to save
money and men from fighting in a tedious land surrounded by fierce freedom loving Afghans.
Lawrence followed a Leissez faire in the Afghan affairs. He refused to embroil in the dynastic
wars of Afghan princes. He never forced a British envoy on the Amir of Afghanistan; rather he was
willing to help a successful prince with finance.
It was not based on indifference towards Afghan affairs or ignorance of Russian ambitions. But it
was based on non-interference in Afghan internal affairs and watchful preparedness towards
happenings to tackle the situation only when it would demand.
The reversal of Masterly Inactively began with arrival of Lytton in India. Disraeli government in
Britain was for permanent scientific frontiers for India. Lytton was directed to conclude a more
definite, equatorial and practical alliance with the Afghans, to check Russian influence permanently.
12

A delegation with overtures was sent to Kabul to bring it under British influence. Refusal of Amir
of Afghans, Sher Ali, to receive it, perpetuated the crisis. When Russian emissary was received and
British refused permission to enter Afghanistan, Lytton resorted to forward policy. Thus, Masterly
Inactivity was abandoned.
25. Examine the economic and social factors which led to the rise of Indian nationalism in the
second half of the nineteenth century.
The Indian nationalism arose in the second half of the 19th Century, as a response to an exploitative
and subjugative colonial rule. From the beginning of the 19th Century-Socio-economic factors were
in the making which led to the emergence of nationalism in the second half of the 19th Century.
One of the most important economic factors for the rise of nationalism was the British exploitation.
The impact of British rule on the Indian economy was disastrous. The general object of British
policies was a systematic destruction of traditional Indian economy. After the political domination
over India the British imposed economic colonialism to extract more and more from the land. The
land revenue policies like Permanent settlement and Ryotwari settlements were introduced as
measures for maximum extraction. Apart from extracting land revenue, the British ruined the
traditional industry in India. The ruination of Indian industry was caused by cheaper imported
machine goods from Britain and one way trade policy after 1813. The high import duties on the
import of Indian goods into Britain and development of modern industries in Britain accentuated the
ruin of the Indian industries. The destruction of rural crafts broke up the union between agriculture
and domestic industry and led to the destruction of self sufficient rural economy. The poverty of the
people found expression in series of famines in the 19th Century which include 1860-61 in U.P.,
1865-66 in Orissa, Bihar, Bengal and Madras and 1876-78 in Madras, Maharashtra, Western U.P,
and Punjab.
Moreover, extravagant civil and military administration and the ever mounting home charges
resulted in deterioration of Indian economy. The English educated Indians analysed this situation
and developed strong anti-British consciousness in India. This clash of economic interest between
British and India led more and more Indians to grasp the intrinsic nature of foreign imperialism. As
a result there arouse a powerful anti-imperialistic movement which was nationalistic in nature.
Social factors also contributed to the rise of nationalism in the 19th Century. The Indian renaissance
starting with Raja Ram Mohan Roy exhorted Indians to get rid of the age old superstitions and caste
segregations. Moreover, introduction of English education had a revolutionary impact on Indian
society. It opened to the Indians the floodgates of liberal European thought. The English language
also acted as a common medium by which people and social groups in different parts of the country
could communicate. Moreover, the 19th Century witnessed the rise of middle class intelligentsia in
Indian society. This class proved to be the new soul of modern India and took initiative and
provided leadership to the nationalistic movement.
Further, racialism was an inhumane attitude practiced by the Europeans against the Indians in the
19th Century society. The Indians were dubbed as inferior race and no longer worthy of any trust.
This factor also provided stimulus to social regeneration and to the rise of nationalistic feelings.
Thus, by the third decade of the second half of the 19th century conditions were ripe for the
emergence of an organized national movement. The concrete expression of this was the formation
of Indian National Congress in 1885.
26. Trace the emergence of Indian nationalism till the foundation of the Congress.
The growth of nationalism in India was accompanied by the growth of social and political
organisations. It was an outcome of total impact of British rule and its concomitant policies. The

13

impact of western education and its liberating influence coupled with social regeneration worked as
the motive forces.
Raja Rammohan Roy founded the base of nationalism in India. He protested against restrictions on
the press and demanded employment of Indian to high posts.
In 1838, Zamindari Association was formed in Bengal. It cooperated with the British Indian
Society, founded in London. The Bengal British India Association formed in 1843, merged with
Zamindari Association to form British Indian Association. It asked for separate legislature of
popular character, separation of judiciary from executive and reduction of salaries of higher
officers.
By 1870, a new elite class emerged due to spread of Western education. In 1875, Sisir Ghose
founded India League to stimulate nationalism and encourage political education. Anand Mohan
Bose and Surendranath Banarjee tried to make their Indian Association (1876) mass based. It
organised all India agitations against Lyttons unpopular measures.
Bombay Association, considering the Britishers as outright evil, emerged. It was led by Tayabji, KT
Telang, and Feroz Shah Mehta; Surendranath Banerjee tried to make work of various associations in
concert. In 1866, East India Association was founded in London with branches in Bombay and
Calcutta, aiming at welfare of Indians.
In 1879, License Tax and Cotton Duties united all organizations. During 1883-84 unity became
permanent. The Indian Association, the British India Association and other various groups worked
together to call themselves the National Conference.
Ripons departure evoked a demonstration in which there was spirit of unified India. Thus, the
stage was set for the foundation of Congress in 1885.
27. How far is it correct to give the credit for founding of Indian National Congress to A.O
Hume?
By 1870s it was evident that Indian Nationalism had gathered enough strength and momentum to
appear as a major force on the Indian national political scene. Various organisations were formed in
this period to start an agitation for political reform in India. In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji formed the
East India Association in London. The establishment of the Indian Association of Calcutta followed
it. The time was now ripe for formation of an All India political organization of Indian nationalists
who felt the need to unite politically against the common enemy i.e. British. Many Indians had been
planning to form an all India organization of nationalist political workers. But the credit for giving
the idea a concrete and final shape goes to A.O. Hume, a retired English civil servant. He got in
touch with prominent Indian leaders and organised with their co-operation the first session of All
India National Congress at Bombay in 1885.
It has been said that Hume main purpose in encouraging the foundation of Congress was to provide
a safety valve or a safe outlet to the growing discontent among the educated Indians. The safety
valve theory is however a small part of the truth and, totally inadequate and misleading. More than
anything else, the National Congress represented the urge of the politically conscious Indians to set
up an organization to work for their political and economic advancement. No one man or group or
men can be given credit for creating this movement. Even Humes motives were mixed ones. He
was also moved by motives nobler than those of safety valve. He possessed a sincere love for
India. If Hume wanted to use the Congress as the safety valve, the early Congress leaders also
hoped to use Hume as a lightening conductor. The Indian National Congress merely took up the
political reform issue in a more organized and authoritative way.
28. What were the achievements of moderates during the early nationalist struggle?

14

The moderates laid a strong foundation for the national movement to grow upon. The emphasised
on national unity, economic critique of imperialism, and demand for representative institutions,
opposition to repressive measures and educating the Indian masses politically. Their constant
underscoring of peoples poverty as a basic factor of Indian politics emerged out of alien rule put
the nationalist movement on sound foundations.
Their voice for mild constitutional reforms saved the nascent Indian nationalism from British
onslaught. Through petitions, prayers, persuasion and protest they tried to inculcate principles of
democracy, liberty, law and nationalism among the Indians.
They were successful in reducing drain of wealth and land revenue, improving conditions of
plantation labourers and civil services reforms. Military expenditure was also reduced.
Establishment of the Congress, as a national body accommodating all interests, was their major
achievement.
29. Discuss the main objectives of Indian national movement upto 1905. What were its basic
weaknesses during this period?
The second half of the 19th century witnessed an organized national movement in India. With some
basic objectives, it had some weakness:
Early nationalist leadership believed that a direct struggle for political emancipation of country was
not on the agenda yet. What was on the agenda was arousal and consolidation of national feelings,
bringing of a large number of Indians people into the vortex of nationalist politics and their training
in politics and political agitation. National unity had to be created among politically conscious
Indians and political workers and leaders. Other important objective was the organization of
provincial councils, simultaneous holding examination for ICS in India and England, separation of
judiciary from executive, reduction of military expenditure, introductions of land reforms to all
parts of India, etc.
The Indian National Movement had increasingly made a large number of people conscious of the
evils of foreign domination. But, at the same time the failure of the British government of accept
any of the important demands of the nationalists produced disillusionment among the politically
conscious people with the principles and method of dominant moderate leadership. They failed to
realize the importance of mass struggle and have their confinement of the movement to the educate
middle class. Most of them failed to realize the true nature of the British rule for considerable time.
Finally, they failed to get anything substantial from the British through their constitutional methods.
30. How did economic nationalism mirror the work of the early-nationalist leadership in
India?
The most important part of political work by early nationalists was their economic critique of
imperialism. They clearly grasped that the essence of British imperialism lay in subordination of
Indian economy to British interests.
The early nationalists vehemently opposed the British attempt to develop India as a supplier of raw
materials, a market for British goods and a field for investment of foreign capitals. They opposed all
forms of economic exploitation like trade, industry and finance.
They constantly wrote and spoke against Britains role in Indias growing poverty. Naorojis Drain
of Wealth theory exposed British economic exploitation of India. He pointed out the degradation of
Indias resources, destabilization of productivity, unemployment and poverty and consequent
famines as a result of British economic policies.
The early nationalists, in every economic sphere advocated the lessening and even severance of
Indias economic dependence on Britain. They opposed large-scale import of foreign capital and
suppression of Indian capital in railways and plantations. They popularized Swadeshi to promote
15

Indian industries. They organised all India agitation against abandonment of tariff duties on imports
(1875-80) and imposition of cotton exercise duties (1894-96). This agitation played a major role in
arousing country wide national feeling and in educating the people against the British rule in India.
The economic criticism of British policies mirrored the early nationalism in India. Swadeshi and
Boycott propagated by early nationalists became effective weapons of political struggle in the later
part of mass movements.
31. What led to the partition of Bengal in 1905?
The reason which led to partition of Bengal in 1905 was mainly political rather than administrative
as was declared by the British Government.
Though to a certain extent, the reason of difficulties in administration of big area and mass of
population, forwarded by the Government was justified, real reasons could be pointed out as below:
I.
To curb national activities: Bengal had become a centre of political national activities
with Calcutta as its hub. Most of the literate activists were in Bengal, most of nationalists
news papers were published from Calcutta. To put a curb on their activities through
dividing them, Partition was planned.
II.
To divide people: Bengal was partitioned with a well plan to divide people on the basis
of religion and language. Partition was affected in such a manner that areas of religious
and linguistic unity were also divided under two different provisions.
III.
To weaken spirit and national activities: To weaken the spirit of nationalism was the
main motive apart from propping up Muslim communalists to curb nationalist and
congress activities. Policy of Divide and Rule was implemented explicitly.
32. Bengal was partitioned in 1905 not for administrative reasons, but for political purposes.
Elucidate.
The partition of Bengal was the most crucial example of Curzons contempt of educated public
opinion. Officially treated as a measure of administration, it became a big political issue. It stirred
the first great movement of 20th century in India.
Behind the partition was a political approach. Curzon wanted to split up Bengal and thereby to
weaken a solid body of opponents to British rule. Bengal was the forefront in the national struggle.
He observe Bengal United was a power that power was to be broken by partition. Calcutta was to
be dethroned as the centre of growing nationalism. The growth of independent centres of influence
Congresss ambit like Dacca was to put a break on unity of nationalistic spirits.
The scheme was devised to divide the people on the basis of religion and to put the Muslim against
the Hindus. Cruzon even explained that by partition the Muslims were to have a province where
Islam could be predominant. He tried to develop a cleavage between Hindus and Muslims by the
offer to Muslims of a absolute voice in East Bengal.
This partition of Bengal (1905) was intended to undermine the solidarity of politically advanced
Bengalis and lessening the political influence of Calcutta. It created a breach between the Hindus
and Muslims in India. But, this cardinal blunder of Curzon gave a great fillip to national struggle.
Swadeshi movement, an outcome of it, gave a sense of unity and strength to the Indians.
33. Trace the origin of Swadeshi Movement. How did it involve the masses?
Swadeshi movement had its origin in the partition of Bengal. After the partition of Bengal a positive
action was required that would reveal the intensity of popular feelings and exhibit them at their best.
The answer was the Swadeshi Movement.
Soon after the start of the movement the masses played a crucial role in it success. Students
practiced and propagated Swadeshi and took the lead in organizing picketing before shops, selling
16

foreign cloths etc. A remarkable aspect of this movement was the active participation of women.
The traditionally home centered women of urban middle class joined processions and picketing.
From then on they were to take an active part in the nationalist movement. Many prominent
Muslims joined the Swadeshi Movement including Abdul Rasul, the famous Barrister, Liaquat
Husain, the popular agitator and Gaznavi, the businessman. Many middle and upper class Muslims,
however, remained neutral, or led by the Nawab of Dhaka, even supported the partition on the plea
that the East Bengal would have a Muslim majority. The leading role in spreading the Swadeshi
Movement to the rest of the country was played by Tilak. Tilak quickly saw that with the
inauguration of this movement in Bengal, a new chapter in the history of Indian nationalism had
opened.
34. How did the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal influence the nationalist politics?
The Swadeshi movement was a turning point in the history of India. It was based on urge for
positive action against the British. It signaled the ascendancy of extremists under Tilak in Indian
politics. Repressive measures of government fuelled militant nationalism which resorted to violence
and gun-culture. It transformed Indian politics from prayer and petition to direct action. Boycott,
passive resistance and mass agitation adorned nationalism politics. It gave a thrust to self-reliance
and self-respect Swadeshi industries came up. Nationalistic spirit was reflected in establishment of
national schools, educational and cultural institutions and revival of Indian glory. It gave a self
proclaimed power and courage to Indians to fight against the British in future. It was the first mass
movement in history of 20th century national politics.
35. Bring out the ideological basis of the Moderate Extremist divide in INC?
Moderates believed that a direct struggle for political emancipation of country was not yet on the
agenda. What was on the agenda was the arousal and consolidation of national feeling, bringing of a
large number of Indians into the vortex of nationalist politics and their training in politics and
political agitation. The popular demands had to be formulated on a country wide basis so that the
emerging public opinion might have an All-India focus. They believed that national unity had to be
created in the first instance among the political conscious Indians and political workers and leaders.
But, on the other hand, extremists who derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values
wanted to have relations with other countries in terms of equality and self respect. They had
tremendous sense of self respect and wanted to keep their heads high. To the extremists,
emancipation meant something much deeper and wider than politics.
36. Why did the moderates lose appeal with the Indians and failed to elicit desired response
from the British?
The moderates did not have much political success to their credit. The assessment of their
achievements in concrete terms give impression one of inadequacy.
The moderates deep faith in generosity, good will and benevolence of British Mission failed them.
They fully relied on British favour for political freedom. Their goal for mild reforms in
administration did not encourage the masses. Their favour to foreign rule rather alienated them.
The methodology of moderates was not in the tune. They were confined to presenting demands,
organizing public opinion and persuading the administration. Their failure to assert rights did not
gain due care by the British.
Though they promoted national consciousness, yet they failed to instill the feelings of selfconfidence in the masses. They did not assign any role to the masses. Their programmes remained
confined to the educated elite. They failed to carry out a pan-Indian constitutional agitation. They

17

failed to visualize that political expression by the masses was the real driving force in the entire
struggle.
Thus, non-politicization of masses, lack of organized and national outlook, infant nationalism
coupled with vigilant and suspicious British attitude put limitations on the moderates.
37. When was Muslim league formed and by whom? What were the objectives?
Encouraged by the British, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, on November 9, 1906, issued a circular in
which he suggested that an organization to be known as All Indian Muslim League should be
established. In the following December, a Conference was held at Dacca, and was attended by
representatives and leaders from all over India. On 3 December 1906, the All-India Muslim League
was established with three major objectives:
1. to promote among Indian Muslims feelings of loyalty towards the British Government
2. to protect the political and other rights of Indian Muslims and to place their needs and
aspirations before the Government in temperate language; and
3. without prejudice to the objects mentioned above, to promote friendly feelings between
Muslims and other communities
4. the formation of the Muslim League was a great success of the British policy of divide and
rule and it introduced on element of communalism in the Indian National Movement
38. What were the reasons of split in the Congress at Surat (1907)?
By the time 1907 the divide between the ideology of moderates and extremists was evident. The
Presidentship of the Surat session (1907) became a bone of contention between them. Bipin
Chandra Pal brought forth the candidate of Tilak, but Tilak was unacceptable to the Moderates.
Pherozeshah Mehta, however, averted the schism by securing the approval of Dadabhai Naorojiwidely accepted as the Grand Old Man of the Congress to preside over the session. Naoroji had a
difficult job to do. He himself had been a constant advocate of the policy of petitions and prayers to
the Government. In his presidential speech he denounced the British Indian Government a
barbarous despotism unworthy of British instincts, principles and civilization. He announced that
he favoured Swaraj to be the goal of Congress. The Session adopted four resolutions, one on selfgovernment, the other on boycott movement, the third on Swadeshi and the fourth on
national education. Rupture between the Moderates and the Extremists were averted.
But the differences in the approach and objectives of the two wings were too deep for a permanent
reconciliation. The Moderates were reluctant to launch any agitation for the attainment of Swaraj,
and the Extremists saw no other method to reach this goal. More fuel was added to the fire of
Extremists annoyance with the British and disillusionment with the Moderates approach was added
during the twelve months following the Calcutta session. In the summer of 1907 Aurobindo Ghosh
was arrested on a charge of sedition (he was shortly after released for lack of evidence); Pal was
sentenced for, alleged, contempt of court, and Lajpat Rai was deported for his political activities
relating the Extremist programme. These measures hardened the attitude of the Extremist leaders,
and they went to the annual session of Congress at Surat in December with the object of capturing
the leadership of the national organization.
The two factions held their meetings separately. The Moderates took control of the Congress
organization, rewrote its constitution, declared that the Congress objective was the attainment of a
system of government similar to that enjoyed by the self-governing members of the British Empire,
and proclaimed that the said objective was to be achieved by constitutional means. The Extremists
meeting under the chairmanship of Aurobindo Ghose re-affirmed their belief in Swaraj, Swadeshi,
boycott and national education. They set up a committee, headed by Tilak, to bring about a reapproachment with the Moderates, but the two wings did not unite until 1916.
18

39. The reforms of 1909 introduced a cardinal problem and ground of controversy at every
revision of the Indian electoral system. Comment.
In 1909 the government introduced some constitutional reforms in India, to please the moderate
leaders and strengthen their position in the congress. These reforms are named after Lord Minto, the
Viceroy of India and Lord Morley, the secretary of the state for India, who piloted the bill through
the British Parliament. Though it was the first true attempt at introducing a representative and
popular element, it was not free from flaws. Given the colonial nature of the government, the
reforms of 1909 also proved to be another instrument in the hands of the British government to
perpetuate its rule in India.
The Reforms: the number of elected numbers in the imperial Legislative council and the provincial
legislative council was increased. In the provincial councils, non-official majority was introduced
but sine some of these non officials were nominated and not elected, the overall nonelected
majority remained.
In the imperial legislative council, of the total 68 members, 36 were to be the officials and of the 32
non-officials, 5 more to be nominated. Of the 27 elected non-officials, 8 seats were reserved for the
Muslims under separate electorates (only Muslims could vote here for the Muslim candidates) while
6 seats were reserved for the British capitalists, 2 for the landlords and 13 seats came under general
electorate.
The elected members were to be indirectly elected. The local bodies were to elect and Electoral
College, which in turn would elect members of provincial legislatures, who in turn would elect
members of the central legislature.
Besides, separate electorates for the Muslims, representation in the excess of the strength of their
population was accorded to the Muslims. Also the income qualification for Muslims voters was kept
lower than that for Hindus.
Powers of legislature both at the centre and in provinces-were enlarged and the legislature both at
the centre and in provinces-were enlarged and the legislature could now pass resolutions (which
may not be accepted) ask questions and supplementary, vote separate items in the budget but the
budget as a whole could not be voted upon.
One Indian was to be appointed to the viceroys executive council and Satyendra Sinha was the first
to be appointed in 1909.
The reforms of 1909 were in fact framed to confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide the
nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians and as such the reforms of 1909
afforded no answer to the Indias political problems. Lord Morley made it clear that, colonial self
government (as demanded by the congress) was not suitable for India, and he was against
introduction of parliamentary or responsible government in India. In this context one can quote
Nehrus remarks on the reforms of 1909 that the Political barrier was created round them, isolating
them from the rest of India and reversing the unifying and amalgamating process with had been
going on for centuries. The barrier was a small one at first, for the electorate were very limited, but
with every extension of franchise it grew and affected the whole structure of political and social life
like some cancer which corrupted the entire rate electorate and preferential voting eights for the
Muslims introduced a cardinal problem and ground of controversy at every revision of the Indian
electoral system with ultimately resulted in the partition of the country.
The real purpose of the Reform of 1909 was to confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide the
nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians.
But, it could be said that these reforms of 1909 led directly or necessarily to establishment of a
parliamentary system in India.

40. What is meant by separate electorate? When and why was it introduced in British
India?
The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 introduced the system of separate electorate under which all
the Muslims were grouped in separate constituencies. Eight seats were reversed for the Muslims
from which only Muslims could vote for the Muslim candidates. This was done in the name of the
protecting the Muslim minority, but in reality this was a part of police of dividing Hindu and
Muslims and thus maintaining the British supremacy in India.
The system of separate electorate was based on the notion that the political and the economic
interests of the Hindus and Muslims were separate. The notion was unscientific, because religion
cannot be the basis of political and economic interests or of political groupings. The system checked
Indias unification which had been a continuous historical process and biggest challenge to the
British rule. It became a potent factory in the growth of Hindu-Muslim communalism in the
country. Instead of removing the educational and economic backwardness of middle class Muslims
the integrating them into the national mainstream, the system of separate electorates tended to
perpetuate their isolation from the developing nationalist movement. It encouraged separatist
tendencies and prevented people from concentrating on economic and political problems which
were common to all Indians-Hindus or Muslims.

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41. Examine the nature and causes of extremism in Indian politics in the early part of the 20 th
century.
The failure of moderate politics and programmes gave rise to leaning towards a radical and
extremist approach. The crystallized in the formation of a new group that dominated the Indian
political scene till early part of twentieth century.
The moderate led movement yielded no result, Prayers and petitions failed. The popular belief in
constitutional methods lost value. A more radical and confrontational way was advocated. Thus
extremists emerged out of an ideological confrontation.
The divisive tactics of the government bad embittered the leaders. Its suppressive measures and
restrictions forced them to give up moderation. Assertion of rights, political agitations and fighting
spirit was adopted. As a result the extremists took control of the situation and shaped the movement
in their colour. Tilak, Lala Rai and Bipan Chandra Pal emerged as leaders.
The nature of extremist movement was best exhibited in their action. They gave the idea of
independence the central place in politics. They bitterly opposed the English. They popularized the
boycott of foreign goods. They harped on mass mobilization through public meetings. History was
reviewed to draw heroic inspirations and self sacrifice. Religious festivals were used to further
political propaganda. Reassertion of national dignity, honour, and confidence was focused up on.
Swadeshi and Swaraj were the catchword with the extremists. National schools and Swadeshi
industries were established by extremist leaders. They took care to touch the heart of the masses.
Emergence of extremist leaders shaped the Congress as a mass based organization. Its programmes
were successful and able to draw people towards it. It changed the character of movement for
freedom. It focused on freedom as the ultimate goal.
42. What were the features of Revolutionary movement? What was its impact?
In India, Maharashtra, Punjab and Bengal were the main centers of revolutionary activities whereas
England, USA and Canada were its centers abroad. In total six states, three Indian provinces and
three foreign countries were the main centers of revolutionary movement.
The revolutionaries established several organizations in different parts of the country as well as
abroad also.

Some of the prominent leaders were Lala Hardyal, VD Savarkar, Aurobindo Ghosh, Sardar Bhagat
Singh, etc. The revolutionary centers set up by different revolutionaries smuggled into India arms,
money and literature. They stood for killing of cruel and unpopular officials. They formed military
conspiracies with the help of the enemy countries of England. They published many newspapers,
pamphlets, books, etc to popularize patriotic ideology like Bhavani Mandir, Bande Mahtaram, etc.
The revolutionary groups organized assassinations of unpopular officials magistrates and approvers,
committed dacoities to collect money for their activities and looted artisans. Attempts were made on
the lives of two Viceroys, i.e. Lord Minto and Lord Hardinge.
Similar movements were organized outside also. Most prominent among them was Ghadar Party
under Lala Hardyal.
The frightened British government adopted all repressive measures to crush the movement and
remove the revolutionaries from the scene through brutal death.
Although the methods of individual terrorism could not be effective against the mighty empire, the
heroism and self sacrifice of these revolutionaries were a source of impression to the people and
helped in the growth of popular nationalist feeling which ultimately freedom for India.
43. How the terrorist movement did gathered strength abroad?
The militant nationalist clarified its objectives taught people self-confidence and prepared the social
base of the movement to include the lower middle class, students, youth and women. Some, events
abroad during the 19th & 20th century tended to encourage the growth of militant nationalism in
India. The rise of modern Japan after 1868 showed that a backward Asian country could develop
itself without western control.
The defeat of the British by the Boers of South Africa and the Italian Army by the Ethiopians in
1896, and the Russia by Japan in 1905 exploded the myth of invincibility of the British rule and
European superiority.
Revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt and China convinced the Indians that the
people willing to make sacrifice could challenge even the most powerful of despotic governments.
44. How did terrorist movement gather strength in countries other than India?
The terrorist activities of Indians can be traced in abroad from 1912 onward or during the 1 st World
War. Many Indians began to plan a violent rebellion to overthrow the British rule.
Indian Revolutionaries in the United States of America and Canada had established the Ghadar
Party in 1913, Most of the numbers of the party were Sikh, peasants and ex-soldiers who had
migrated there in search of livelihood and who faced the full brunt of racial and economic
discrimination, Lala Hardayal, Barkatullah, Bhagwan Singh and Sohan Singh Bhakna were some of
the prominent leaders of Ghadar Party. The ideology of the party was strongly secular. The party
had active members in other countries such as Japan, China, Singapore, Thailand and South Africa.
The party was pledged to wage revolutionary was against the British in India. As soon as the First
World War broke out in 1914, the Ghadarists decided to send arms and men to India to start an
uprising with the help of soldiers. Inspired by the Ghadar Party some 700 men of the 5th Light
Infantry at Singapore revolted under the leadership of Jamadar Chisti Khan. Further, Indian
Independence Committee was set up in Berlin in 1915 under Birendranath Chatopadhya. A
provisional government of Free India was set up at Kabul in 1915 by Mahendra Pratap and
Barkatullah.

The Ghadar Party, which began as an association to protect and defend the rights of Indian settlers
in the United States and Canada, later grew into a movement to liberate the country from alien yoke.
Initially, the Punjabi immigrants had organized themselves somewhat hastily and haphazardly in
their Gurdawars against increasing victimization by the whites. On 21 April 1913, Lala Har Dayal
along with Bhai Pramanand (1874 1947) and others organized the Punjabi workers settled in the
U.S.A into an association called the Hindi Association of the Pacific Coast.
The Hindi Association of the Pacific Coast was soon abbreviated into Hindi Pacific Association
and, before long, after its journal Ghadar, edited by Lala Har Dayal (whose first issue was release
on 1 November, 1913), came to be known as the Ghadar (later, Hindustan Ghadar) party. The name
was catchy are readily picked up by its members, most of whom were uneducated.
The journal which was published in several languages was circulated in almost every country of the
world where Indians had settled as immigrants. Initially, it concentrated on enlightening its vast
clientele about the economic exploitation of India, avowed that the objective was to make
revolution and wage and armed fight against British rule. The party established its branche in Hong
Kong, Manila, Bangkok, Shahghai and Panama. The Ghadrite appealed to all patriotic Indians to
take full advantage of British pre occupations in World War 1 to rise against them and literally
throw them out. The importance of the Ghadar movement lies in the fact that it was the first secular,
democratic and revolutionary upsurge aiming to free India from foreign shackles. For the Sikh
community, it meant the end of its long saga of unquestioned support to the Raj. No spectacular
results followed. The aim was to murder and drive out the British from India. Although the vast
majority of its members were Sikhs but Hindus as well as Muslims joined it. The movement was
suppressed, but later it gave the Akalis their more radical aspect, for Akali terrorists, known as
Babbars, were largely recruited from the ranks of the Ghadries. Nor was that all. When they
returned after serve their terms of imprisonment, the Ghadrites formed the nucleus of many leftwing political movement in the Punjab-whether socialist communists.
46. Write brief note on:
I. Nasik Conspiracy Case
II. Alipur Conspiracy Case
Nasik Conspiracy Case
The unjustifiable punishment meted out to Ganesh Savarkar was avenged Lendon by the murder of
Curzon Willie. It had its effect on India also Jackson the Collector of Nasik was fully responsible
for the conviction and transportation of Baba Ganesh Savarkar. Abhinava-Bhar after serious
deliberations planned to take revenge on Jackson. The work was entrusted student, Anant Laxman
Kanhere. While Jackson was proceeding to take his chair in a function, Kanhere came before him
and fired seven rounds at him Jackson died on the spot. Kanhere was arrested and brought to trial.
Unfortunately, the Nasik branch of Abhinava-Bharat had a traitor in it. One of its members Ganu
Vaidya divulged the plan behind the murder to the police. The Government was bent on hanging all
the revolutionaries. Action on the information supplied by Vaidya, the police rounded up 37 youths.
Three of them were hanged and the rest sentenced to varying terms of imprisonment the whole
affair was given the name of Nasik Conspiracy Case.

45. What do you know about Ghadar Party? What was its contribution to the freedom
struggle of India?

Alipur Conspiracy Case

The revolutionaries ran a bomb factory in Calcutta. The police got the clue of it. It raided the
factory and recovered several live bombs, explosive materials and certain letters. This was called
Alipur Conspiracy Case. Virendra Ghose, Ullas Dutra, Hem Chandra Das, Upendra Banerji and
several others were implicated and convicted in this case.

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47. Describe the changing nature of revolutionary activities in India between 1905-1946.
Till 1905, the lead to the National Movement was given by the moderates. They had full faith in
justice by the English. They wanted to have their demand conceded through constitutional methods.
But the government paid no attention to their demands. It was the juncture at which they realised
that moderate policy and unshakable state loyalty cannot win freedom for them. Thus, there came a
new turn in Indian politics and there was rise of extremism in Indian National Movement. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai were the Chief leaders.
Although Nationalism was the outcome of Partition of Bengal in 1905 yet the nature of opposition
had completely changed. Swadeshi Boycott movement affected the British policies to a
considerable extent. The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as a natural leader carved out a niche to
effectuate national movement in an altogether different direction. His weapons like non-violence
and truthfulness, although faced an unrestricted opposition but he and his faith remained unshaken.
Then, the introduction of Non-cooperation movement changed the scenario in favour of Indians. To
the dismay of Britishers, non-cooperation movement proved to be most powerful weapon which
rendered them help-less, and changed the nature of revolutionary activities.
48. What were the provisions of the Lucknow Pact 1916? Examine its significance.
The Lucknow session was important not only in that it brought the moderates and the extremists
together, but it also led to an entente between the Congress and the Muslim League. The events like
the partition of Bengal being annulled, the hostile attitude of the British Government towards the
Sultan of Turkey, Balkan wars in 1911, 1912 and 1913 caused tremendous resentment among the
Muslims. A few young Muslim leaders such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and Maulana
Mohammed Ali, were engaged in bringing home to their brethren the essential community of
interest between them and the Hindus. Azad strarted AI-Hilal which by its inspiring style of
writing, no less than by its high ideals of nationalism, freedom and sacrifice. The first step towards
national solidarity and common action was taken by Jinnah and some of his associates. They invited
the League to hold its annual session at Bombay in December 1915, where the congress was
holding its own session. The League session was attended among others by M. M. Malviya, Sarojini
Naidu and Gandhiji. The Congress and the League decided to cooperate in formulating a common
scheme of post-war reforms and in pressing its adoption by the British authorities. The common
agreed programme between the Ml and INN was:
In the Central Legislature, one-third of the elected Indian members should be Muslims;
The principle of separate electorates for Muslims was accepted. In Bengal and the Punjab, where
the Muslims were in a majority, they were to have slightly less than their proportion of population
might justify, that is 40 per cent against a population proportion of 52.7 per cent and 50 per cent
against the population proportion of 54.8 percent of the elected seats respectively. In other
provinces where they were in a minority they were allowed representation much in excess of the
proportion for instance, in UP, they were given 30 percent seats against a population of 14 per cent,
and in Madras 15 percent against a population of 6.6 per cent.
This scheme became the basis of a pack between the Congress and the League a year later, i.e.,
December 1916. Both the parties held their annual session at Lucknow and accepted the scheme
without any substantial change. The Congress-League pact was hailed as a significant step towards
national solidarity. Nobody then realized that the Lucknow pact involved the abandonment of a
principle dear to Congress both before and after 1916. that principle was that Hindus and Muslims
jointly comprised the Indian Nation.

Realizing that the British disliked the word Swaraj and considered it seditious and dangerous and
taking a cue from the propanganda of Annie Besant, Tilak decided to use the term Home Rule as
the goal of his movement. He proceeded to from the Home Rule League. In December 1915, he
conferred with his fellow-nationalists and as a result of their deliberations the Indian Home Rule
League was set up on 28 April 1916, with headquarters at Poona. The objective of the League was
to attain Home Rule or self-government within the British Empire by all constitutional means and
to educate and organize public opinion in the country towards the attainment of the same.
A similar organization was set up by Annie Besant. She was a great lover of India and was deeply
interested in the educational, religious and social up life of the Indian people. She, however,
realized that it was difficult to do much in these fields unless the people of this country wielded
political power. In 1914 she decided to enlarge the sphere of her activities to include the building of
a movement for Home Rule on the lines of Irish Horne Rule League. In early 1915, she launched a
campaign to demand self-government for India on lines of Canada and Australia. She campaigned
through her newspapers. New India and Commonweal. She organised public meetings to
demand home rule in India. Failing to get Congress approve her scheme of Home Rule Leagues, she
acted on her own. She established Horne Rule League in 1916. through it she educated Indians on
the system of government existing in India and the argument for self rule and self government.
The British authorities became seriously concerned about the Home Rule Movement and decided to
curb it. Severely reactionary measures already in operation were tightened up. Circulars were issued
prohibiting school and college boys from joining the Home Rule Movement. Tilak was prosecuted
for seditious speeches. Annie Besant was also subject to suppression. She was called upon to
furnish security for her press and papers. Internment orders for Besant and her two associates G.S.
Arundale and B.P. Wadia were issued.

49. Explain the part played by Tilak and Annie Besant in the Home Rule Movement. What
was the British reaction to Home Rule League?

50. Write a short note on Montague or August (1917) Declaration. What was its reaction in
India?
The continued political agitation in India and the Congress Muslim League unity caused great
uneasiness in London. In the early summer of 1917, the war situation in Europe also became grave.
Premier Lloyd George, realizing the gravity of the situation, asked Chamberlain to resign and
appointed Montague in his place, as a Secretary of State for India. The New Secretary of State felt
that attempts should be made to enlist support and cooperation in the war of at least those elements
in India who were friendly towards Britain and were inclined to help her in the hour of peril. Soon
after the assumption of office Montague made the following declaration on 20 August 1917:
The policy of His Majestys Government, with which the Government of India are in complete
accord, is that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the
gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of
responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.
They have decided that substantial steps in this direction should be taken as soon as possible.
Shortly after, Montague came to India to learn the wishes of the people and investigate the
possibilities of a major programme of reforms On 8 July 1918, the report known as Montague
Chelmsford Report on Indian Constitutional Reforms, was published.
The reaction to the scheme of reforms in the political circles of India was mixed. The followers of
Annie Besant declined to accept it and urged amendments. Besant declared: I find myself unable to
accept the scheme as it stands the scheme is penetrated with distrust of Indians. She observed that
the reforms were unworthy of England to offer and India to accept. Tilak and his colleagues, who
then dominated the Congress executive, convened a special session of the Congress at Bombay,
August 1918, and adopted a resolution criticizing the proposal as unsatisfactory, inadequate and
disappointing.

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51. Trace the emergence of Gandhiji in Indian political scene till the Champaran Satyagrah of
1917. What was the basic philosophy of Satyagraha enunciated by him?
Gandhiji returned to India in January 1915. His achievements in South Africa had already reached
India and became folklores among the masses. For the educated intelligentsia of India, he was a
symbol of defiance to alien rule. The common man found in him the one who set to save them from
alien oppression.
Gandhijis Indian sojourn started with a pragmatic note. He traveled throughout India from Sindh to
Rangoon. He attended at Shantiniketan and Kumb Mela of Haridwar. All this helped to have a
better understanding of conditions of Indians. He got a firsthand knowledge of mind set and
sufferings of the people. He decided not to comment on any political matter for time being.
In 1915, he founded Sabarmati Ashram to train associates in moral and emotional life of a
Satyagrahi. His faith in moderate method was eroded. But he did not like to be recognized with any
group in the Congress. He refused to join the Home Rule Movement so as not to obstruct the British
governments war efforts in the First World War. He attended the Lucknow Congress Session and
welcomed the reunion.
During his early years Gandhiji took up minor issues. He spoke strongly against indentured
labourers recruitment. On his insistence Congress passed a resolution on it. In 1916 he spoke
against the elitist life style of intellectuals in the Banaras Hindu University ceremony and
challenged them to leave luxury for serving the nation and the poor. He raised voice against
collection of excessive toll tax ill Rajkot district or Gujarat.
Gandhiji is first major political experiment started with the Champaran Satyagrah of 1917. Fighting
in aid for indigo farmers against the oppressive teenkathia system, he successfully employed his
method of Satyagraha.
Satyagraha had its etymological meaning as interest for truth. It implies a moral method of fighting
against social and political injustice based on truth, love and non-violence. Gandhiji perfected it
during his struggle in South Africa.
The ideal Satyagrahi was to be truthful and perfectly peaceful. He should refuse to submit to what
he considers wrong. He would accept suffering willingly in the course of struggle against the wrong
doer. His struggle is the part of his love for truth. Even while resisting the evil, he would love the
evil doer. Hatred is alien on a true Satyagrahi. He would never bow before the evil, whatever may
be the consequences. In Gandhijis view non-violence is the weapon of the brave and courageous.
Thus Gandhiji after elaborate study of conditions and well crafted method of struggle entered into
politics in 1917. With his entry, the content, ideology and range of Indian politics were transformed.
The shift to mass mobilization and his dominant personality gave Indian freedom struggle a crucial
advantage against British imperialism.
52. Write short note on:
A. Champaran Satyagraha
B. Ahmadabad Textile Mills Strike
C. Kheda Satyagraha
Champaran Satyagraha
Champaran was a direct of the Tirhut division of the Bihar Province. The tenants of this district
were bound by law to pay three out of every twenty parts of his land with indigo for his landlord
who, by and large, was Englishmen. This system was known as the tinkathiya system. The indigo
planters perpetrated horrible atrocities on the tenants, known as ryots, coerced them to convert more
and more of their land into indigo-producing fields, exacted forced labour from them, paid them
very little wages and exploited them in every possible way. All their appeals to the indigo planters
brought no mercy, and the poor and unsophisticated ryots continued to suffer.
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In early April 1917, Gandhiji reached there to find out what the grievances of the tenants against
their landlords were. He, somehow, prevailed upon the Lt. Governor of Bihar and the members of
the Executive Council to set up a committee of enquiry to investigate into and report on the
agrarian conditions in Champaran, and he agreed to be one of its members. On the basis of the
report and recommendations of this Committee the Champaran Agrarian Act was passed, and the
long standing and acutely-felt miseries of a vast body of men were alleviated. The tinkathiya
system was abolished and with it the planters raj came to an end.
Ahmedabad Textile Mills Strike
Shrimati Anasuyabai in Ahmedabad wrote to Gandhi him about the condition of workers in
Ahmadabad mills and requested him to take up their cause with the mill-owners. Gandhiji went
there in February 1918, and request these men to refer the wage dispute to arbitration. But the millowners refused to do so. Gandhiji advised the workers to go on strike and explained to them what it
meant. It meant, he told them, four things: never to resort to violence; never to molest blacklegs;
never to depend upon aims; and to remain firm, no matter how long the strike continued.
The workers and their leaders took pledges to abide by these norms, took out peaceful
demonstrations, remained united, discussed their problems with Gandhiji in daily meetings, and
remained firm in their resolve. The strike lasted for twenty-one days, and eventually the millowners agreed to an increase of 35% in the wages of the workers. This was the second victory of
Gandhijis fight for a just cause.
Kheda Satyagraha
Hardly was the Ahmadabad mill strike over, that Gandhijis attention was drawn to the deplorable
plight of the peasants of Kheda district, in Bombay Province. There, the crops had failed, and the
peasants-there known as patidars wanted the revenue assessment for the year suspended. All
representations made on their behalf to the Government, failed, and the patidars were in a helpless
situation.
The fight suggested by Gandhiji to the patidars was quite a new thing; it imposed new type of
restraints and discipline upon them. He went from village to village explaining to the people there
the principles of Satyagraha and exhorting them to remain calm even when there were cause and
reason for provocation. He advised them not to be afraid of the Government officials who were the
servants and not the masters of the people. His preachings had great effect, and the people
remained calm, fearless and firm. The just refused to pay the assessment. The Government resorted
to measures of coercion, imprisonment a few volunteers, attached standing crops, sold peoples
cattle and seized whatever movables it could lay hands upon. But the people remained unbent.
Eventually, a compromise was struck between patidars and the Government, and the Satyagraha
campaign came to an end.
53. Write brief notes on:
A. Rowlatt Act
B. Jallianwalah Bagh Tragedy
Rowlatt Act
On 10 December, 1917, The Viceroy set up, under the chairmanship of an English judge. Sydney
Rowlatt, a Committee to recommend measures to deal with acts of sedition. This Committee
recommended that the Provincial Governments must be vested with powers of internment and that
in certain defined areas political crimes should be tried without the help of jury.

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On the lines of these recommendations, two Bills were drawn up, and these were designed to
perpetuate, in a modified form, the obnoxious provisions of the Defence of India Act. The Bills
were published in the Gazette of India and were known as Rowlat Bills.
The Congress felt very much disappointed over the appointment of the Rowlatt Committee, and in
its Calcutta session in December 1917, denounced it. On February 9, 1918, Gandhiji announced
publicly that he would resort to Satyagraha if the Bills were passed.
This warning too had no effect, and the Bills were passed on 21 March. Gandhi in consultation with
Rajagopalachari, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar and Vijayaraghavachari fixed 6 April 1919 to be a day of
country-wide hartal. The people took up the call and strongly protested against what they called the
black Rowlatt Act. The day, however went off quietly and absolutely without any violence and
break of public peace.
Jallianwalah Bagh Tragedy
On 9th April, 1919, the Hindus of Amritsar celebrated Ram Naumi, a festival marking the birth
anniversary of Shree Ram and a large number of Muslims took part in the festivities. This display of
Hindu-Muslim fraternity exasperated the Lt. Governor of Punjab, Sir Michael O Dwyer, who
passed orders for the deportation of Satyapal and Kitchlu. They were sent to Dharamshala, a hill
town in the Punjab, for internment. The people closed their shops and resorted to hartal on April 10.
They marched in a procession towards the residence of the Deputy Commissioner to ask for the
release of their popular leaders. The procession was quite peaceful, but the police ordered them to
stop and disperse. When the order was defied the police resorted to fring and several persons were
injured, and a few died. The crowd became panicky, and began to destroy Government property and
assault the Europeans. In the forenoon of the 13th April the Baisakhi day about 20,000 men,
women and children assembled at the Bagh to condole the dead. The people that had assembled
there were absolutely unarmed, they did not have even lath is with them. Dyer ordered the Indian
troops (the British soldiers were kept as stand by) to fire till the ammunition exhausted. With one
hour, about 380 persons were killed and about 1,500 were wounded. The renowned poet, Dr
Rabinra Nath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
54. Discuss the aim and objects of Khilafar movement and to what extent was it successful?
The Khilafat movement was against dismemberment of Turkey. The Sultan of Turkey was spiritual
leader of Muslims world over. The British attempt at clipping his powers and fragmentation of his
territory after the First World War aroused public ire against British in India. In early 1919 a
Khilafar Committee was formed. It demanded first that the Khalifas control over Muslim spread
placed should he restored and secondly, he should be left with sufficient territories.
The movement started on a religious ground but soon became a pan-India movement with All India
Khilafat Conference in 1919. Gandhi became the head of it. British goods were boycotted. It
became a precursor to non-cooperation movement when a militant trend emerged demanding
stoppage of all cooperation to British. It succeeded in bringing a radical nationalist trend among the
Muslim youth. It made traditional Muslim scholars critical of the British. The Congress support to it
made in inter-religious and mass based. Its most important success was that it ensured HinduMuslim unity which was inevitable for freedom struggle. The Khilafar issue, in course of time, lost
its value and emerged along the non-cooperation movement of 1921.
55. Critically examine the provisions Montague- Chelmsford reforms of 1919 (or Government
of India Act, 1919)

The terms of the famous Montague-Chelmsford Report on Indian Constitutional Reforms (April
22, 1918) were embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919 which came into force in 1921.
the Act was divided into six parts (and forty-seven articles) dealing with: (i) Local Governments;
(ii) the Secretary of State in Council; (iii) the Government of India; (iv) the civil Services in India;
(v) the Statutory Commission; and (vi) Miscellaneous Provisions.
The main provisions of this Act were:
The Imperial Legislative Council was abolished, and in its place a cameral legislature,
composed of the Legislative Assembly and Council of state, was established.
The Indian Executive comprised of the Governor-General and his Executive Council. The
former was the head of the Executive and distributed he portfolios among the Executive Councilors.
The most important provision of the Act was the introduction of Oyarchy, a sort of double
government, in the provinces. The provincial objects were divided into Reserved and
Transferred subjects. Important departments such as Finance, Police, General Administration
etc., were Reserved and were to be dealt with by the Governor and his Executive Council. Less
important departments, called Transferred subjects were to be dealt with by Ministers chosen
from the elected members of the Provincial Legislature.
Part V of the Act made provision for a Statutory Commission to be set up, at the expiration
of ten years after the passing of the Act for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the system
of government, or to extend, modify or restrict the degree of responsible government then existing
in British India. It was under this provision that the Simon Commission was appointed in 1927,
much before the expiry of the period of ten years, which was boycotted by the Congress.
The Montague Chelmsford Report belied the expectations of the Indian nationalists and it fell far
short of their demands and expectations. Two of its most serious defects were the first the
legislature had virtually no control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council and
secondly the system of diarchy in the provinces was very defective. This Act virtually threw the
Moderates in the Congress into the background, because they not only welcomed the Act, but were
also keen on co-operating with the Government in Implementing the Act. But the Extremists were
thoroughly disappointed with the Act and favoured its total rejection.
This difference of opinion ultimately led to the final decline of the Moderate. In a special session of
the INC held in Bombay (August 1918), the Congress reiterated the demand of self-government and
condemned the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms as inadequate, disappointing the unsatisfactory. The
Moderate leaders, in view of the known views of the Extremists, boycotted the congress session.
Most of the Moderates leaving the Congress later founded the Indian Liberal Federation and came
to be known as Liberals. Under the rising tide of nationalism, the gradual decline of the Moderate
was in any case inevitable.
56. In the Montagu-Chelmsford Report communal representation and reservations were not
only retained but considerably extended. Comment.
With the coming of Montagu-Chelmsford report nationalist leaders in general were hoping that this
obnoxious system would be eradicated. But noting happened so.
The Act of 1919 had many defects out of which one major defect from the nationalist point of view
was the consolidation of separate electorates. Although the Montford Report had declared that
communal separate electorates was a very serious hindrance to the development of self governing
principle, yet separate electorates came to be a permanent feature of the India political life.
So, the positive vice of the system of election introduced by the act of 1909 was substantiated by the
Montford report.
57. From a critical assessment of the Non-Cooperation Movement.

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At the time of Khilafat issue, the non-cooperation movement gained a boost. In 1920, the issue of
Khilafat non-cooperation movement provided a momentum to masses for raising their voice against
the British rule.
September, 1920, special session of the congress at Calcutta approved the non-cooperation
programme till the wrongs done by Punjab and Khilafat issues were remedied. The movement
boycotted government schools and colleges, low courts and legislative councils, foreign clothes,
renounced the government titles and honours.
In this movement the congress decided to attain Swaraj as their goal through peaceful and legitimate
means. Gandhi promised Swaraj within a year through the non-cooperation movement.
Revolutionary groups also supported the congress programme.
It was the peak time for the movement when Gandhi withdrew it due to Chari Chaura incident. With
abandonment of the non-cooperation movement, Khilafat movement went critical over Gandhis
decision of withdrawing the movement.
To evaluate the movement, it can be concluded that it could not realize its goal of and in fact Swaraj
became more far reached goal now. Nor could it solve the Punjab issue.
But it resulted in some favorable consequences like arousing a mass spirit in people, their active
involvement from every nook and comer of the country first time after the revolt of 1857. People
started to wear Khadi and use Swadeshi in place of foreign goods giving a boost to Indian
Economy. Nationalist education spread in country and institutes like Jamia Milia and Kashi
universities came into existence.
In this way, it created a fertile soil for the national movement involving persons from every
religion, caste and sex.

suspension of the movement caused a permanent discord between INC and the Muslim League,
which launched a vicious propaganda that the Congress had used the Muslims as tools during the
Non-Cooperation Movement to achieve its selfish ends and that it had deceived the Muslim by
calling off the movement abruptly. On account of the sudden suspension of the movement,
Mahatma Gandhis efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity bore bitter fruits in the years that
followed. Jawaharlal Nehru was also unhappy at the suspension of the movement and said: Why
should a town at the foot of Himalayas be penalized it a village of Cape Comorin failed to observe
non-violence.
60. What led to the withdrawl of Non Cooperation Movement and why?
During the last phase of non-cooperation movement an indecent of violence took place in February,
1922 at a small village Chauri-Chaura of Gorakhpur district in U.P.
The police there, had beaten up the leader 0 of a group of volunteers campaigning against liquor
sales, and then opened fibres on them. As a result, the crowd set ablaze the police post along with
its officials. This forced Gandhi to call off the movement.
Gandhi felt that people had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence. Incidents like
Chauri-Chaura could lead to excitement and fervor turning the movement generally violent. A
violent movement could be easily suppressed by the colonial regime that could use the incidents of
violence as an excuse to use the armed might of the state against the protesters.

58. Non-Cooperation Movement gave a new direction and energy to the National
movement. Explain.
The non-cooperation movement was of greatest importance. It marked a change of great magnitude
in the object and programme of the Congress ushered in a new era in the political life of the
country. The Congress for the first time declared that its goal was the attainment of Swarajya. It also
changed the means to achieve its goal from petitions to direct action against the Government. The
torch of patriotism was carried and lighted in every cottage and castle. The fear of courting arrest,
going to jail and facing police etc totally banished from the hearts of people. This movement, for the
first time, provided the sense of national unity. On the constructive side, the use of Khadi, Charkha
spinning, starting of national educational institutions, the cult of Swadeshi, and the adoption of
Hindi as the lingua franca for the whole country, also proved of great importance.
The movement also has its social significance. Gandhijis emphasis on the need to remove the evils
of caste barriers and his deep concern for the welfare of the harijans, his crusade against
untouchability had made the people conscious of social evils and accelerated the process of social
unity.
Contributions made by the NCM can be summed up as:
1. Penetrated and precipitated national feeling countrywide.
2. Made Congress more effective and widened its social base.
3. Fall in value of foreign cloth import.
4. Establishment of national educational institutions.

61. What were the reasons that changed Gandhijis attitude of responsive cooperation to noncooperation in 1920? What were its consequences?
Gandhiji on his return to India in 1915 refused to join Home Rule Movement. He was cooperative
towards the government and did not want to disturb its war efforts. He even encouraged the youth to
join army in the hope of concessions after the war.
Gandhijis attitude of cooperation soon changed into active non-cooperation in 1920. All hopes of
Governments generosity were betrayed. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms with their illconceived scheme of diarchy failed to satisfy the rising demands of Indians for self-government.
The Rowlat Act-was passed in the teeth of very opposition of Indian leaders. Under it, brutal
oppression and illegal confinement began. It exposed uncivilized face of the British rule.
The Jallianwalla massacre was the last thrown in Gandhis patience Hundreds of people were killed
by firing on peaceful meeting. The Hunter Committee on the Punjab atrocities proved to be
eyewash. The British Government even commended General Dyer.
The economic situation in the post-war years became alarming with rise in prices, increased burden
of taxes and rents etc. All sections of the society suffered from economic hardships.
All these reasons brought anti British attitude in the mind of Ghandhiji. He became critique of
British rule. He returned the Keser-e-Hind title in protest against the Jallianwalla tragedy. When the
Khilafat movement began, he became the chairman of All India Khilafat Committee. He saw in the
issue a platform from which mass non-cooperation movement could be launched. He convinced the
Congress and got its approval for his programme of political action against the government.
Under Gandhian leadership Hindu-Muslim unity was formed. He declared to lead a non-cooperation
movement till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj was established.
He assumed the leadership of struggle for national emancipation.

59. Comment upon the negative aspects of Non Cooperation Movement.

As regards the negative aspects of the movement, of the objectives for which, i.e. redress of the
Punjab wrongs, the Khilafat demand and Gandhijis promise of securing Swaraj within a year of the
launching of the movement, this movement had been launched could not be achieved at all. The

62. Explain the circumstances leading to the alliance between the Khilafat and NonCooperation Movements. Was it a politically wise step on the part of the Congress?
The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first movement launched under the Gandhian leadership.
It was also the first mass movement with an All India reach. It was during the same period in 1920-

29

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22 the Khilafat Movement was also launched and both the movements got integrated to emerge as a
mass uprising.
The circumstances for the alliance between the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement were in
making the prior decade of 1920. It essentially meant alliance between the Muslim League and the
Indian National Congress and many factors both internal and external worked in it.
At the beginning of the second decade of the 20th century, the younger Muslim intellectuals were
dissatisfied with the loyalist, anti-Hindu and slavish mentality of the upper class leadership of the
Muslim League. They were increasingly drawn to modern and radical nationalist ideas and
nationalist Ahrar movement was founded at this time. In 1912, there was a change in the leadership
of the League when Aga Khan resigned from the presidentship and the Muslim League adopted
self-government as one of its objectives. From now onwards, the young nationalists began to
overshadow the loyalists in the League which began to move nearer to the policies of the Congress.
As an outcome of these developments, the two organisations held their sessions at Lucknow in 1916
and signed a pack known as Lucknow Pact and put forward common political demands.
This atmosphere of cordiality between the Congress and the Muslim League took giant steps after
the World War 1. The Rowlatt Act agitation brought Hindu and Muslims further closer. Further,
radical nationalists Muslims like Mohammad Ali, Abul Kalam Azad and Hasan Imam now became
more influential than the conservative Aligarh school and advocated militant nationalism.
It was in this background the Khilafat issue emerged. The being both spiritual head of the Muslims
and temporal head of Turkey, the treatment meted out to him infuriated the Muslims. The Khilafat
leaders began to demand the restoration of status and power of the Khalifat.
Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat issue as an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans,
and declared that Khilafat question overshadowed that of the Constitutional reforms and the Punjab
wrongs. He also announced that he would lead a movement of non-cooperation if the terms of peace
with Turkey did not satisfy the Indian Muslims. Gandhiji was able to bring the Congress to his line
of thinking and the Congress decided to support Khilafat issue and launch a Non-Cooperation
Movement as it felt it was a golden opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity, losing faith in
constitutional struggle and also that it was aware that the masses were eager to give expression to
their discontent.
Under Gandhijis leadership, the Non-Cooperation Movement was launched formally on 1 August,
1920 and the Congress met in September and accepted Non-Cooperation at its own.
The Congress acceptance of Khilafat issue as its own and launching of Non-Cooperation was a bag
of mixed development. It was a wise step as it resulted in raising national and anti-imperialist
consciousness of the Muslim masses and middle classes. The wide participation of the Muslims
gave further vigour to the massive nature of the Non-Cooperation.
At the same time, the Congress leadership failed in raising the religious political consciousness of
the Muslims to the higher plane of secular political consciousness. This strengthened the habit of
looking at political questions from the religious point of view and in this sense the Congress step
was not a wise move. Thus along with the Lucknow Pact, the emphasis on the notion of Muslim
solidarity kept an opening for communal ideology and politics to grow at a later stage.
63. Trace the formation of Swaraj Party? What were its demands?
In November 1920, elections for the Central and Provincial Legislatures under the Government of
India Act 1919 were held, and while the Congress boycotted, the Liberals remained steady in their
decision to give the reforms a fair trail. This cut the Liberal Federation once for all from the
Congress. And when the Congress leaders and volunteers began to suffer police zulum and longterm imprisonments the Liberal and Moderates enjoyed titles and honours. Surendra Nath Banerjee
was conferred Knighthood; Lord Sinha was made the first Indian Governor of Orissa and Bihar, and
31

a few others were similarly awarded. Not only the Liberals, but also a band of old and senior
Congressmen questioned Gandhijis programme and decision to boycott Legislature.
In view of the new line of thinking that was emerging within the Congress and which favoured
going into the Councils, the authorities released Motilal Nehru from jail. Now that Nehru came out
of jail, the AICC met at Lucknow, from 7 to 9 June 1922 to consider the further line of action.
Because of different opinions the question whether civil disobedience in one form or another or
some other. The Swarajists emerged as a reaction to the Gandhian programme of post-non
cooperation period. They split away in 1923 at the Gaya Session of AICC. They advanced the
programme of carrying non-cooperation within the legislature.
Emergence of Swarajists manifested the aspirations in nationalist ranks. Non-Cooperation aroused
heady enthusiasm and high hopes. Its abrupt suspension was a rude jolt to some nationalists like
Motilal Nehru and CR Das. When Congress endorsed the suspension of political action and
pursuance of Gandhian Constructive Work, their hopes were belied. With the rejection of their
proposal for taking part in elections, they formed a separate group.
The Swarajist goal was to enforce deadlock in the Councils enforcing the government to concede
reforms. Their demands were indicated in a publication in February 1923. The immediate demand
was speedy attainment of dominion status including the right to frame a constitution with provincial
autonomy implying control over bureaucracy.
The Swarajist action kept the spirit of resistance, saved the Indians from political demoralization
and disorganization. They carried on the non-cooperation effectively from the platform of
legislature. They did not oppose Congress or Gandhi. Rather prevented its political activity from
coming to a standstill.
64. Discuss the Second phase of revolutionary terrorism in India. What were their basic
weaknesses?
The virtual failure of the Non-Cooperation movement and the gloom that descended on the
nationalist scene against created conditions calling for bold and terrorist revolutionary activities.
The old Anusilan and Yugantar Samitis reappeared in Bengal and revolutionary organisations
erupted in almost all important towns on Northern India. A new development was, however, the
feeling that better results could be achieved only through an all-India organization and better
coordination. A Conference of revolutionaries was held in Lucknow in October 1924, and its
outcome was an All India organization named Hindustan Republican Association, which was later
on named as Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), which signified its object of
creating a socialist state in India.
The HSR had a three-fold objective
1. To rouse the consciousness of the people of India to futility of the Gandhian methods of
non-violence;
2. To demonstrate the need and desirability of Direct Action and Revolution in order to
achieve complete independence.
3. Ideologically inspired by the Russian Revolution and the Socialist thought. The terrorists
also introduced a novelty in their methods to finance their activities. Hence forth they
decided not to plunder private individuals but to make government treasuries alone as the
target of their dacoities.
One of the most daring acts of HSRA was the famous Kakori Conspiracy
Case. On 9 August 1925 the U.P. revolutionaries success fully carried out the dacoity on the
Kakori-bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line.

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Another bend to Punjabi revolutionaries led by Bhagat Singh shot dead Mr. Saunders (17
November 1928), the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Lahore to avenge the fatal assault of Lala
Lajpat Rai during the anti-Simon Commission demonstrations (30 October 1928).
On 8 April, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Datta both members of the association, threw two
bombs on the floor of the Legislative Assembly at Delhi from the public gallery, while the Public
Safety Bill was being discussed.
Shortly after the bomb-throwing incident the police discovered a bomb factory at Lahore and
another at Saharanpur. Many members of the Association were arrested and the famous Lahore
conspiracy case was instituted against the Revolutionaries. Bhagat Singh was accused in this case
also and was later executed.
Another during exploit of the revolutionaries was the raid on the government armories at
Chittagong led by Surya Sen, popularly known as Master Da. The raid on the armory was a part of
the comprehensive plan of simultaneous attacks on the armories of East Bengal.
The revolutionary and terrorist suffered from many weaknesses. It was sporadic and ill- organised
and was in-effective to fight against the Government. There was also no Co-ordination or
understanding between the revolutionaries and the Congress, which believed in the Cult of nonviolence. There was no central revolutionary organization to guide the movement. The impulsive
and idealistic young men, who had joined the movement, could not develop any radical economic
and agrarian policies. But the patriotism, devotion and sacrifice of the revolutionaries earned the
admiration of the nation and their activities badly stock the roots of the imperialist rule in India.
65. What do you know about the Simon Commission (1927 1930).
On 8 November 1927 the Secretary of State for India Lord Birkenhead, in London and the Viceroy,
Lord Irwin in New Delhi, announced the setting up of the Indian Statutory Commission under Sir
John Simon. It consisted, in addition to the Chairman, of six members.
The Commission was to inquire into the working of the system of government, the growth of
education and the development of representative institutions, in British India, and matters connected
there with and should report as to whether and to what extent it is described to establish the
principle of responsible government.
The Commission worked in the atmosphere of boycott and non-cooperation. It submitted its report
on 27 May 1930 and confirmed in fact the worst fears of the nationalists. Inter-alia it omitted any
mention of Dominion Status, even as a distant goal for the countrys political progress and rejected
all ideas of transfer of power at the Centre with was to remain, as hitherto, politically responsible.
Thus, it has been termed as one of the most regressive documents in the annals of Indian freedom
struggle.
The above boycott led to a parallel attempt to formulate plans for an agreed constitution in India. In
August 1928 an all-party conference was called at Lucknow to draft a constitution through a
Committee under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Committee suggested the
constitution based on the principles of Dominion status. The Calcutta Congress which met in
December 1928 declared that in the British Government did not accept the Nehru Report by the end
of 1929; the Congress would give a call for a new civil disobedience campaign at its next session to
be held in Lahore.
66. Write a short note on Nehru Report?
During the anti-Simon Commission agitation, Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, had
thrown a Challenge to the Indian nationalists to produce a constitution which had behind it a fair
measure of general agreement among the Indian people. Lord Birkenhead had thrown this
challenge under the impression that the INC and the Muslim League were at logger-heads and three
33

would be no unanimity of this issue. To effectively reply to this challenge, an All Parties
Conference was called at Lucknow in August 1928, to produce a draft constitution of India. This
Conference formed a Committee headed by Motilal Nehru to draft a Constitution. The Constitution
drafted by this Committee is known as the Nehru Report or Nehru Constitution. It outlined the
Dominion Status as the goal of all the recognised parts in India. The Report repudiated separate
electorate and religion, expression 0$ opinion, equality of all citizens etc. Unfortunately, the accord
reached at the Conference proved short-lived and a few months later the Report was rejected by the
Muslim League.
At the Calcutta session of the INC 1928 a resolution was passed demanding the grant Of Dominion
Status for India within a year by the British Government, failing which the Congress would revert to
its goal of Independence and will organize a campaign of non-violent non-cooperation.
67. What was the Butler Committee Report? Discuss the reactions on Report in India?
The British government announced the setting up of a three member committee consisting of
Harcourt Bottler, Holds Worth and S.C. Peel to inquire into the relationship between Indian state
and the paramount power and to suggest ways and mean for a more satisfactory adjustment of
existing economic relations between them and the British India.
Officially called the Indian States Committee, it visited 16 Indian states. Its report submitted in
1928 observed that the relationship of the paramount power with the states was not merely a
contractual relationship but a living and growing relationship shaped by circumstances and policies
and resting on a mixture of History and theory. Further, it maintained that in view of this historical
nature of relationship, states should not be transferred without their own agreement to a relationship
with a new government in British India, responsible to an Indian legislature. Later on Simon
Commission substantially endorsed the Butler Committees findings and agreed that the Viceroy
and not the Governor-General should be the agent of the paramount power in its relation with
princes. And, the Government of India Act 1935 even stipulated that the two offices of the
Governor General and the Viceroy were indeed separate and distinct in their functions.
The Nationalists reacted sharply to the Butler Commission recommendation that the Paramount was
not automatically transferable from the Crown to the possible Congress led Central Government in
India. The Nationalists saw it as an ominous threat to the integrity of the Country.
68. Write short note on Lahore Session of Congress.
All the leaders by its Lahore session in 1929 convinced that the British imperialism would submit
not to beggary but to force only. There was no other alternative but to demand complete
independence. It was a historic day (31st December 1929). When at midnight the resolution was
voted upon and adopted by a majority vote. The text of the resolution ran as follows:
The main features are:
1. Poorna Swaraj as goal of Congress because:
(i)
Simon Commission did not even mention dominion status
(ii)
Ultimatum to accept Nehru Report
(iii)
Indians were dissatisfied with vague offers.
2. J.L Nehru hosted a flag on the bank of river Ravi on Dec. 31, 1929.
3. Poorna Swaraj Day was to be celebrated on Jan. 1930. This pledge was to be repeated year
after year. It roused and inflamed the passion of the people for independence. In order to
perpetuate the memory of 26th January, our new Constitution was also enforced on this day.
4. Laughing of Civil Disobedience Movement.
69. Why did Gandhi launch salt Satyagraha in 1930 and with what results?
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In 1929 Congress adopted Poorna Swaraj as its goal. In pursuance of it, Gandhiji sent an eleven
point ultimatum to Lord Irwin. However, Irwin refused to entertain this. This led Gandhi to start
Salt Satyagarh in 1930.
The salt Satyagrah started on 6 April 1930 by Gandhis breaking of salt law at Dandi. The
movement continued till 1934. It had wide impact. As a result of the movement the Congress swept
the polls in most of the provinces in 1937. The Left as an alternative emerged for the Movement had
aroused expectations, which Gandhijis strategy could not fulfill. At the levels of leadership, Nehru
and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasizing the need to combine nationalism with radical, social
and economic programmes. Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in
1934 Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programme developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and
Andhra.
70. What were the salient features of Gandhi-Irwin Pact?
Gandhi-Irwin pact was a result of successful massive Civil Disobedience Movement. The pact was
signed on February 14, 1931. Its salient features were as follows:
Viceroy Irwin, on behalf of the government, agreed to release all political prisoners, not convicted
of violence, immediately. Government remitted all fines. Lands confiscated were to be returned to
the peasants. Government agreed to show lenient treatment to all employees who had resigned.
Indians were given right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption. Government
recognized right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing. All the emergency ordinances, restricting
public liberty, were withdrawn.
Gandhi, on behalf of the Indians, agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement. He agreed
to represent the Congress in the Second Round Table Conference on the constitutional question
around federal polity, the Indian responsibility and reservations and safeguards that would be
necessary in Indias interests.
But, the government turned down demands for public inquiry into police excesses and commutation
of Bhagat Singh and his comrades death sentences.
Gandhi-Irwin pact put Congress in equal footing with the government. The British recognized it as
the sole representative of Indian masses. Though the movement was suspended, Congress emerged
stronger due to its success by bending the government.
71. At Karachi in 1931, the Congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses.
Elucidate.
The Karachi session of the Indian National Congress in 1931 was a historic event in the evolution of
the national movement. It gave final shape to the idea of Swaraj which had been a vague concept
till then and defined what it meant to the masses.
The Karachi session visualized Swaraj as an order where the exploitation of the masses ceases to
be and political freedom includes real economic freedom of the starving millions. To bring this
ideal Swaraj into practical reality, it visualized a Swaraj Government and a Constitution with the
following essential elements.
Swaraj would ensure every citizen of India certain Fundamental Rights and Duties. There would be
right of free expression, right to free association and right to assemble, irrespective of religion.
Swaraj would ensure equality before law for all the citizens and the state shall observe neutrality in
regard to all religions. The state shall also provide free and compulsory primary education.
Further, in Swarajya the interests of the working class would be protected to secure a decent
standard of living by ensuring that the principles of justice prevail in the organisation of economic
life. Moreover, Swaraj will end serfdom and child labour and will protect the women workers.

35

Swarajya as envisioned by the Karachi Congress, will herald in a new era of land reforms and land
relations leading to relief and empowerment of overburdened and exploited peasantry. Further, it
was declared that the state shall protect indigenous industries and also that the state shall own or
control key industries and services, mineral resources, railways, waterways, shipping and other
means of public transport. The Swarajya also meant a state in which relief of agricultural
indebtedness and control of usury is ensured.
72. Discuss the significance of Civil Disobedience Movement. What was governments attitude
towards it?
Civil Disobedience Movement was natural culmination of:
1. 1929 Lahore session which called for fresh programme if Nehru Report was not accepted by
government.
2. Rejection of Gandhis 11 demands
3. Growing militant activities.
Civil Disobedience Movement can be divided into two phases:
1. From Dandi March (1930 March) to till Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931 March) when Civil
Disobedience Movement was suspended.
2. From Gandhis return from second Round Table Conference (1931) till Gandhi went fast
unto death because of communal award.
Significance:
1. A large number of workers and peasants join the movement under leftists influence. A large
number of women participated in it. Even the capital classes also joined the movement. Two
platoons of Gharwal regiment refused to fire on demonstrators which shows that nationalism
has percolated into army.
2. The movement had reached to North West Frontier Province where Abdul Gaffar Khan
provided a great fillip to movement. In Nagaland, Rani Gaidnliu, responded to Civil
Disobedience Movement and participated in it and was arrested. In Sholapur, people
virtually took over the city. In U.P. Prabhat Pheirs by people etc.
Programs: Violation of salt laws soon spread and followed by nonpayment of taxes, picketing of
foreign liquor shops, burning of foreign goods etc.
Governments Attitude: In the beginning the government remained indifferent and adopted the
policy of non-interference with the proposed Dandi March in the hope that the force of the
movement would fade on its own and that Gandhis salt strategy would fail to take off.
But as the movement advanced, the government was puzzled and not able to decide what course it
should follow. The government was placed in a classic dilemma of damned if you do, damned if
you do not i.e., if it did not suppress a movement that brazenly defied its laws, its administrative
authority would be undermined and its control would be shown to be weak; if it suppress it, it would
be seen as a brutal anti-people administration that used violence on non-violent agitators. Either
way, it would lead to the erosion of the hegemony of the British government.
However, the rapid spread of the movement forced the government to arrest Gandhi. But its timing
was ill-conceived. Because Gandhiji was arrested at a high point in the movement which fuels and
further spurred the activity. For examples, there was a massive wave of protest at Gandhis arrest in
Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi and other places. All this caused endless trouble to the government.
73. In what way did the Civil Disobedience Movement affect the different provinces of India?
How did it foster the peasant movements in India?
The Civil Disobedience Movement was started with Gandhijis defiance of slat law in Dandi.
Popular indignation gave it a self sustained momentum throughout India.
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In Peshawar, Badshah Khan organized Khudai Khidmatgars, a voluntary brigade of Red Shirts. The
pledge for freedom was so massive there that the whole city was virtually in the hands of the crowd
for a week. In Sholapur, the textile workers went on strike. A virtual parallel government was
established there.
In Gujarat, a determined no tax movement was organised. Villagers left villages and camped in the
open places to boycott land taxes. A peaceful raid was conducted on Darshana salt works. Similar
peaceful salt satyagrahs and marches were organised in Tamil Nadu (by C Rajagopalchair), Malabar
(K Kelappan) Bengal, Karnataka and Orissa. In Andhra salt camps came up in districts as
headquarters of salt Satyagraha.
Eastern states like Bengal, Bihar and Orissa saw boycott of chowkidari tax and union beard tax. In
Assam a powerful built against Wennigham Circular.
United Province saw a massive no rent campaign. Prabhat pheries and marches by band of men and
women going to villages singing nationalist songs were organised. Even children were organised
into Vanar Senas. Women forming Manjari Senas picketed before liquor shops.
The Civil Disobedience Movement gave a new dimension to the peasant movement. No rent
campaigns in UP, Gujarat and Bengal were run-way successes. It was experimented in other
provinces to safeguard interests of the peasants. Peasants mobilized themselves at provincial, taluka
and Thana levels. They organised themselves and fought oppression and high handedness of
Zamindars. They adopted voluntary migration to force government to reduce land taxes. Thus, they
gained self-confidence and contributed to national struggle by their massive participation.
Civil Disobedience eroded the hegemony of the government. Though the government resorted to
repression and arrest, yet it was puzzled and perplexed as how to quell the massive unrest. It forced
the British to reconcile with the Congress. Before brought to an end by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the
movement had its desired effect on political sphere.
74. Analyse the factors responsible for the Civil Disobedience movement (1930-31). How far
were its aims realised in the Government of India Act of 1935?
The Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930-31 emerged as a mighty national uprising since the
Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22. After the suspension of NCM upto 1930, there took place
many developments in Indian Political scene which led to the CDM in 1930.
The political passivity created by the suspension of NCM was again revived by the announcement
of the appointment the Simon Commission. The Statutory Commission appointed to look into the
working of the Government of India Act of 1919 and to suggest further reforms did not have any
Indian as member. The Indian National Congress called for boycott of the Commission which was
endorsed by the Liberal Federation, the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress, the Hindu
Mahasabha, the Muslim League under Jinnah etc. Thus, there was revival of anti-British activities
throughout India with the arrival of Simon Commission.
The political unrest was further strengthened by Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of States challenge
to Indians that the Indians are divided among various political platforms to produce a constitution.
The All Parties Conference of 1928 took up this challenge and a committee under Motilal Nehru
was appointed to draft a constitution. Though there was disagreement on the final draft of the
Constitution mainly from the Communal parties, the Nehru Committee brought different sections of
Indian polity on a single platform.
Moreover, a radical nationalist group arose in the late 20s of the twentieth century in the Indian
political scene. This group led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose wanted complte
independence than that of dominion status as envisaged by the Nehru Report. Further, they also
wanted active political struggle to overthrow the British administration. Thus, political barometers
have been on the rise in the late 20s.
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On the part of Gandhiji, since the release from jail in 1924, has was preparing the masses for further
round of constitutional agitation. Its a part of it, he conducted tours throughout India penetrating
the mass mind slowly but surely.
On the part of the government, the redresal machinery has been on full use. The anti-Simon
agitators were brutally handled by the British police. In Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was brutally beaten
by the police which led to his death. In similar incidents, Jawaharlal Nehru, Govind Vallabh Pant,
C. Rajagopalachari and many others had to face police atrocities. A group of revolutionaries under
Bhagat Singh avenged the killing of the respected national leader by killing the police officer
Saunders, responsible for the lathi charge. Other activities of the government like the arrest of
thirty-one labour leaders in 1929 kept the political excitement at fever pitch. Their trial was
condemned by all sections of the national movement including Gandhiji and the Congress.
It was in this atmosphere the Calcutta Session of the INC took place in 1928. The younger elements
wanted Puma Swaraj than the dominion status envisaged in the Nehru Report. Finally, it was
agreed that if the government did not accept a constitution based on dominion status within a year,
the INC would launch CDM to attain complete independence. As the government failed to meet this
nationalist demand the INC met at Lahore in December 1929 and gave call for Civil Disobedience.
The Government of India Act 1935 could not satisfy the demands of the nationalists.
The act did not concede Poorna Swaraj which was the theme of CDM. The act also, did not give
adequate freedom to legislatures it came with elaborate safeguards which amounted to vital
subtraction from this principle of self-government. Indias constitutional status as a dependency did
not improve as powers of constitutional amendment and responsibility for Indian administration still
remained with the British Parliament. Thus, the Act of 1935 could not meet the aims of CDM and
the Congress rejected it.
75. Comment upon the Second Round Table Conference.
Significant changes had taken place by the time the second Round Table Conference opened on
September 7, 1931. Gandhiji attended the Conference as the sole representative of the Congress.
Other members of the delegation were Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya and Sarojini Naidu, nominated by
the Viceroy in their individual capacity.
Gandhiji in his speech at the Round Table Conference said, All the other parties at the meeting
represent sectional interest; Congress alone claims to represent the whole of India and all interests.
Gandhi at the plenary session pressed his demand for complete independence in very words. He as
the spokesman of the Congress and the Indian masses demanded full responsible Government at the
Centre. He also demanded the undivided control of the Indians on the defence. The British,
Government, however agreed to meet half-way by offering a partly responsible Government of the
Centre. The discussion was then stuck up on the communal problem. The delegates representing the
minorities put forth their exaggerated demands for concessions and privileges. The RTC failed to
evolve any point of agreement among the delegates. In fact the very composition of the delegation
was such as made any agreement on communal problem nearly impossible.
76. What was the McDonald Award? How was it modified?
The McDonald Award refers to the declaration of communal electorate on 16th, August, 1932 by the
British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald. It was an expression of British policy of divide and rule.
According to this communal Award Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Hindus and Harijans were to elect
their representatives through separate communal electorates.
It was intended at breaking the nationalist sentiments. The Muslims, Sikhs and Christians were
already recognised as minorities. The Award put the depressed classes among the Hindus in a
separate category and entitled them for separate electorate. The Award was a mischievous attempt
38

to divide and weaken the Hindus by separating the Harijans and was unjust to the Hindus and partial
to the Muslims. The underlying motive of the Award was to split the Indian people into small and
mutually hostile sections. It was a direct hit on national solidarity. It not only retained communal
electorate but also extended it. The Award made further divisions on the basis of religion,
occupation and loyalty to the Government.
It infuriated the Congress and the people. Gandhiji seeing it an attack on Indian unity and
nationalism by creating perpetual division went on indefinite fast. Consequently, leaders of caste
groups and depressed classes got together and hammered out the Poona Pact in September 1932.
The Pact abandoned separate electorates for the depressed classes and demanded joint electorates.
The seats reserved for the depressed classes were increased from 71 to 147 in provincial legislatures
and 18% of the total in the Central legislature. The Poona Pact was accepted by the government as
an amendment to the Communal Award.
Thus, governments attempt to separate the people was belied. The Award, intended to break
nationalist movement, actually helped it to forge ahead by unity of masses and leaders.
77. What is the significance of Poona Pact?
The Award of Mr. MacDonald came as a great schok in Gandhiji. He communicated to MacDonald
that the would begin his fast to death if the decision was not reversed. The Government slept over
the ultimatum. Hence on 20th September, 1932, Gandhiji began his fast. The fast, however, had a
salutary effect on the Hindu leaders who realized the necessity of earning the goodwill of the
untouchables. Secondly, it set the whole country in a flutter nature of the anti-imperialistic struggle.
As a corollary to it, the CSP agreed upon four basic propositions for its programme. First, the
primary struggle in India is the national struggle for freedom and that nationalism was a necessary
stage on the way to socialism secondly that the socialists must work inside the National Congress;
thirdly give the Congress and the national movement a socialist direction; and lastly organizes the
workers and peasants in their class organisation, wage struggles for their economic demands and
make them the social base of the national struggle.
Out of the above basic proportions emerged the CSP programme of transforming the Congress
ideologically and organizationally. In this direction, the CSP worked for infusing into the Congress
a socialist vision of independent India and a more radical pro-labour and pro-peasant stand on
current economic issues.
Further, after 1935 with broad understanding with other Left groups in India, the CSP oriented and
strengthened its programme for a consistent and militant stand against anti-imperialism. It was very
much evident during Quit India Movement when the CSP leadership provided direction to masses
from underground. The contributions of Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Ram Manohar
Lohia etc. are important in this context. This CSP also organised programmes for the formation of
workers and peasants unions and Kisan Sabhas, programmes for anti-landlordism and formulated
programmes for an anti-fascist, anti-colonial and anti-war foreign policy.
In short, the CSP leadership and its programme provided a new direction to Indian National
Movement. By defining freedom in a broad sense than mere political sense, it envisaged an
egalitarian society in a politically free India. By orienting its programmes towards downtrodden
sections like workers and peasants, it strengthened the roots and base of the national movement.
Further, by taking an anti-fascist and uncompromising anti-imperialistic stand it collaborated with
the international efforts against fascism and imperialism. In a nutshell the CSP radiacalized and
infused new vigour to Indian National Movement in the last two decades of its freedom struggle.
79. Discuss the provisions and consequences of Government of India Act 1935.

39

Government of India Act 1935 was the last constitutional prevision, introduced by British and it
remains workable till 1950. Gol Act, 1935 was formed on the basis of Simons Commission report
and second round table conference deliberations.
Provisions:
1. The concept of federation was introduced but it did not come into effect as princely states
did not join federation.
2. Distribution of legislative powers into federal, provincial and concurrent lists with residuary
powers remaining with Governor General.
3. Dyarchy at centre with division of functions into reserved and transferred subjects.
4. Provincial Autonomy: Dyarchy at provinces was abolished and all provincial subjects were
given to Indian ministers. But this provincial autonomy was not real: Governor was
empowered, under the act, to veto on any decision of minister. So Minister had only
responsibility but no authority. That is why Nehru said about Gol Act, 1935 that it has
strong breaks but no engine.
Reaction of Political Parties to G.O.l Act 1935:
1. Congress criticized because of weak provincial autonomy. However it took participation in
elections in 1937 under Gol Act, 1935.
2. Muslim League criticized because federal scheme would have Hindu Majority. However it
supported provincial autonomy.
Elections under GoI Act 1935 in 1937: Although congress was opposed to Gol Act, 1935, but it
participated in election because:
1. To show British that congress sis the real representative of Indian people.
2. Its success in elections would reflect the aspirations of every Indian against British rule
towards forming an independent India.
3. If it gets majority it would demand for constituent assembly. This would help in education
of the masses on political and economic issues. J.L. Nehru was a lone campaigner, he toured
all over country criticize act, educate masses on political issues and prepare for future
struggle.
Result:
1. Congress was the largest party in Central legislative assembly.
2. It gain absolute majority in 6 provinces. In Assam and North West Frontier Province
coalition government was formed.
3. Muslim, league gained majority in 3 provinces Punjab, Bengal and Sindh. These results
confirmed congresss and Nehrus popularity.
80. How did the Government of India Act, 1935 mark a point of no return in the history of
constitutional development in India?
In India, constitutional development can be traced back to about 1861 Act or if we go back, yet, to
the Regulating Act of 1773.
But the Act of 1935 made some important provisions which were directly adopted in the
Constitution of India with or without some modifications and Kisan Sabhas, programmes for antilandlordism and formulated programmes for an anti-fascist, anti-colonial and anti-war foreign
policy.
In short, the CSP leadership and its programme provided a new direction to Indian National
Movement. By defining freedom in a broad sense than mere political sense, it envisaged an
egalitarian society in a politically free India. By orienting its programmes towards downtrodden
sections like workers and peasants, it strengthened the roots and base of the national movement.
Further, by taking an anti-fascist and uncompromising anti-imperialistic stand it collaborated with
40

the international efforts against fascism and imperialism. In a nutshell the CSP radicalized and
infused new vigour to Indian National Movement in the last two decades of its freedom struggle.

81. Discuss the provisions and consequences of Government of India Act 1935.
Government of India Act 1935 was the last constitutional prevision, introduced by British and it
remains workable till 1950. Gol Act, 1935 was formed on the basis of Simons Commission report
and second round table conference deliberations.
Provisions:
1. The concept of federation was introduced but it did not come into effect as princely states
did not join federation.
2. Distribution of legislative powers into federal, provincial and concurrent lists with residuary
powers remaining with Governor General.
3. Dyarchy at centre with division of functions into reserved and transferred subjects.
4. Provincial Autonomy: Dyarchy at provinces was abolished and all provincial subjects were
given to Indian ministers. But this provincial autonomy was not real: Governor was
empowered, under the act, to veto on any decision of minister. So Minister had only
responsibility but no authority. That is why Nehru said about Gol Act, 1935 that it has
strong breaks but no engine.
Reaction of Political Parties to G.O.l Act 1935:
1. Congress criticized because of weak provincial autonomy. However it took participation in
elections in 1937 under Gol Act, 1935.
2. Muslim League criticized because federal scheme would have Hindu Majority. However it
supported provincial autonomy.
Elections under GoI Act 1935 in 1937: Although congress was opposed to GoI Act, 1935, but it
participated in election because:
experiment a party which was committed to liquidate British rule took charge of administration.
The Congress was now to function both as a government in the provinces and as the opposition vis-vis the Central Government where effective state power play. Thus the Congress had to
implement its strategy of struggle True Struggle (S T S) in historically unique situation.
The formation of the Ministries by the Congress changed the entire psychological atmosphere in the
country. Nehru writes in Discovery of India. There was a sense of immense relief as the lifting of
weight which had been oppressing the people. The Congress Ministries had a number of
achievements to their credit during twenty-eight months of their power. Thousands of political
prisoners and detainess were released and the internment and deportation on political workers were
cancelled. A number of provincial Governments took measures to restore the lands confiscated by
the Government during the Civil Disobedience Movement and gave economic relief to the peasants
and workers. The agrarian policy of the Congress Ministers went a long way towards promoting the
interests of the peasantry. The Congress Governments also undertook several measures of social
reform, such as introduction of prohibition in selected areas, removal of untouchability, promotion
of education, health, sanitation, etc. On a number of occasions, the Congress Ministers stalled the
interference of the Governors in the administration of the provinces through the use of his special
powers. But on the whole, there was a good deal of bad blood between the Congress Ministers and
the Governors.

The Prajamandal Movement began with demand for freedom and introduction of demarcating
government and the grant of Civil liberties to the people of princely states. Its growing clout forced
the Congress to support in the late 1930s. At its Tripura Session (1939) Congress decided to involve
itself closely in the movements in the princely states. To underline the common aspirations of all the
people of India, the All India States Peoples Conference elected Jawaharlal Nehru as its President
in 1939. This movement stirred political consciousness of the people in the Princely states. Their
effective agitation deprived the princes the role of breakwaters against national movement.
83. What was the role of States Peoples Movement in the integration of princely states?
Lists were introduced in this Act. This provision made separation of power between the Centre and
Provinces. Now our Constitution provides for three lists, dividing power between Centre and State
Governments.
All these provisions were so important that there was no return from them but the Constitution
adopted them, though not in toto. So, it can be said that the Act marked a point of no return in the
history of Constitutional development in India.

82. What was the significance of Prajamandal movement in the Indian states in the decade
preceding Indias independence?

84. Comment on the Elections of 1937 under the Government of India Act, 1935. What were
the achievements of the Congress Ministers in the Provinces?
The INC was very reluctant to contest elections held under the new Act in early 1937. Jawaharlal
Nehru had to admit that there was no choice but to contest the elections to the new provincial
legislature. The INC wanted to contest elections on the issue of repealing all repressive laws and
AICC adopted a resolution on Congress policy in legislatures. It claimed that the Congress was as
contesting the elections, with its objective of independence and its total rejection of the new
constitution, and the demand for a constituent Assembly to frame Indias Constitution. The declared
Congress policy was to combat the New Act and end it.
In the election held in April 1937, in which the stand of the Congress was endorsed by the
overwhelming majority of voters and Congress ministries were formed in six of the eleven
provinces. Later Congress ministries were also formed in two more (NWFP and Assam) provinces.
Thus began a novel experiment a party which was committed to liquidate British rule took charge
of administration. The Congress was now to function both as a government in the provinces and as
the opposition vis a vis the Central Government where effective state power play. Thus the
Congress had to implement its strategy of struggle True Struggle (S T S) in historically
unique situation.
The formation of the Ministers by the Congress changed the entire psychological atmosphere in the
country. Nehru writes in Discovery of India: There was a sense of immense relief as the lifting of
weight which had been oppressing the people. The Congress Ministries had a number of
achievements of their credit during twenty-eight months of their power. Thousands of political
prisoners and detainess were released and the internment and deportation on political workers were
cancelled. A number of provincial Governments took measures to restore the lands confiscated by
the Government during the Civil Disobedience Movement and gave economic relief of the peasants
and workers. The agrarian policy of the Congress Ministries went a long way towards promoting
the interests of the peasantry. The Congress Governments also undertook several measures of social
reform, such as introduction of prohibition in selected areas, removal of untouchability, promotion
of education, health, sanitation, etc. On a number of occasions, the Congress Ministries stalled the
interference of the Governors in the administration of the provinces through the use of his special
powers. But on the whole, there was a good deal of bad blood between the Congress Ministries and
the Governors.

41

42

85. What was the significance of Prajamandal movement in the Indian states in the decade
preceding Indias independence?
The Prajamandal Movement began with demand for freedom and introduction of demarcating
government and the grant of Civil liberties to the people of princely states. Its growing clout forced
the Congress to support it in late 1930s. At its Tripura Session (1939) Congress decided to involve
itself closely in the movements in the princely states. The underline the common aspirations of all
the people of India, the All India States Peoples Conference elected Jawaharlal Nehru as its
President in 1939. This movement stirred political consciousness of the people in the Princely
states. Their effective agitation deprived the princes the role of breakwaters against national
movement.
86. What was the role of States People Movement in the integration of princely states?
The organized States Peoples Movement began with the establishment of All India State Peoples
Conference in 1927. In 1937, it was absorbed in the Congress. Its leaders raised their voice against
the misrule and oppression in the princely states. They inculcated the political feeling among the
people and educate them about the benefits of a free and democratic India. They organised public
demand for dissolution and integration of princely states into the Indian Union in the event of
independence. In Junagarh and Hyderabad, their struggle forced the rulers to merge with India. It
pressurized the princes to accept the suzerainty of India Union after independence through mass
agitation.
Haripura Session of Indian National Congress was held in February, 1938, where S.C. Bose was
unanimously elected as the President of the INC, in spite of Gandhi opposition. The two important
resolutions passed at the session were:
1. People of princely states were assured of moral support in their struggle:
2. Congress declared that India could not be a party to an imperial war and would not permit
her manpower and resources to be exploited in the interest of British imperialism.
Tripura session of Congress was held in March, 1939. At this session the right wingers were
determined to oust Subash Chandra Bose as the president. At this Session (1939) Congress decided
to involve itself closely in the movements in the princely states. At the session the world peace and
progress was emphasised. At the end of the Session, Bose resigned as the congress President and
formed the Forward Bloc to function as a unifying force for leftwing elements.
87. Account for the emergence of the left-wing within the Congress. How far did it influence,
the programme and Policy of the Congress?
In the 20s and 30s of the twentieth century left wing began to emerge in the Indian political scene.
In the Congress it found expression in the form of Congress Socialist Party. The left wing
influenced the national movement in various ways.
The twenties of the twentieth century found a new group emerging in Indian National Congress.
This young-educated group had enough exposure to the outside world and with the ideological
developments there. Jawahar Lal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose are were the faces of this new
group. Their exposure to international socialistic developments gave them a new direction e.g.
Jawahar Lal Nehru attended Brusels Conference and visited Soviet Russia in 1928 and was
impressed by its achievements.
The emergence of modern industries and factory system gave impetus to come under ideas in the
Congress. It lead to the growth of trade union and they come under socialistic principles.
Moreover, the Russian Revolution of 1917 had a far reaching impact in India. Many young leaders
were inspired by the overthrow of a despotic rule by the Communists under Lenin. These young
leaders also began to cherish a dream of overthrowing British imperialism from India. Apart from
43

that great strides made by USSR under the communist were greatly impressive, Nationalisation,
establishment of a classless society and big leap in economic growth inspired the young leaders in
India, The Great Depression of 1929 though created economic sufferings in other parts of the world,
in Russia it was a period of rapid growth which showed to these new leaders the efficacy of
socialistic ideas.
The withdrawl of Non-Cooperation Movement and failure to achieve any of its aims created
disappointment in young national leaders who began to think of more radical ways than Gandhian
methods. These leaders began to turn towards socialistic ideas.
The cumulative effect of all the above was the emergence of leftist in the Congress, Jawahar Lal
Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose were great votaries of socialism in the Congress. It also led to
the formation of Congress Socialist Party in 1934, Socialistic ideas influenced Congress in many
ways. Firstly, it gave a new orientation to the freedom movement. Freedom was not to be restricted
in the political sense but it also meant socio-economic freedom, it was under the socialists
influence the Karachi Session passed resolution on fundamental rights and Economic reforms,
Because of the Socialists influence Congress election manifestos of 1936 37 and 1945 46
committed to establish a socialist society, The Faizpur session resolution on agrarian reform and
formation of Indian Planning Committee in 1938 were also because of the influence of the left wing
in the Congress. Finally, in 1945 Congress Working Committee passed a resolution to abolish
landlordism in the country.
It may be said that the left wing emerged in the Congress because of certain historical forces and
circumstances. By giving a socialistic direction to the national movement and to the Congress the
left wing kept a lasting legacy in modern Indian history.
88. Write a short note on Individual Satyagraha.
During Second World War period the government had taken the adamant position that no
constitutional advance could be made till the Congress came to an agreement with the Muslim
leaders. It kept issuing ordinance after ordinance taking away the freedom of speech and press and
right to organize associations. Gandhiji decided to initiated a limited Satyagraha on an individual
basis in every locality.
The aim of this were mainly to show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness and to
express peoples feeling that they were not interested in the war. It also aimed to give another
opportunity to the government to accept Congress demand peacefully.
Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer the Satyagraha and Nehru, the second. By May 1941, thousands
had been convicted for Individual Civil Disobedience. This Movement came to be associated with
the famous Delhi Chalo Movement.
89. What do you know August Offer?
With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 and Indias automatic involvement in it
without consultation, the Indian National Congress demanded a clear-cut definition of the British
Governments war and peace aims as applicable to India. Shortly afterwards, there was a change of
government in England with Winston Churchill (1874 1965) taking over as Prime Minister from
Neville Chamberlain. Churchills mental outlook about India, it was well known had not progressed
beyond his early twentieth-century imperialist mould and many in his own country viewed him as
the crustiest of the Tories.
In the first week of July, the Congress executive formally asked the British Government to affirm its
adherence to the goal of independence for India and to induct immediately into office, at the centre,
a national government. The Governor Generals response was to hold consultations with a wide

44

range of political leaders. On August 8, 1940, he issued from Shimla a statement that was intended
to break the constitutional deadlock. It offered:
1. An immediate expansion of the Viceroys Executive Council by inducting into that body a
number of Representative Indians;
2. The establishment of a War Advisory Council comprising representatives of British India;
3. The promotion of practical steps to arrive at an agreement among Indians on the form which
the post war representative body would take.
Nationalist reaction to what come to be known as the August Offer was hostile. It was clear that
all it amounted to was the addition of a few more Indians to the Governor-Generals Executive
Council without transferring responsibility from the British Parliament to the Indian Legislature.
The only party that was happy about this was the All India Muslim League.
90. What led British to change its policy towards India and send Cripps to India? Discuss the
main proposals of the Mission.
During the Second World War, Britain had to suffer losses in South-East Asia. Some countries like
Japan really posed a danger for British Empire. The fear of Japan was even felt in the Indian colony
of the British.
At this movement, the support from India was the need of the hour. Moreover, there was a constant
pressure on Britain from the Allies (USA, USSR, and China) to seek Indian cooperation. Various
Indian nationalists agreed to support the Allied cause if substantial power was transferred
immediately to Indians and complete independence given after the war.
Thus, in March 1942, a mission under Sir Stafford Cripps was sent to India with constitutional
proposals to seek Indian support for the war. The main proposal of the mission was as follows:
1. An Indian union with a dominion status would be set up with would be free to decide its
relations with the common wealth and free to participate in the limited Nations and other
international bodies.
2. After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new
constitution. Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies
through proportional representation and partly nominated by princes.
3. Any province not willing to join the union could have a separate constitution and term a
separate union.
4. In the meantime, defence of India would remain in British hands and the governor-generals
power would remain intact.
These proposals failed to satisfy the Indian nationalists and thus proved to be another dead block in
the path to independence.

Viceroy assumed sweeping emergency powers. Defence of India ordinance crippled civil liberites.
The British harped on the differences among Indians and tried to use the Muslim League and the
Princes against Congress.
The Congress, disgusted with Governments insensitivity, decided not to support the war. All the
Congress led Ministries resigned. It called upon selected few to start individual Satyagrah as a
prelude to mass movement. It aimed to pressurize the British to negotiate as well as to tone up its
organization for mass struggle.
Fall of France and Japanese sweep of Burma forced the British to reconcile with Indians. Positive
statements denouncing fascist axis forces from Indian leader encouraged them. The Cripps
Mission reached India in March 1942 with proposals for constitutional reforms. But, it failed to
resolve the crisis. Indian leaders opposed the offer of dominion status, under concession to the
Princes with right to secession, Viceroys unhindered powers and absence of any plan for
immediate transfer of power. They resolved not to accept anything less than complete
independence. Gandhiji went to describe Cripps proposal as a post dated cheque.
Disillusioned with the British apathy towards independence and democracy in India, the Congress
finally decided to start mass movement. Thus, the anti-British feeling boiling at the onset of World
War finally culminated into Quite India Movement of 1942.
92. Trace the course of Quit India Movement and discuss its importance in the history of
struggle for Independence.
The failure of Cripps Mission compelled the Indian leaders to adopt another course of action. The
All India Congress Committee at its Bombay session of 1942 passed the famous Quit India
resolution and proposed another mass struggle under the leadership of Gandhiji. The resolution
declared the immediate ending of British Rule in India.
But before the Congress could start a movement, Gandhiji was arrested along with other prominent
leaders. This news spread like a wild fire giving expression of anger to people. The mass was left
without any leader. There were hartals, strikes in factories, schools & colleges and demonstration
which were lathi charged and fired upon. People got angry with brutal methods adopted by British
and so the turned violent.
Police stations, post offices, railway stations and whatever belonged to the British bear the brunt of
the people. In many places the rebel seized temporary control over towns, cities and villages. The
government on its past went out to crush the movement.
The Quit India movement has been termed as the revolt of 1942. Its importance is in the fact that it
demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling had reached the country and the great capacity for
struggle and sacrifices that the people have developed. This made the Britishers to feel that they
could no longer rule the Indians against their will.

91. How did the outbreak of the Second World War affect Indias political scene? Did the
Cripps Mission resolve the political crisis in India?
Indias already tensed political situation became more fragile with the outbreak of the Second
World War. Anti-British sentiments and demand for freedom were at their peak. The British were
under pressure to quite India.
On September 3, 1939, the Viceroy declared Indias entry to the war without consulting the elected
representatives. The Indian leaders failed to have a unified reaction on such a unilateral decision.
Gandhiji was in favour of cooperation with the British to save democracy from the fascist
onslaught. But, Bose and the Socialists viewed it as a war for saving imperial interests and were to
wrest freedom through mass movement.
The Congress Working Committee resolution set complete independence as a precondition to
support the British in the war. But the British did not show any intention to loosen their hold. The

93. The Quit India Movement was a spontaneous revolt of the people against British rile.
Comment
The Quit India Movement occurred in 1942 and it was a spontaneous upsurge against the British
rule. The Congress passed the Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942 and there arouse a
spontaneous upsurge throughout the country.
After the failure of the Cripps Mission, there was a feeling of frustration among all sections of the
people. Further, the war measures of the authorities had put difficulties to the people. There were
scarcity of essential goods, famines and other grievances in different parts of the country. The
British high handedness in war measures had also antagonized the people. Moreover, there exited a
threat of attack by Japan on Indian territories and the people felt that the very reason for such a
threat is the presence of British in India and that Indians wanted the British to quite India. Further,

45

46

British attitude towards Indians in the Japan conquered territories in South East Asia also provoked
bitterness against the British. It was in this environment that the Quit India resolution was passed,
which provided spark for spontaneous expression.
The British, in order to put down the move before it starts arrested all leaders including Gandhiji.
The war weary, radicalised and aroused people who were left leaderless began to act in spontaneity.
There were numerous acts of violence and damage to public property and in number of places thre
was a breakdown of government machinery.
Thus it can be seen that 1942 movement was spontaneous because of the aroused an: discontent
population was left leaderless after their arrest by the British.
95. Evaluate the attitudes of different political parties towards the Quit India Movement?
The Congress had to decide its course of action in the wake of failure of the Cripps Mission, arrival
of Japanese armies on Indian borders, rising prices and shortages in food supplies. At this juncture,
Gandhiji told the British to quite and leave India in Gods hand. His message was Do or Die.
Thus, started the Quit India Movement on August 9, 1942.
But, different political parties did not response well. The Muslim League kept aloof from the
movement and no communal riots were reported. The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the movement.
The Communist Party of India due to its peoples war line did not support the movement. The
Indian princes and the landlords were supporting the war effort and did not sympathize with the
movement. There were Congress leader also, like Raj Gopalachari who did not participate in the
movement but supported the war effort.
96. What was Rajaji Formula or C.R. Formula?
In October 1943, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, was succeeded by Lord Wavel. The war had now
swung in favour of the Allies. The change in the Indian and the international situation necessitated a
change in the Congress policy. The British government also showed its willingness to reach a
settlement. Gandhiji was released in May 1944. It was, however, plainly evident that no solution of
the Indian problem was possible without the concurrence of the Muslim League. C. Rajagopalachari
suggested a basis for the settlement which received the approval of Gandhiji. According to the
terms the settlement, the Muslim League was to endorse the demand for independence and
cooperate with the Congress in the formation of a provisional interim Government for the
transitional period. After the termination of the war, a commission should be appointed for
demarcating contiguous districts in the north-west and east of India, wherein the Muslim population
had an absolute majority. In such demarcated areas, a plebiscite of all the inhabitants should decide
the issue of separation from India. If the majority decided in favour of separation the decision
should be given effect to, without prejudice to the right of districts on the border to choose to join
either State. In the event of separation, mutual agreements should be reached for safeguarding
defence, commerce and communications and other essential purposes. Transfer of population, if
any, should be so an absolutely voluntary basis. The Rajagopchari Formula (July 10, 1944)
provided the basis of the Gandhi-Jinnan correspondence, followed by talks that took place at the
latters residence in September 1944. But the talks which went on for a fortnight proved futile.
97. Why did Jinnan reject C.R. Formula?
The CR formula was the brainchild of C. Rajagopalachari. It was prepared to ensure the Congress
and League Cooperation. It was a tacit acceptance of the Leagues demand for Pakistan.
The CR formula, though favored Pakistan, but Jinnan refused to accept it. He wanted the Congress
to accept the two nation theory explicitly as a condition to any agreement. He want ready to
endorse congress till congress was not endorsing Pakistan.
47

Jinnah did not want to cooperate with Congress in forming the provincial government as envisaged
in the plan. His fear was of losing the Muslim vote bank.
The proposal in the plan with regard to plebiscite had not gone well with Jinnah. He wanted only
the Muslims of north west and north East to vote in the plebiscite and note the entire population.
Jinnah was for a sovereign Pakistan. He therefore opposed the proposal for a common centre. The
CR formula gave idea of a common centre, with defence, communication and commerce with its
prerogative.
On the above grounds Jinnah rejected the CR formula. The CR formulas rejection by Jinnah
expressed his stubborn attitude for Pakistan. But it failed to awake the congress and the British to
devise ways to bear upon the communal carnage that followed later.
98. Write a short note on Shimla Conference or the Wavell Plan (1945)?
After the 2nd world war, country was passing through an unprecedented economic crisis, political
India was more divided than ever, Muslim league was demanding Pakistan, elections were going to
be held in England in 1946. It was in this background that Churchill, a conservative, asked the
viceroy Lord Wavell to start fresh negotiation. Wavell ordered release of all CWC members and
invited them and other parties to Shimla which is known as shimal conference and proposals
proposed by Lord Wavel are known as Wavell plan. Proposal were:
1. Formation of new governor generals executive council in which only governor general and
commander in chief would be British and rest would be Indians.
2. The council would govern till new constitution making body agreed upon.
3. Balance representative to main communities in governor general council.
But Muslim League opposed the Wavell Plan on the ground that Muslims belonging only to Muslim
league would be nominated to Governor General Council. It was opposed by Maulana Azad and
Nehru etc. Cripps Mission failed because both congress and Muslim League rejected it. Wavell plan
failed because Muslim league vetoed it.
99. Why was Desai-Liaqat plan formulated? What were its main points? Did the plan lead to
any settlement?
In 1945, in order to end the deadlock between the Congress and the League, Bhulabhai Desai of the
Congress Party and Liaqat. Ali Khan of the Muslim League reached an understanding for the
formation of an interim government at the Centre. The points of agreement were:
(i)
Both the Congress and the Muslim League would nominate an equal number of persons
to the Central Executive.
(ii)
There would have to be representatives of the minorities (particularly scheduled castes
and Sikhs).
(iii) Government would function under the existing Government of India Act, 1935
(iv)
Provincial Government would be formed on the lines of a coalition.
However, no settlement could be reached between the Congress and the League even on these lines.
But the fact that a sort of parity between the Congress and the League was decided upon had far
reaching consequences.
100. Trace the origins of RIN Mutiny and evaluate its impact on political situation in India?
War time expansion of the navy brought men from all parts of the country, weakening the dividing
tendencies in the military. Racial discrimination in the Royal Indian Navy, INA trials and post-war
popular upsurge in India had a growing impact on these ratings. On 18th February the ratings of
HMIS Talwar went to strike against bad food and racist insults. The next day it spread to the
barracks. At Karachi, the sailors also joined it.

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The impact of RIN munity put the last nail in the British coffin in India. Its impacts were as if of a
great struggle. The mutineers demanded equal pay with white sailors. They raised national slogans
and demanded release of INA soldiers and other political prisoners. They hoisted the Congress flag.
The RIN revolt made it clear that the military was no longer with the British rule. It shows that
Indians were now capable of mass struggle without the help any organization. This revolt had
perched the British establishments.
The spontaneous mass support to it, forced the government to think of the gravity of the situation.
Leaders were forced to expedite demand for independence and government had to accept it in fear
of popular outburst. It made the British to send Cabinet Mission soon to India.
Thus, the RIN Mutiny provided fuel to early departure of the British from India. It speeded up the
process of transfer of power.
101. What were the proposals of Cabinet Mission? Analyse the reaction of Congress and the
League to the proposals?
In 1946 British authorities had come to the conclusion that a graceful withdrawl from India was the
best option. The Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March 1946 to establish a national
government and work out a constitutional arrangement for transfer of power.
Three groups were planned with would have separate meetings to work out their constitution. The
Congress ruled provinces like Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, Central Province would from Group-A,
Punjab, NEFP and Sind would go into Group-B and Bengal and Assam would make up Group-C.
the common Centre would look after defence, foreign affairs and communication. A province could
leave the Group to which it was assigned after the first general elections and after 10 years it could
demand notification of both the groups and union constitutions.
The Congress accepted the proposals on June 24, 1946 for it viewed them as an opportunity to draft
the constitution. But it opposed compulsory grouping as contradiction to provincial autonomy.
According to it provinces should not have to wait till the first general elections to take place.
Absence of elected representatives from princely states was deplored by the Congress. The League
accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan of 6th June, 1946, thinking that on the refusal of the Congress to
the plan it would be invited to form the interim government. They were impressed that grouping
clause will lead to emergence of a separate State. It harped on compulsory grouping of B and C into
solid entities.
102. What was the Atlees Declaration?
Since Muslim league did not join constituent assembly so British government announced that
constituent assemblys decision would not be applicable to Muslim majority provinces. Atlees
declaration of 20 Feb 1947 fixed a date (June 30, 1948) for withdrawl of British from India. This
sparked large scale violence so much so that a civil war like situation was created and it was in this
background that on June 3, Mounbatten proposed partition of India into two parts: India and
Pakistan.
103. Review the Dickie Bird Plan?
The Dickie Bird Plan was the brainchild of Lord Mountbatten. It was also known as Plan Balkan
as it was intended to balkanize India into small parts to suit British imperialist designs. The Plan
was conceived between March and May 1947. The reason was Mountbatten felt that the Cabinet
Mission Plan had become untenable. In this alternative proposal there were following points:
It envisaged the transfer of power to separate provinces or to a confederation, formed before the
transfer to power. Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines. The Princely stales
with the lapse of pararnountancy would get two options, i.e. to join India or Pakistan or to remain
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independent. The provinces also had the right to join either, or remain separate. This plan was
clearly meant for dismemberment of Indian nationhood. Nehru violently reacted to it. Nor the
League was happy. Finally it was shelved.
104. What was the Mountbatten Plan (or June 3 Plan)? Discuss the reaction of Gandhi and
Azad to the Plan
Lord Mountbatten, who replaced Lord Wavel as the Viceroy in March 1947, resolved to affect the
transfer to power at the earliest opportunity and worked out a compromise plan after long
discussions with the leaders of Congress and the League. According to this plan India was to be free
but not united. India was to be partitioned and a new state of Pakistan was to be created along with a
free India. The main contents of the Plan were:
(a) Though the work of the existing Constituent Assembly was to be continued, constitution
framed by it was not applicable to those parts of Indian unwilling to accept it.
(b) Punjab and Bengal were to be divided into two parts.
(c) North West Frontier Province and Sylhet district in Assam were to decide by means of
referendum.
(d) With regard to the Indian states, the British government would cases to exercise the power
of paramountacy after the independence.
Gandhi and Azad reacted against the partition of India envisaged in the Mountbatten plan. Gandhi
was very much distressed and advised people not to accept partition by heart. He called the people
to fight to reverse it. He was of the view that the plan was against the fraternity that the freedom
movement had build over the years. Azad vociferously opposed Congresss nod to the plan. For
him, it was an object surrender to the demands of the League. He viewed the Plan as a deal by the
leaders who succumbed to the greed of power. Though Gandhi and Azad opposed the plan at first,
they were forced to accept it later.
105. Describe the salient features of Indian Independence Act, 1947.
On July 18, 1947, the British Parliament ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the Independence of
India Act. 1947.
Provisions:
The Act provided for the creation of two independent dominions of India and Pakistan with effect
from August 15, 1947.
1. It indicated the territorial divisions of India into India and Pakistan and the Constitution of
the two provinces each in Bengal and Punjab. India would comprise all the British India
provinces except the area which were to go to Pakistan.
2. Pakistan was to complete East Bengal. West Punjab, Sind and the Sylhet district of Assam.
3. The responsibility of His Majestys Government in India and the suzerainty of His Majesty
over the Indian States would lapse on August 15, 1947.
4. The Indian States could accede to either of the two Dominions.
5. There would be a separate Governor General for each Dominion who would be appointed by
His Majesty and would represent His Majesty for the purposes the government of the
dominion.
6. There would be a separate Legislature for each Dominion with full authority for making
laws unhindered by the British Parliament.
7. The Act also laid down temporary provision for the government of the Dominions, by
dividing to the two Constituent Assemblies the status of Parliament with the full powers of
Dominion Legislature.

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8. It authorized the Governor General to issue temporary orders for making provision as
appeared to him to be necessary or expedient in order to bring the Act into effective
operation.
9. Lastly, it prescribed the conditions and terms of the Secretary of States Services and Indian
Armed Forces, the continuance of the jurisdiction or authority of His Majestys Government
over the British army, navy and air.
106. What were the circumstances that led to the partition of India in 1947?
The British policy of divide and rule resulted in partition of India. It began with the British
recognition to the Muslim separatism in 1909, i.e. the British introduction of separate electorate for
the Muslims.
Communalism in India was fanned by subtle efforts of the League and Hindu Mahasabha (1915).
Shudhi and Sangathan movements among the Hindus and Tanzin and Tabligh movements among
the Muslim gave strength and popularity to it. The Hindu-Muslim unity broke down in 1929,
forever.
In the Allahabad session of the League (1930), the idea of a separate state was presented. During
1930-32, the period of Round Table Conferences, a group of young Muslims, led by Rehmat Ali,
coined Pakistan as a geographical expression of the Muslim state.
The poor performance of the Muslim league in 1937 election put its existence in danger. So it used
religion to counterweight the mass appeal of the Congress. Islam is in danger, was the cry. In 1940,
in its Lahore session the League officially demanded Pakistan.
The fanatical and separatist politics of the league found expression in observance of Direct Action
Day on 16th August 1946. communal carnage and large-scale killing brought the nation to the brink
of a civil war. The league adopted non-cooperation within and outside the interim government. It
boycotted the Constituent Assembly. It was not ready to accept anything less than Pakistan.
Thus, the circumstances responsible for partition began in 1909 and had its entire horrific end on
14th August 1947 with the creation of Pakistan.
107. Why and how did the Congress come to accept the partition of the country?
Congress failed to integrate Muslims into the nation. The partition of the country was accepted as an
inevitable evil. Violent riots of Hindu-Muslims had erupted in the country. The direct action call of
Jinnah resulted in bloodshed of masses. To check these communal riots, the congress had to accept
the partition.
1. It was accepted as a price for immediate independence because all other efforts had failed to
materialize.
2. Gandhi had accepted Muslims right to self determination in Muslim majority provinces.
3. It was argued by some leaders that smaller, unified and strong India would be better and
stronger than a bigger but weak India. Jinnah had accepted Pakistan shortened than earlier
demands. Princely states had not been given sovereignty rights which would have proved
dangerous for Indian security and integrity.
All these situations led congress to accept partition of India.

surrendered to Jinnahs threat of direct action. Official inaction in checking the rapidly arising
communal frenzy made partition preferable to civil war.
The stubborn attitude of the League made it clear that it would not accept anything less than
Pakistan. It boycotted the Constituent Assembly and demanded its dissolution. On the persuasion of
Viceroy, it joined the Interim Government. For Jinnah the Interim Government was a continuation
of fight for Pakistan.
The League refused to attend cabinet meetings. It questioned actions of the Congress ministers.
Liaquat Ali Khan, as the Finance Minister, obstructed the functioning of at other ministers. The
government was divided into two camps.
Jinnahs cry for Islam in danger met with equal reaction from Hindu communal group. Jinnahs
call for Direct Action had brought the country to the brink of civil war. Large scale bloodshed and
killings made cessation of communal carnage more important than partition.
The Congress finally accepted the partition as it was better to give some parts to the League and
create a healthy India. It was forced to stop balkanization of India by agreeing on partition before
British quite India.
Gandhiji was of the opinion that the two nation theory was an untruth. He rejected religion as the
determinant of a nation. To him, the Hindus and Muslims shared economic future and did not have
separate nationalities. However, he recognised Muslims right of self-determination. He, though
rejected it in his heart, accepted it because communal passion of people reigned supreme and could
not be curbed. With a heavy heart he advised, Congressmen, on 14th June 1947, to accept it.
Nehrus views on partition rested on his political outlook and progressive ideas. To him partition
would disrupt the political and economic unity of India which was vital for the material wellbeing
and advancement of the Indians. He was ready to give concessions to the League with the hope for a
united India. Though he had noticed de-facto Pakistan in Punjab, Bengal and in the Interim
Government, yet he had a hope that there would be unity between India and Pakistan. He believed
that partition would be peaceful.
Azad considered partition a result of narrow views of political leadership. It was not the wish of the
people, but of political fears. He was a nationalist and wanted to see flourishing India based on
Hindu-Muslim unity. To him partition betrayed the feelings of general people. The Muslims were
showed wrong direction by unhealthy and narrow politics of a handful of political leaders.

108. Do you think that the Partition of India was inevitable? Discuss attitude of Gandhi,
Nehru and Azad towards the crucial question of Partition.
On the eve of independence tow dominions, India and Pakistan emerged out of the partition. This
was a long concomitant result of British policy of divide and rule. They played communal card to
counter the national movement. The gave representative of Indian Muslims. They meekly

109. Comment upon the implications of Jinnahs two nation theory for the Indian freedom
struggle.
In March 1940, the Muslim League in the Lahore Session declared that the Muslims in India must
have a separate independent State. In his presidential address M.A. Jinnah propounded the two
nation theory and declared, If the British government are really earnest and sincere to secure peace
and happiness of the people of the sub-continent, the only course open to us all is to allow the major
nations separate homelands by dividing India into autonomous national States. The Muslim
League adopted a resolution in this session, famous as the Pakistan Resolution reiterating its total
rejection of the scheme of Federation emboied in the Governent of India Act of 1935. it demanded
that the areas in which the Muslims had numerical majority should be grouped to constitute
Independent States in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.
The League, it was not evident, would not be satisfied with anything but the formation of Pakistan
as a State of which Ahmad was the philosopher, Iqbal the prophet and Jinnah the statesmancreator.
The Muslim League, while welcoming the implicit recognition of the possibility of Pakistan,
rejected, the Cripps Declaration because it had given greater importance and priority to the creation

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of one Indian Union. The League reaffirmed is conviction that the only solution of Indias
constitutional problem is the partition of India, into independent zones
The Cripps proposals had not recognised separate electorates for the constitution-making body.
In 1947, Muslim League took recourse to Direct Action to vindicate and popularize its demand
for Pakistan. The result was an orgy of communal riots throughout the country. Communal frenzy
with mob violence was at its worst in the Punjab. It resulted in loss of thousands of lives/properties
worth millions of rupees and countless people were rendered homeless destitute.
The tragic course of events brought the people face to face with the stark reality. Partition had
become unavoidable. The Congress, much against its cherished ideal and wishes had to be
reconciled to this solution.
Lord Mountbatten came to tile conclusion that partition was inevitable. He held free and frank
discussions with Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Gandhiji and other Congress
leaders. He succeeded in convincing them, excepting a very few like Azad, that there was no other
way out.
110. Critically evaluate the role played by communalism during Indias struggle for freedom.
The political parties based on religion played a very harmful role during independence. Though they
proposed to serve the interest of the communities, they actually served the interest of British rulers.
During periods when thousands were in jail for participating in the struggle for freedom, the
communal parties kept themselves aloof. Sometimes they joined hands and cooperated with the
British Government.
In reply, British used them so that no agreement was reached on the question of Indias freedom.
The Congress advocated that the constitution of India could be framed only by the Indian people
themselves and not by the Englishmen sitting thousand miles away in England.
While the nationalist movement stood for the reconstruction of Indian society on the basis of
equality of all Indians, the communal parties were opposed even to social reforms. According to
them, the interest of all Indians was not common. That is why instead of fighting for independence,
they concentrated their energies on getting concessions from the British government for their
respective communities. The activities of the communal parties took a dangerous turn when they
started saying that the Indian people were not one nation.
While the nationalist movement united the people on the basis of their common aspiration to take
India on the road of progress, the communal parties questioned the very basis of Indian nationhood.
Thus communalism had been a major hurdle in the path of Indias struggle for freedom.
111. Non violence was integral to the nature of the Indian National movement. Substantiate
this statement.
The adoption of non-violent form of struggle was in tune with Gandhijis emphasis on this
principle. Non-violence as a form of struggle and political behavior was also linked to the semihegemonic, semi authoritarian character of the colonial state and the democratic character of the
polity in Britain. The non-violent from of struggle enabled the participation of the mass who could
not have participated in a similar manner in a movement that adopted violent form. The this was
particularly true to womens participation.
Non-violence means fighting on the terrain of moral violence. The non-violent mass movement put
the Britishers on the horns of a dilemma. In practice, the colonial authorities constantly vacillated
between the two choices-either not to take action against them, as the movement was peaceful or to
suppress it by force. However, they usually took recourse to the later. They had to suffer constant
corrosion of hegemony by exposing the basic underpinnings of colonial rule or its moral basis was
destroyed bit by bit.
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The adoption of non-violence was also linked to the fact that disarmed people had hardly any other
alternative. In non-violent mass struggle, it was moral strength and public opinion that counted and
here they were not at a disadvantage. Beside, violent movement would have attracted massive
attack by the government and the disarmed Indian people could not have sustained it. Thus,
attaining independence by just following non-violent forms of struggle, India set an example.
112. Discuss the problems that impeded the integration of the princely states into the Indian
Union. How were these problem tackled?
During the British rule there were many big and small princely or native states (besides the British
India consisting of several provinces) which were indirectly ruled by the British through the princes
and chiefs themselves.
After World War 11 began and a resolution of non-cooperation was adopted by the congress, the
British Government tried to break the dead lock through the Cripps Mission (1942), Wavel Plan
(1945), Cabinet Mission (1946) and Attlees statement (Feb. 1947). But the British paramountacy
over the Indian states according to the Indian independence Act, 1947, was to lapse on Aug 15,
1947. The states were allowed according to the Mountbatten Plan to join either of India or Pakistan
or to retain their independence.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Paten who took the charge of states department (July 1947), tackled this
problem of integration of the states with great ability. He was ably assisted in this task by V.P.
Menon. Under the pressure of the popular states peoples movement and guided by the masterful
diplomacy of Patel, rulers of all the 652 states with exception of Junagarh, Kashmir and Hyderabad
had signed the instrument of Accession by August 15, 1947.
The Nawab of Junagarh announced accession to Pakistan even though the people of the state
desired to join India. In the end, Indian troops occupied the state. A plebiscite that followed went in
favour of joining India. The Nizam of Hyderabad made an attempt to claim an independent status
hut was forced to accede in 1948 after an internal revolt had broken out in its Telengana region and
after Indian troops had marched into the city and subdued the Razakars. The Maharaja of Kashmir
also delayed accession to India to Pakistan even thought the popular forces led by the National
Conference wanted accession to India. However the maharaja acceded to India in Oct. 1947 after
Pathans and irregular armed forces of Pakistan invaded Kashmir.
113. How did Sardar Paten succeed in avoiding the evil consequences of his doctrine of lapse
of paramountacy and in Integrating Indian states?
Sardar Patel was the man with foresight and diplomatic shrewdness to handle the integration of the
princely states. The problem of amalgamation of 562 independent states with the democratic selfgoverning India was delicate and difficult. But, it was essential to save India from balkanization
once the paramountacy of British crown would lapse.
Sardar Patel took charge of the states department in July 1947. He sensed the urgent and imperative
need to the integration of princely states. He followed an iron handed policy. He made it clear that
he did not recognize the right of any state to remain independent and in isolation, within India.
Patel also appealed to the patriotic and national sentiment of the Princes and invited them to join the
framing of a democratic constitution in the national interest. He persuaded them to surrender
defence, foreign affairs and communication to the government of India. He, by his tactics, broke the
union of separatist princes. By 15th August, 1947 all except Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir
acceded to India. Sardar, thereafter, carried 3-fold processes of assimilation, centralization and
unification of states. The states were amalgamated to form a union and that union was merged with
the union of India.

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He handled the Junagarh and Hyderabad crisis as a seasoned statesman. Nowabs of Junagarh
wanted to accede to Pakistan. When the people revolted, Patel intervened. Indian government took
over the administration. Patel merged it with India by holding plebiscite.
Patel with a iron fisted hand subdued the Nizam of Hyderabad. When the Nizam boasted anti-India
feelings and let loose a blood bath by the Razakars, Patel decided upon police action. He ordered
the army to march into Hyderabad. The Nizam tamely surrendered and Hyderabad was acceded to
India.
Thus Sardar Patel ensured by his calculated methods, the assemblage of a multitude of princely
states into the Indian Union. Without a civil war, he secured the solidarity of the nation.
114. With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using the persuasion and pressure, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states with Indian
Union. Discuss.
India during the British rule contained two parts the first directly administered by the British and
the second under the native princes. The Mountbatten Plan envisaged two dominions and with the
impending lapse of paramountacy the question of the princely states became vital. The national
leadership with farsightedness, tact and pressure could overcome one of the turbulent states of
modern India in which failure would have led to Balkanization of the country and it was Sarday
Vallabhbhai Patel who steered the boat of Indian states to the shore of unity and integration.
Sardar Patel took charge of the States Department in July 1947 with V.P. Menon as Secretary.
Under him, the integration of the States took place in two phases. The first was the incorporation of
Indian states and the second was integrating them into viable politico-administrative units.
The ambitious rulers or dewans like that of Hyderabad, Bhopal or Travancore had dreams of
independent unity. As a first line of measures the nationalistic leadership appealed to these groups
to accede in Indian union. They appealed that the rulers cooperation is important in the
development and progress of the people and India. Their isolated position would also give rise to
new challenges. As the second line of measures, the Instrument of Accession and Principle was
created. As per these principles, the states were required the surrender three subjects defence,
communication and foreign affairs. The princes agreed to this easily, for so far they were
surrendering only what they never had as these subjects had been part of the paramountacy of the
crown and there were no changes as yet in internal political structure. The bait of very generous
privy purses was also offered and some princes were also made into Governors and Rajpramukhs.
To those states, still hesitated to join the Union, the nationalistic leadership at the Gwalior session
of the State Peoples Conference in 1947 declared that the states refusing to join the Constituent
Assembly would be treated as hostile. Thus by 15 Agusut, 1947 all states except Kashmir, Junagadh
and Hyderabad agreed to signed Instrument of Accession.
To accede Kashmir, Patel negotiated with Kashmirs Prime Minister, which culminated in the
Maharajas accession to India after raiders from Pakistan invaded the state in October 1947. Sardar
Patel sent troops to the state to help in the process of accession with India.
The Junagadh in Kathiawad whose ruler tried to join Pakistan was brought to heel by a combination
of popular agitation with police action. Here plebiscite was held which decideded in accession to
Indian union.
In Hyderabad, the ruler Nizam had dream of an independent entity and with his Razakar bands
suppressed political and civil liberties. Sardar Patel ordered military action in September 1948 and
the autocratic-feudal regime of Indias biggest princely state was ended and was incorporated with
it.

The second phase involved in integrating these units with neighboring provinces or into new units
like Kathiawad union, Vindhy and Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan along with internal constitutional
changes. These changes were also accomplished within a time span of one year.
Thus, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patels diplomatic skill power of persuasion and the ability to command
pressure led to the integration of princely states in the independent India. Though other factors like
the farsighted nationalistic leadership of the time, strong Praja Mandal movements, States Peoples
cooperation and the role of V.P. Menon as the Secretary of the States. Department facilitated the
process, the leadership role provided by Sardar Patel was decisive and paramount.
115. What in your opinion were the positive steps taken by the British to modernize India?
Though the British aim was to exploit India as a colony and drain its wealth to Britain to make it
richer. Even then too, in the course of their rule, they introduced some reforms in India for their
convenience in ruling it. These reforms which have benefited India are:
Legal: The concept of rule of law and modernization of judicial system was introduced by them.
They dealt all persons equal before the law irrespective of their caste, sex, etc. exceptions may exist.
Social. Indian traditions and customs were covered with orthodoxy and they were modernized by
the British to some extent by law or teachings or influence. Sati system, child marriages, religious
customs, etc. were removed from society.
Administrative System: They introduced civil services in India and later on they were made open
for Indian candidates also by the Charter Act of 1853 through.
Infrastructure and Communications: In 1853, Railways, metallic roads bridges over rivers were
built which gave new pace to Indian transportation and through that trade, etc. For communication
they introduced Post, telegram in 1853 as means of communications.
Education: Lord Macaulay modernized education system in 1853 and delivered western and
English education which in fact led Indians to western Philosophies, politics and liberalism. This
invited a period of rera.ais India.
Apart from these, many charters, council acts etc. introduced some reforms in India. Indian leaders
learnt political lessons from British. Even today we follow the legislative system in our governance.
116. What was the attitude of Indian Industrialists towards the Indian National Congress in
the pre-independent era?
In the pre-independence era, industry in India grew at slow rate. Some industrialists cum-patriots
established industries. Jamnalal Bajaj, G.D. Birla, Ambalal Sarabhai were some of them.
It is evident from the National Movement that Congress widely boycotted foreign goods. This lead
as an alternative to grow Indian industries. Therefore, Indian industrialists, who flourished under
patriotic feelings, helped Congress.
They even joined and financed Congress, Jamnalal Bajaj remained exchequer of Congress for his
life time.
Congress supported Swadeshi goods and by turn, Swadeshi industries. Indian industrialists
influence, to some extent, power of Congress by providing it with finance and the society with
Swadeshi goods. To support the program of Congress, they had their free industrial policy without
interference of the British rule. FICCI was established by them in 1927 and supported Congress
directly.
Though, later Congress turned Socialist, to some extent, but this does not show more diversion from
patriotism pro-congress attitude of Indian Industrialists.
117. Trace the development of the famine policy of the British in India 1876 and 1921. Did it
provide relief to the people?

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During the rule of the British, India witnessed numerous famines and scarcities. In the initial stages
of the British rule, there had not been any policy to deal with the famines and millions of people fell
victims to recurring famines. With the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British
crown, there was a change in the government attitude towards famine. Over a long period of time
policy on famine was evolved in India.
It was the appointment of Sir Richard Strachcy Commission in 1876 that a definite step towards
famine policy in India began. The famine of 1876-78 affecting Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab resulted into the death of 5 million people in a single year, the government famine
machinery was inadequate and ineffective and the un-wisdom of the policy was amply clear when
half hearted efforts could not alleviate human sufferings. Public protests and the realisation of the
gravity of the situation compelled the government to appoint the Commission to formulate general
principles and measures of a preventive or protective character.
The Richard Strachey Commission submitted its report in 1880 with the following
recommendations which were to be the basic principles of the Governments famine policy.
1. Provide wage employment before the physical efficiency of the applicant been impaired by
privatization.
2. It is the duty of the state to provide gratuitous relief to the impotent poor.
3. The government could resort to suspension or remission of land revenue and rents.
4. That cost of famine relief is to be borne by the provincial government and the Central
assistance was to be made available wherever necessary.
5. The government should take measures for migration of cattle to grassy areas during
excessive draughts.
These recommendations formed the basis of the British famine policy in the last decades of the 19 th
century. As a corollary to it government formed provisional famine Code in 1883 on the basis of
which Provincial famine Codes were formulated. The code gave the provincial governments the
power to declare districts as scarcity or famine areas. Further, the Code also prescribed precautions
to be taken in ordinary times, steps to be followed when a relief campaign seemed imminent and
duties of all concerned when the famine actually began.
A further improvement in British famine policy took place during the time of Lord Curzon. The
McDonnell Commission appointed by him emphasised the need for moral strategy, early
distribution of advances for purchase of seeds and cattle and sinking of temporary wells. As long
term and preventive measures it recommended better transport facilities, opening of agricultural
banks, improvement of irrigation and improved methods of agriculture. But its recommendation of
Famine Commissioner in province where extensive relief operations needed was a landmark in
evolving a famine policy. These recommendations were incorporated into the famine policy of the
government and better handling of famine situations could be possible in the coming two decades.
With the enactment of Montague-Chelmsford Reforms the famine responsibility was entrusted to
the provincial governments in the year 1921.
Though, the British government took the above said measures on famine relief they proved
inadequate to provide relief to the millions. The vastness of the country, diverse causes for famines
and supervisory approach by the government failed to bring out desired results. And above all the
basic culture of a colonial rule with its exploitative and extractive orientation prevented any whole
hearted effort in this sphere and failed to provide relief and easy recovery to the millions in India.
118. The recurring famines in the 19th century were the inevitable consequence of the British
policy and expose the real character of the paternal solicitude for the peasantry on the part of
the British administration. Examine this statement critically.

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One of the characteristic features of 19th Century India was the recurring famines and death of lakhs
of people. The famines were the most visible aspect of exploitative British administration and nits
economic policies.
Since the Battle of Plassey and the political ascendancy by the British in India, the policies followed
were colonialist in nature. One of the most important of these is agricultural policy which had a
direct and immediate effect on the common people.
The land revenue policies introduced by the British in India were meant to extract maximum from
the peasants. In all the land revenue settlements assessment was made very high. The harmful
effects of an excessive land revenue demand were further heightened by the rigid number of its
collection. Whenever peasant failed to pay land revenue the government put up his land on sale to
collect the arrears.
The high land revenue demand and rigid manner of its collection compelled the peasants to borrow
at high rates of interests from the money lender. He was also forced to go to money lender
whenever he found in difficult to make both ends meet. The new legal system and land revenue
policies greatly helped the money lender. By introducing transferability of land and British revenue
system enabled the money lender or the rich peasant to take possession of the land. Expensive
process of litigation enabled money lender to twist the complicated process of law to get favourable
judicial decisions. The net result of the above factors was increasing land alienation and poverty.
It was during the same period decay of traditional industries took place in India. The British at the
behest of capitalist class in Britain followed a policy of one way free trade in India. One the one
hand, ,the British imposed high duties on import of Indian goods into Britain and Europe, on the
other allowed open entry of machine produced goods into India from 1813. Moreover, India was
treated as a source for securing raw materials for the industrialized Britain. All these led to
destruction of agriculture and people began to crowd into agriculture. Further, the destruction of
rural crafts broke up the union between agriculture and industry which led to the destruction of the
self-sufficient rural economy.
An association issue with destruction of rural economy was that government spent very little on
improving agriculture. The overcrowding and sub infeudation of the land left the peasants with no
resources to improve agriculture. As a result Indian agriculture began to stagnate and deteriorate.
Destruction of rural self sufficient economy as a result of British colonialistic policies found
expression in the form of numerous famines throughout the 19th Century. The famines of 1860-61,
1865-66 and 1876-78 were some of the most servere and tragic in all throughout the Indian history.
An important aspect of famine in India in 19th Century was that it was manmade. It was not a
product of the geography or because of the in capabilities of its population. It was mainly a product
of colonialistic administration imposed on India by the British.
Though the British claimed their duty in India as that of civilizing mission and also improving its
economy on paternalistic line, these claims were of mere academic in nature. In the field, they did
not take any interest to improve the Indian conditions on the other they destroyed the self-sufficient
economy of India of which recurring famines were clear pointers.
119. Critically examine the impact of the famine policy on rural India. Describe the official
remedial measures undertaken.
Periodic recurrence of famines was one of the toughest rural problems of the time. Severe famines
broke out in Orissa in 1866-67, in U.P., the Punjab and Rajasthan in 1868-69 and in Bihar in 1873.
The famine of 1890 cost 4.5 million lives, while about 2 million people died in the famine of 18991900. The principal victims of the famines were agricultural labourers, artisans, particularly the
weavers, and small cultivators. But rural society was also badly affected by famine and its
disastrous effects.
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Periodic recurrence of famine was one of the toughest rural problems of the time. Severe famine
broke out in Orissa in 1866-67, in U.P., the Punjab and Rajasthan in 1868-69 and in Bihar in 1873.
The famine of 1890 cost 4.5 million lives, while about 2 million people died in the famine of 18991900. The principal victims of the famines were agricultural labourers, artisans, particularly the
weavers, and small cultivators. But rural society was also badly affected by famine and its
disastrous effects.
Periodic recurrence of famine was one of the toughest rural problems of the time. The Government
needed funds to undertake public works such as irrigation and communication to tackle famine and
its devastating effects. The railways helped a great deal in fighting famines by facilitating quick
transport of food from the surplus areas. The Government was seriously concerned with the famine
problem and after years of experimentation evolved a policy which was embodied in the famine
code of 1883. It recommended the creation of special fund for providing relief and employment in
the famine affected areas. It also urged the full utilization of railway facilities for the transportation
of grain from unaffected areas. Undoubtedly, the railway provided the foundations on which the
structure of modern India was later on built.
120. Trace the Education policy of the British. What role did it play in the formation of social
classes?
The formation of social class in India has been due to various factors which directly or indirectly
pointed towards the British Rile. The factors were mainly establishment of a new social economy, a
new type of state system and state administration machinery and the spread of new education during
British rule. The British educational structure and policy was the main factor in the formation and
consolidation of social class in India. The historical landmarks of British education, policy were:
Macaulays policy of 1835 to promote European learning through English. Woods Dispatch of 1854
which for the first time recognized the need for mass education with private and missionary help
and gave up the policy of selective education known as Filtration Theory. The first Indian
Education commission of 1882 (Hunter Commission) which recommended the initiative of private
Indian agencies in the expansion of education and finally Curzons effort constituted a landmark in
the formation of Education Code and the University Act of 1904 which laid the foundations of a
unitary and countryside system of education.
In 1935, the decision was taken that the government should aim at the promotion of European
literature and science in India and the medium of instruction should be English. The fact that
Macaulay was very much concerned with the secondary and higher education that was based on
only upper and middle class of urban society.
Curzons university reforms represent a change in the official attitude against the spread of higher
education. However, he introduced a system of control to all grades of institution.
As a matter of fact, English education which was identified with higher education in India had given
birth to a tone of mind and to a type of character that was ill regulated.

3. The level of University education was not maintained due to open and unrestricted
admissions to every student, so it recommended restricted admissions to university form
improvements in it standard.
As such, this committee made some valuable recommendations regarding development of education
in India.
122. Assess the growth and development of Technical Educational during the British rule.
The British started technical institutes in India under expediency. In 1774, a survey school was
started at Guindi, Madras to train surveyors for the Company. In 1847, a Civil Engineering College
was started at Roorkee to get technicians and assistant engineers for the PWD.
In 1848 Dalhousie suggested for engineering colleges in every province. As a result, Poona Civil
Engineering College (1854) and Sibpur Engineering College, Calcutta (1856) came up. Victoria
Jubilee Technical Institute was started in Bombay (1886). College of Architecture was started in
1896. The Central Textile Institute was established at Kanpur (1937) Medical Colleges affiliated to
Universities came up at Calcutta (1835) and Madras (1875).
All these institutions were equipped on western lines. They produced some best known faces in the
field of technology.

121. Discuss the main findings of the Hartog Committee (1929).

Hartog Committee, under the Chairmanship of Sir Philip Hartog was appointed to find out and
recommend measures for progress of education in India. It found out that:
1. There is no necessity to make education compulsory or expand it hastily. It also emphasised
on the primary education.
2. It got some admissions undesirable in High Schools and intermediate levels. So, it
recommended admitting only deserving students to high schools and intermediate level after
standard VIII and other average students should be given vocational education.

123. Discuss the development of press and public opinion in British India.
The History of the India Press which began with the coming of the Europeans was one of the most
important developments in the history of modern India. It not only helped in bringing the people
together and arousing national consciousness, but also proved to be one of the most potent media
for the growth of the national movement.
The first attempt to publish newspapers in India were made by the disgruntled employees of the
East India Company, who wanted to expose the malpractices of private trade. James Augustus
Hickey published the first newspaper entitled The Bengal Gazette of Calcutta General Advertiser
in 1780. But on account of its scurrilous attacks against the Company, the press was seized in 1782.
In the next twenty years many publications were brought out. In the absence of any press laws,
these newspapers were at the mercy of the Companys officials. But Lord Wellesley was the first to
introduce press censorship by enacting the Censorship of Press Act, 1799. The breach of censorship
rules was punishable with immediate deportation. Lord Hastings liberalized press restrictions were
mainly directed against the newspapers published in Indian languages or edited by Indians. As a
result of these regulations, Raja Ram Mohan Roys Mirat-ul-Akhbar and various other newspapers
had to stop publication. Charles Metcalfe, who is known as the Liberator of the Indian Press took
a liberal attitude towards the press. As a result of these liberal measures, which continued
unchanged till 1851, there was a rapid growth of newspapers.
The vernacular press which had grown on an unprecedented scale was extremely critical of the
British policies in India. Lord Lytton introduced the much denounced Vernacular Press Act of 1878,
which came to be nicknamed as the Gagging Act. The worst feature of this Act was that in
discriminated between the English Press and the vernacular press and no right of appeal to a Court
of Law was provided. Under this Act, criminal proceedings were launched against a number of
papers. This hated Act was repealed in 1882 on account of its very widespread criticism.
It became a common practice during this period that whenever the discontent of the people against
the British policies was highlighted, measures against the press were tightened. To check the
growing disaffection against the unpopular acts of Lord Curzon, the government came up with
repressive press measure and enacted the Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act 1908. Two
years later, this Act was made further rigorous by the Indian Press Act, 1910. As the national

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movement continued to gain in strength and mass appeal, the press laws were gradually made more
repressive and reactionary.
But these stringent and repressive press laws could not curb the voice of the people. On the country,
they inflamed popular discontent and number of agitations was launched against these unpopular
press laws.
124. Discuss the major regulations enacted by the British rulers to curb the freedom of Press
in India.
First newspaper The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Adviser was seized in 1812 because of
Governments criticism in it. Since then the British rulers has put some curbs and regulations over
the newspapers in India through various regulations.
Censorship of Press Act, 1799 was enacted by Lord Wellesley with provisions of Wartime Press
restrictions which included pre-censorship. This was relaxed under Lord Hastings and in 1878, precensorship was abolished. John Adams enacted Licensing Regulations, 1823 which made starting or
using a press culture without a license a penal offence, chiefly directed against Indian Language or
edited by Indians.
Licensing Act of 1857 imposed licensing restrictions in addition to registration procedure and the
Government reserved right to stop publication. Registration Act 1867 was of a regulatory nature. It
required printing the name of the printer and the publisher and the place of publication of every
book and/or newspaper. It also required submitting a copy to the local government within one
month of its publication.
In addition to these entire restrictive and regulative acts, the Vernacular Press Act-1878 was enacted
to control Vernacular Press and prevent them from seditious writing. It also provided effective
punishment apart from repressive measures. Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act 1908 and the
Indian Press Act, 1910 added to the repressive press laws.
All these acts were aimed to control Indian press and prevent the exposure of criticism against the
Government apart from controlling spread of national spirit to secure their rule in India.
125. The vernacular press in the nineteenth century was both newspaper as well as
viewspaper that enlightened the dormant masses. Elucidate.
There were myriad factors that had led to the national awakening in India. Among them the most
important was vernacular press. It remained so until 1878 when vernacular press act was passed to
sup-press the Indian voice. The medium of press, took modern political, economic and social ideas
and nationalist message to masses.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century publication of Nationalist message to masses.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century publication of Nationalist newspaper and magazines
began. Main among those was-Hindu Patriot of Bengal, Amrit Bazar Patrica Maratha and Kesari
from Bombay. The Hindu of Madras and Advocate of U.P. In papers and magazines, Indian
political leaders criticized the policies of British Government and clarified Indian viewpoint. It also
helped in mutual consultation among nationalist leaders. Vernacular Press was the strong medium
to make and enlighten the dormant spirit of the masses.
Although, certain South Indian States and Eastern states favoured English language but due to
Indianization being at stake preferred their own vernaculars to the language of the rulers.
Vernacular press played an important role in this field. Voice was raised against social evils through
the press. Through its medium the people got knowledge about inter-national events. Thus, through
new papers and magazines, popular opinion was formed and there was political consciousness
among the people.

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126. When was the system of open competitive exam in the Indian Civil Services introduced?
Analyse the growth of Indian Civil Services till the passing of the Gol Act, 1919.
The Charter Act of 1853, threw open the Civil Service to a competition for all citizens of the
empire. It ended the patronage (nomination) of Directors of the East India Company in appointing
Civil Servants. In 1858, the Government declared its intention to admit all citizens, impartially, to
the services. A committee under Lord Macaulay was constituted to establish regulations regarding
age, qualifications and subject etc.
In 1860, London was fixed as the centre of exam. In 1861, Indian Civil Services Act was passed and
it was named as ICS. SN Tagore was the first Indian to enter the ICS. Age limit was reduced to 21
in 1866, lowered to 19 in 1877 and again increased to 21 in 1892 mainly to exclude the Indians.
The Statutory Civil Services was introduced in 1878-79. It empowered the government to fill 116th
the vacancies by nomination among the aristocratic Indians. Scholarship Scheme was introduced in
1878 by Lytton.
In 1886 Aitchinson Commission was set up to review the Civil Services. It suggested to abolish
statutory Civil Services and to strengthen provincial services. But, it rejected simultaneous exams in
India.
Soon after the term covenanted services was abolished and three classes of services, i.e. imperial,
provincial and subordinate were established. The Royal Commission under Islington (1912)
accepted the demand for simultaneous exams in London and India. It also suggested to have 33%
Indians with annual go up by 1.5% in superior civil services. The government gave effect to it
through GoI Act 1919. In a conciliatory mood, Montague, Secretary of State, declared the intention
of opening of Civil Services fully to Indians during the First World War.
Thus, the Indian Civil Services evolved till 1919. It became the steel frame of British rule in India
safeguarding and furthering its interests.
127. How did the movement for the liberation of women receive a great stimulus from the rise
and growth of the nationalist movement in India?
The movement for the liberation of women received a great stimulus from the rise of nationalist
movement in the 20th century. Women played an active role in the struggle for freedom. They
participated in large numbers in the agitations against partition of Bengal and in the Home Rule
movement. Sarojini Naidu became the president of the National Congress. Several women became
ministers or parliamentary secretaries in popular ministries of 1937. Another important
development was the birth of womens movement in the country. Now, self confident women
undertook the task for upliftment of women. They started many organisations for the purpose, the
most outstanding being the All India Womens Conference, founded in 1927. Womens struggle for
equality took a big step forward with the coming of independence. Article 14 & 15 of the Indian
Constitution guaranteed the complete equality of men and women. This Hindu Succession Act of
1956 made the daughter an equal co-heir with the son.
128. Of the evils which corroded Indian society in the nineteenth century was probably those
stunted its womandhood. Elucidate.
The nineteenth century Indian society was infested with numerous evils. Though superstitions,
untouchability magic and charms had a firm grip on the society, it was the treatment and status of
women that stunted and corroded the society the most.
The Sati System was the most important of these evils. It was the practice of self-immolation by the
widow in her husbands funeral fire as a proof of devotion. Unwilling or even pregnant women
were compelled to perform Sati. The practice because harsher considering the widely prevalent
system of child marriages that existed in the contemporary society. Further, if a widow escaped the
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inhumane practice of Sati, she had to undergo the ordeal of widowhood. A widow was not allowed
to remarry, was considered as inauspicious and was treated harshly. Another social evil was
polygamy which degraded the status of women. Further, the widely prevalent purdah system
secluded and segregated the women section of the society in all walks of life. Moreover, women
were looked at as inferiors and not fit for acquisition of knowledge. A corollary to it was lack of
educational facilities for women. Keeping the women away from educational institutions ensured
their docility in home, dependence in economic matters and non-participation in political and social
life. Last but not the least, the birth of girl child itself was not welcome. Female infanticide was
widely prevalent and different modus operandi was adopted to see that the girl child does not see
the fulfillment and fruitfulness of life as a human being.
Thus, these evils corroded Indian society by stunting its womanhood. And, it was the realization of
this fact that led to efforts for social reforms of which emancipation of women was both the aim as
well as the means.
129. Discuss the various aspects of social legislation introduced by the East India Company in
the first half of the 19th century.
The British after 1813 took active interest to transform India socially. Rise of new interests and
ideas in the wake of Industrial Revolution required partial transformation of Indian society to serve
their interests. In this drive, they were able-supported by the Indian intelligentsia.
Sati, the custom of burning wife along with the funeral pyre of the diseased husband, was outlawed
in 1829. The then Governor-General. William Bentick, made it a crime to anyway associated with
burning of a widow on her husbands funeral. Raja Rammohan Roy was instrumental in activating
the company in this regard.
Female infanticide was prevalent in Rajasthan, Bengal and central India. It was associated with low
position of women in the society. In 1802, laws were made ban it in Bengal. Soon, subsequent laws
followed making it a heinous crime.
Lord Hardinge suppressed the practice of human sacrifices among tribes of the central India.
130. What was the social legislation in the 19th and early 20th centuries introduced by the
British? Assess the contribution of men behind it.
In the early decades of the nineteenth century there began internal movements within Hindu Society
against its own customs and practices. It was a coincidence that the British initiated social
legislation when then Indian reformers created an opinion in their favour. Rammohan Roy
represented the view of rational Indians against the evil. On 4 December, 1829, by Regulation XVII
of the Government, the custom of Sati was declared illegal and punishable by the Criminal Courts.
The abolition of sati indirectly brought into prominence the problem of the fate and future of the
young widows who were saved from destruction but throw into a pitiable state of existence. In the
middle of the nineteenth century, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar launched a campaign for widow
marriage. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar presented a petition to the Government on behalf of about
one thousand prominent persons. Accordingly, in 1856, an Act was passed legalizing widow
marriage. In June-July 1856, petitions signed by fifty thousand men and women were submitted to
the Government by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar to abolish polygamy. Inspite of the Act, the cause
of remarriage of Hindu windows did not make much headway. Several legislation, starting from
1807, forbade slavery and slave trade and keeping slaves or trafficking in them became an offence
under the Indian Penal Code, enacted in 1860. Another brutal custom of hook-swinging was
suppressed in 1865. Another Act passed in 1872, at the instance of the Brahmo Samaj, abolished
polygamy and marriage of minor girls (below 14 years) and sanctioned inter-caste marriages and
remarriages of widows.
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Several important measures were also taken in the cause of female education. The initial efforts in
this direction were made by the Christian education. The initial efforts in this direction were made
by the Christian missionaries. But the social reformers also contributed towards the growth of
female education. A mention ought to be made in this regard of the efforts Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar who opened nearly 35 girls schools in 1857-58 in Bengal. Prof. Karve founded several
educational institutions in Maharashtra, the most notable being Indias first Womens University in
Bombay in the early 20th century. The spread of female education led to several other social reforms
of great consequences, such as, the abolition of purdah.
Before the transfer of power, the Government of the East India Company had to their credit two
more meritorious works, namely, the suppression of human sacrifice among the Khonds of OrissaMadras hill tracts, and the abolition of infanticide among the Rajputs and Bedis in the north and
North West.
In the twentieth century, policies regarding social change mainly resulted from Indian opinion
rather than from British interests. The press played a useful role in giving appropriate prominence to
these issues.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act XIX of 1929 (popularly known as Sarda Act) was along awaited
social measure in favour of which opinion had been growing for many years. It came into force on
1 April, 1930. No Marriage, to which a child i.e., a male under 18 years of age or a female under
15 years of age is a party, may be solemnized.
131. What was Brhamo Samaj. Who were associated with it?
Initially called the Brahma Sabha and later the Brahmo Samaj, the movement was started by Raja
Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta on 20 August 1828.
Ram Mohan Roy Samaj assailed the strongest part of the citadel of Hindu religion and society. He
opposed the worship of images of gods and goddesses, denounced Sati, polygamy and abuses of the
caste system, favoured remarriage of Hundu widows, and set at naught the prohibition on crossing
the sea by his voyage to England. By these successive shocks it galvanized the dormant Hindu
society and set in motion that liberalism in though and action which enabled it to shake off the
fetters of bygone ages.
Although the Brahmo Samaj was the visible embodiment of the new spirit, it never became a
powerful movement.
Thirteen years later, Debendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905) assumed charge as Acharya and infused
new life into the movement. Though he and his young followers questioned the infallibility of the
Vedas, he took relevant excerpts from the Upanishads and compiled them into a text called Brahmo
Dharma, which served as a guide for prayer and devotion. Earlier on, he had established a Tattva
Bodhini Sabha to propagate the Brahmo faith and the Tattvabodhini Patrika to carry its message far
and wide.
The Samaj became much more live and dynamic under Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84) who joined
it in 1857. Religious and social problems were discussed in the Sangat Sabha which he formed three
years later. Soon, the Brahmo Samajits gave up idolatry and caste symbols, devoting more time and
effort to social service and educational activities. Preachers were sent out and as a result of Sens
own tours throughout the country (1864-1868) organised groups such as the Veda.
Samaj in Madras and the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay came into being.
Debendra Nath could not reconcile himself to Keshab Chandras radically reformist ideas; in 1865
there was a split when Sen and his followers broke away. They established what was called the
Brahmo Samaj of India. Debedra Naths more orthodox group now came to be known as the Adi
Brahmo Samaj.

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132. Who established Arya Samaj? What was its goal?

Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 in Bomabay.
The main goal of Arya Samja was:
1. It stood for the four-fold Varna system determined by merit and not, by birth.
2. Opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage etc.
3. Stood for equal rights for both men and women in social and educational matters.
4. Accepted the authority of Vedas (but sanctioned by rationalism and utilitarianism)
5. Preached fatherhood of god and brotherhood of man, equality of sex, love and charity
towards all.
Samajs greatest contribution was in field of education. The Samaj established Anglo-Vedic schools
and colleges and Gurukul Pathsala at Haridwar. The Samaj started the Shuddhi movement to
convert non-Hindus to Hinduism. This became a contributing factor in the growth of communalism
in India in the 20th century.
133. Write a note on the Theosophical Society.
The Theosophical Society was founded in the United States in 1875 by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and
Colonel M.S. Olcott. They were inspired by Indian thought and culture. In 1882, its Headquarter
was shifted to Adayar, near Madras. Later on, Annie Besant was elected its President in 1907.
The society believed that relations can be built up between a soul and God by contemplation,
prayer, revelation, etc. It was inspired by the philosophy of Upanishads, Samkhya, Yoga and
Vedanta schools of thought. It affirmed its faith in reincarnation and karma. It worked for Universal
brotherhood without any distinction of race, caste, sex, creed, colour or so. One of its aims was to
investigate the law of nature and latent power of man. It gave a renaissance to Hinduism.
Not only a religious revivalism society, but it also worked as a movement to glorify Indian religion,
culture and tradition and gave much required feelings of pride to the Indians in their religion and
philosophy. Inspired by the feelings of self respect, they also get encouraged in fighting against the
British rule.
134. Write a brief note on Ramakrishna Mission.
The Ramakrishna monastic order and Mission, formally registered in 1909, had been officially
established in 1887 by Swami Vivekananda, the chief discipline of Swami Ramakrishna
Parmahansa (1834-86) of Dakshineswar. A year after his death, about a dozen young men,
including Vivekananda, had taken monastic vows at Barangore and dedicated them to propagating
the gospel of the mast. The latter had preached the equality of a religions which point the way to
achieve God. A practical Vedantist, Ramakrishna realized divinity in humanity, viz. in the service
of man, and thereby found communion with a loving and vibrating humanity. The Ramakrishna
Mission is not religious order but a Social Service Mission based 0 Ramakrishna Paramhansas
concepts of worship God in Men and the Universal unity of a religions.
135. What do you know about Prarthana Samaj?
The Prarthana Samaj was founded in Maharashtra in 1867 with inspiration from Keshab Chandra
Sen. Mahadev Govinda Randade was its chief leader. It aimed, like the Brahma Samaj at socioreligious reforms. He pointed out that most of the evil customs which then prevailed in the Hindu
society ran counter to the practices observed in earlier times and cited, as instances, the dependent
status of women, child marriages, prohibition of remarriage of widows, restrictions of marriage to
the narrow circle of the sub caste to which one belonged, ignorance and seclusion of women,
prohibition of foreign travel, various kinds of abstentions enforced upon women, restrictions as to
inter-dining among various castes, untouchability, etc., which ran contrary to ancient precepts and
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practices Ranade also launched a purity movement comprising anti-dancing and temperance
agitation, admission of converts from other faiths and reduction in extravagant marriage expenses.
The greatest contribution of Ranade was that his movement soon became an all-India-movement for
social Reform.
133. Write short note on following:
1. Indian National Social Conference
2. Social Service League
3. Rahanumai Mazdayasanan Sabha
4. Deva Samaj
5. Bharat Dharma Mahamandala
6. Madras Hindu Association
7. Dharma Sabha
8. Radaswami Movement
9. Seva Sadan
10. Servants of Indian Society
11. Mahima Movement
12. Temple Entry Movement
13. Self Respect Movement
Indian National School Conference
It was founded by M.G Ranade and Raghunath Rao. The conference which met annually from its
first session in Madras in December 1887, at the same time and the same place as the Indian
National Congress was held, focused attention on matters relating social reforms. It launched the
famous Pledge Movement to inspire the people to take oaths to prohibit child marriage. The
conference also advocated the inter-caste marriages, and opposed polygamy.
Social Service League
Narayan Malhar Joshi, one of the leading members of the servants Society, founded the Social
Service League in 1911, to collect and study social facts and social problems with a view to
forming public opinion on questions of social service and to make efforts to secure for the masses
better and reasonable conditions of life and work. In pursuance deals the league opened a number of
day and night schools libraries, dispensaries and Boys clubs and Scouts Crops.
Rahanumai Mazdavasanan Sabha
(or Religious Reform Association). This was a socio-religious reform organization of the Paris in
India. The western educated and progressive Parsis Dadabhai Naoroji, J.B. Wacha, S.S. Bengali and
Naoroji Furdonji founded in 1851, the Rahanumai Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious Reform
Association, which had for its object the regeneration of the social condition of the Parsis and the
restoration of the Zorastrian religion to its pristinel purity. They insisted on the education of the
Parsi Priests and made great efforts for the promotion of Western education among the Parsis,
including girls. The age of marriage was increased and the Parsi women achieved their
emancipation.
Deva Samaj
This Sect was founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narain Agnihotri, who was earlier a follower or
Brahmo Samaj. The teachings of the Samaj were compiled in a book called Deva Shastra, which
emphasizes on the Supreme Being, eternity of soul, the Supremacy of the Guru and emphasis on
good action. The Samaj prescribed ideal social conduct and moral ethies, such as not accepting
bribe, gambling, consumposing intoxicants and non-vegetarian food and indulging in violence.

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Bharat Dharma Mahamandala

This was an all India Organization of the orthodox educated Hindus who rose in defence or
orthodox Hinduism against the teachings of the Arya Samaj, the Theosophists and the Ram Krishna
Mission. The beginning of this organization was made in 1890 in Punjab by Pandit Din Dayal
Sharma to counter the teachings of the Arya Samaj.
Madras Hindu Association
Two such Reform Associations were founded in Madras. In 1892, the Madras Hindu Social
Reforms Association was founded by Viresalingam Pantulu (1848-1919), whose efforts were
concerned with the Plight of widows, and R. Venkat Ratnam Naidu (1862-1939), who started social
purity movement advocating temperature and combating the devadasi custom.
Dharma Sabha
It was an orthodox society founded by radhakant Deb (1794-1876) in 1830. The members of the
Dharma Sabha were the defenders of the socio-religious status quo against both reformers and
radicals. Through its newspaper it fought the reformers every inch of the war for the protection or
orthodoxy. They even opposed the abolition of sati. But they played very active role in promoting
western education, even among girls.
Radaswami Movement
This movement was found in 1861 by a banker of Agra Tulis Ram popularly known as Shiv Dayal
Saheb or Swamiji. The Radhaswamis believes in one supreme, being the supremacy of the Guru, a
company of the pious people (Sat sang), and social life. They believe that there is no need for
renunciation of worldly life for spiritual its. They further hold that all religious are true. The sect
recognizes no temples, shrines, or sacred places. Works of faith and Charity, the spirit of service
and prayer, are laid down as duties.
Seva Sadan
This social reform and humanitarian organization was founded in 1885 by the Parsi social reformer
Behramj M. Malabari, who relentlessly fought throughout his life against child marriages and
enforced widowhood. The Seva Sadan founded by him specialized of socially discarded and
exploited women of all castes, providing educations, welfare and medical services.
Servants of Indian Society
It was founded in 1915 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale to build a group of people for social service and
reforms. In the field of famine relief, union organization, cooperatives and uplift of tribal and
depressed, the Society did a very commendable.
Mahima Movement
It was founded in Orissa by Mahima Goswami, who laid sufficient stress on disciplined habits to
control the body and mind. It did not recognize any caste, creed colour or any narrowness that
divided human beings.
Temple Entry Movement:
In various parts of South India, particularly Kerala, the disabilities imposed on the avarnas or people
of depressed classes were most inhuman and degrading, against which the struggle was being
waged since the end of the 19th century under the leadership of several reformers and intellectuals
such as Sri Narayan Guru, N. Kumaran Assan and TK. Madhavan. In 1924, another beginning was
made for opening the doors of the temples for the another beginning was made for opening the
doors of the temples for the avarnas or depressed classes. After 1924 the anti-untouchability
programme became a part of the Gandhian constructive progarmme and gained great popularity.
The temple entry movement used all the techniques developed in the course of the nationalist
struggle. In November 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore issued a proclamation throwing open all
Government controlled temples of all Hindu irrespective of caste. Madras followed suit in 1936. the
temple entry movement was the Gandhian or nationalist approach to fight caste oppression.

Self Respect Movement

It was a radical movement founded in Tamil Nadu in 1925 by E. V Ramaswami Naiker, popularly
known as Periyar who opposed Brahmin domination and advocated simple marriages without
Brahman Priests and rituals, forcible temple entry, burning of Manusmriti etc. Under the British
encouragement, this movement emerged as a kind of Dravidian or Tamil separatism.

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134. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the foremost in the social reform movement among the Indian
Muslims. Discuss.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, born in Delhi, was convinced that British rule in India had come to stay.
Syed Ahmad preferred service the Company. At the time of the Rebellion of 1857, Syed Ahmad
was at Bijnor and earned governments gratitude for his work in saving the lives of many
Englishmen during those d 1858 he wrote his famous Pamphlet on the Causes of the Indian Mutiny,
published in 1863 and later translated into English by Auckland Colvin, a former Governor of U.P.
The alleged repression suffered by Muslims in the post 1857 period resulted in Ahmads dedication
to the cause of uplift and rejuvenation of his community. He initiated programme liberalization
reinterpreting Muslim religious beliefs and practices and advocating a progressive, westernized
approach to education. His ideal was a Muslim community that maintains steadfast loyalty to Islam,
without sacrificing the rewards of worldly progress. His propagation of educational reform took
concrete shape with the establishment of the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in
January 1877.
The Muhammadan Educational Congress was founded in 1886, after 1890; it came to be known as
the Muhammadan Educational Conference. While propagating his ideas of liberal education among
Muslims, Syed Ahmad favoured both technical educations for the community as well as higher
education for women. These measures, for most part unpopular, swelled the ranks of his detractors
among the orthodox, culminating in a dastardly attempt on his life.
Convinced like many of his Muslim and Hindu contemporaries of the usefulness and necessity of
British rule in India, Syed Ahmad along with Raja Jaikishan Das took the lead in establishing
(1866) at Aligarh the British Indian Association, North-Western Provinces. Though superficially it
would appear to be a branch of the British Indian Association, in fact, it was not. The Leading aim
was to improve the efficiency of the British Indian every legitimate means. The Association was
short-lived-surviving a bare four years and proved to be a far from active body.
Syed Ahmads opposition to the Indian National Congress and his formation, in 1888, of the Indian
Patriotic Association stemmed largely from his conviction that the activities of the former smacked
of sedition. The latter body presently split- a development that led eventually to the formation of the
United Indian Patriotic Association. His sense of loyalty to his community, the experience of British
distrust of that loyalty and his desire to remove that distrust led him to rule that Muslims should not
be associated with the Congress, even in their individual capacity. In the result, he skirted the idea
that Hindus and Muslims were members of one Indian Nation. It may be added that he was
convinced that the Congress ideology of open competition for jobs and elected legislative councils
would be detrimental to Muslim interests. The centre of Sir Syeds activities was Aligarh, and
therefore, the liberal movement launched by him came to be known as Aligarh movement.
135. Write Brief note on the following:
1. Wahabi Movement
2. Dcoband Movement
3. Ahamadiya Movement
4. Fariadi Movement
5. Titu Mirs Movement

Wahabi Movement
Wahabism made its appearance in India in the early 19th century as a religious reform movement of
Islam and attacked the religious corruptions which had crept into Muslim society. The movement,
however, son transformed itself into a religio-political creed and it was the ambition of its founder
Sayyid Ahmad of Rai Bareilly (1786 1831) to revive and restore Muslim power in India by
bringing about the overthrow of the Sikhs in the Punjab and the British in Bengal. In pursuance of
their objectives the Wahabis took up arms against the Sikhs in the Punjab and then against the
British. The movement was known as Wahabi after the name of Abdul Wahab of Jaid (1703-87),
who was also the founder of the Wahabi Sect.
The activities of the Wahabis cover the period, roughly speaking, from 1820 to 1870. The Wahabi
movement was much better planned, organised and knitted than the uprising of 1857. The absolute
secrecy with which its activities were carried out and the loyalty of its members to one another were
remarkable. The Wahabi movement was undoubtedly inspired by the motive of freeing India of the
British Rule. Army was used against the Wahabis and several of its leaders and followers were
sentenced to death, which extinguished the spirit of the movement around 1870.
Deoband Movement
The Islamic Seminary at Deoband was founded in 1867 by two theologians Muhammad Qasim
Nahautavi (1837-1880) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi. The Deoband school of Islamic Theology was
a poor mans school and its teachers and students lived hard lives in the most economical
conditions. The followers of this school were concerned with the problems of education and
character, the questions of society and State were as important for them as those of belief and
practices of individual. Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, the founder of the movement, advised the Muslim
community in India to cooperate with the Congress in its activities. The Deoband School declared
in unambiguous terms that the concept of nationality was based upon the unity of all religious
groups did not contravene any Islamic principle. This decision created a gulf between Deoband and
Aligarh movement.
Ahamadiya Movement
The Ahmadiya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889,
who began his work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the
Christian missionaries in 1889 he claimed to be Masih (Messiah) and Mehdi, and later also be an
incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna was well as Jesus returned on earth. The movement was really
a heresy well within the bounds of Islam, as Ghulam Ahmad, though he called himself a minor
prophet, regarded Muhammad as the true and great prophet whom he followed.
Fariadi Movement
Founded by Haji Shariat Ali, affirmed strongly the unity of God and was aimed at the eradication of
social innovations current among the Muslims of Bengal, many of them borrowed from Hinduism.
The Fariadis suspended the Friday and Id prayers thinking of India as Darul-Harab (enemy
territory). It remained as religious and social rather than political movement.
Titu Mirs Movement
This movement was organised in West Bengal by Mir Nithar Ali (1782-1831), popularly known as
Titu Mir, one of the disciples of Sayyed Ahmad Raebarelvi, the founder of the Wahabi movement.
Titu Mir organised the Muslim peasants against Hindu landlords and British indigo planters. Some
Hindu landlords imposed a beard-tax on his followers and persecuted them in other ways.
136. Write a brief note on Kuka Revolt.
The Kuka movement was founded in the Western Punjab by Bhagat Jawahar Mal, popularly known
as Sian Saheb, in about 1840. Its aim was to purify the Sikh religion by removing the abuses and
superstitions that had crept into it. Their tenets included the abolition of caste and restrictions upon
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inter-marriage, abstinence from meat, liquor and drugs and non-seclusion of women. The political
implications of the Kuka Movement caused a great deal of anxiety to the British Government which
took vigorous measures between 1863 and 1872 to root out the movement. In 1872 Ram Singh, one
of the leaders of the movement, was departed to Rangoon where he died in 1885.
137. Discuss the major limitations of socio religious movement of the 19th century.
The dawn of the 19th century witnessed the birth of a new vision among some enlightened sections
of the Indian society. This enlightened vision started the process of reawakening in the form of
socio-religious movements led by Raj a Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Sir Sayyed Ahmed
Khan, etc.
But the major limitation of these movements was that they had a narrow social base. They found
favour with the educated and ubran middle class only. Thee needs of vast masses of peasantry and
the urban poor were ignored. An over emphasis on the greatness of the past and to rely on scriptural
authority encouraged mysticism and festered pseudo scientific thinking. It proved a check on a full
acceptance of the need for a modem scientific outlook.
Above all, these tendencies resulted in compartmentalization of Hindu, Muslim and others. Due to
this overdose of religious and philosophical aspects of the cultural heritage, it resulted in an
insufficient emphasis on other aspects of culture art, architecture, literature, music on the whole.
Whatever the net outcome of these reform movement was, it was out of this struggle that a new
society evolved in India.
138. The national democratic awakening of the Indian people found expression also in the
religious sphere Elucidate.
The democratic awakening of the 19th century could not be confined in political sphere alone and
found expression in religious sphere too. As a result efforts were made to democratize the religions.
The 19th century social-reformers sowed the seeds of democratic ideals in India. Starting with Raja
Ram Mohan Roy, it stood for reform and democratization of social institutions and religious belief
systems. As a result on it, concepts like relationalism, humanism and nationalism took deep root in
Indian. In the political sphere it led to the formation of Indian National Congress to fight for
democracy on democratic lines.
This democratization and awakening of Indian people led to efforts for religious democratization.
Nationalist leaders stead for access to God for all irrespective of caste or class. With this aim
numerous efforts were made most important being Temple entry movement and Gurudwara reform
movement. Gurudwara movement in the 1920s succeeded in reforming and democratizing the Sikh
religious institutions. In the same way, the Temple Entry Movement in 1920s and 30s paved the
way for opening up of temples to all Hindus.
Further, political awakening of the masses especially druign the Gandhian era led to the resurgence
and empowerment of all sections including the villagers. This instilled a spirit of participation and
belief in democracy and as a result of it, political democracy incorporated in it religious democracy
too.
139. Discuss the causes and nature of social reform movements of second half of 19th century.
What was their role in national movement?
Social reforms movements in the second half of the 19th century were closely connected with efforts
to reform religious practices in which social evils were rooted. Social reform movements were
directed mainly towards removal of inequality in general and caste rigidities and untouchability in
particular, emancipation of women etc.

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Religious Organisations such as Brahrno Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prathna Samaj etc. and some
individuals like Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Ishwar Chand Vidyasager, KC. Sen, Dayanand Saraswati,
Swami Vivekanand etc. worked hard to remove social evils.
There were campaigns for inter-caste dining and marriage but on the whole crusade against
untouchability failed to gather momentum. Greater success was achieved in womens emancipation
with legislation passed for widow remarriage, prevention of child marriage and opening of
educational institutions etc.
The Causes of social reform movements were:
(i)
Challenges posed by western culture including missionaries.
(ii)
Rise of Cultural awakening through western indologists.
(iii) Politico-Administrative changes introduced by British who do not made distinctions
among castes for administrative or judicial posts.
(iv)
Modern Education
(v)
Rise of Middle class. Most of movements were initiated by western educated, urban
middle class people.
The Nature of social reform movements:
(i)
Urban based,
(ii)
Western educated based,
(iii) Middle class based,
(iv)
Removal of Caster barrier etc. was the focus
(v)
Emancipation of women by way of widow remarriage, Sati was emphsised.
(vi)
They all were secular except Arya Samaj.
These socio-reforms movements were expressions of a rising national consciousness while
preaching against social evils and religious superstition, these movements revived faith in Indias
glory and gave a new confidence to the people. This made many Indians acquire a modem worldly,
secular outlook which forged a sense of nationalism.
By seeking to democratize social institutions as caste which was fragmenting the social structure,
they spoke for national unity.
These movements were instrumental in including a desire for political and economic emancipation.
Indians were enthused to offer resistance to an alien rule.
140. Characterize the main features of Indian Renaissance.
Indian Renaissance was started under the influence of the British or Western thinkers.
(i)
It was characterized by the following features.
(ii)
It was influenced by Western thinkers.
(iii) It gave rise to study of English literature, thoughts, philosophies and books of history.
(iv)
Indias past was studied in a new day.
(v)
Reinterpretation of Indian religious texts and rituals was made. This exposed
irregularities and mal-practices in our religious prevailing at that time.
(vi)
Under Ram Mohan Roy and others, it started new movement of socio-religious reforms.
Sati abolition, prevention of child marriages etc. were preached and movements gained
force.
(vii) Different classes of Indian society looked at such reforms with varied perspectives.
(viii) It has some influence over political movements in India and later on it was perfectly
adopted by political movements.

Gandhi laid emphasis on Basic Education or Nai Talim. He believed that the proper development of
personality should always take into consideration the requirements of mind, body and spirit.
Gandhian equation was quite distinct from conventional system of education. To him, the
conventional system of education made the students only literate parasites. It promote division
between intellectual and manual work. It did not prepare them for life. Gandhiji suggested that the
students should be taught handicrafts during the school period and a part of the expenses of this
education should be meted out of the sale proceeds of articles which the students made. It was to
ensure self confidence and self reliance on the part of the students when they leave the school.
Gandhian education was meant to create self respected colossal trained in the art of living. He
emphasised on the highest development of mind and soul. He was not in favour of creating
theoretical man. He was in favour of a scientific man who knows why and what of every process.
True education of intellectual, for him, is the proper exercise and training of all body organs i.e.
hands, feet, ear and nose.
Thus, Gandhian education is to crate a self sustained student. It is the best answer to todays
problem of unemployment.
142. What were Gandhis views on State?
Like many other Indian leaders Gandhi had considerable difficulty in coming to terms with the
modern states. He was opposed to large-scale industrialization and did not much understand the
economic role of the state either. Gandhi was most critical of the modern state. It was impersonal,
ruling by rules, functioning more or less like a machine with no human beings apparently in charge
of it or accepting responsibility for its actions. Gandhi contended that even when the state left room
for personal responsibility, its structure and manner of operation allowed too many escape routes.
He thought that the state was inherently inhospitable to personal responsibility and had an antihuman thrust. He was not opposed to rules and institution whose vital importance he fully
recognised, but thought that the modern state relied on them so heavily that it stifled human
responsibility and even forgot that it was an associated of human beings. As he sometimes put it, the
modern state was organised along scientific lines land had reduced the Government to a machine.
Gandhis criticism of it was an integral part of his larger critique of modern science.
In addition to his general critique of the modern state. Gandhi contended that it was especially
unsuited to India. India had a spiritual civilization. Non-violence was deeply cherished in India,
whereas the state relied on violence. Since the task of independent India was to purify and stabilize
its civilization, its polity should be so structured that it could protect and act as its internal critic.

141. Discuss Gandhis concept of Basic Education. How far was it a departure from
conventional system of education?

143. The moral law, the law of conscience, higher than the law of the state, which is
oppressive Elucidate this concept of Gandhi.
Mahatma Gandhis appearance once compelled to put his view by the greatest scientist of all time
Albert Einstein in this way The future generation would not believe that Mahatma Gandhi, a man
made up of flesh and bones every existed on this earth. It really is true in the present day. Mahatma
Gandhi was the man of strong will power guided bylaw of conscience. He always let his self by
ruled by this moral law.
In the year 1922, when Indian masses openly refused to cooperate with British Government and
even boycotted the arrival of Prince of Wales, the Government resorted to severe repression.
Disgusted with policy of atrocity of the government the agitated mob set on fire a police station at
Chauri-Chaura in Gorakpur district on February 15, 1992. Distressed at this Gandhi immediately
called off the movement. The reason being, that he was deadly against any violent activity.
Gandhi knew very well that the law of state is earthly phenomenon and has to do nothing with the
human conscience. It carries along with it the element of oppression which does not serve any

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human purpose. He always insisted on the inner voice arid truth. According to him only truth can
bring purity to heart which in turn can generate law of conscience or moral law, which is far more
superior to the law of state.
144. Gandhi restrained mass movements, yet he retained his popularity among the masses.
Comment.
Gandhian movement even at the heights of mass mobilization was restrained one, but with his
unique methods Gandhi could retain his popularity.
Gandhi led mass movements especially Non-cooperation and Civil disobedience were restrained
movements. Even though Gandhiji could mobilise people even in the nook and corner of the
country, he restrained his movement. Moreover, even at any stage if he felt his movement deviating
from the ordained path he suspended it as happened during the Non-Cooperation movement.
To understand the phenomena of restrained movement but retaining popularity by Gandhi, it is
necessary to understand Gandhian form of struggle. For Gandhi truth and non-violence was the
corner stone of a mass movement. Further he wanted means and aims to be equally important. It we
also a moral battle and was based on the sacrificing capacity of the common people. Further,
Gandhi was not a votary of revolution. For Gandhi any mass movement had to qualify these
parameters.
It was this uniqueness of Gandhian struggle made Gandhiji popular in South Africa and later in
India. It was also because of the essential non-violent form of struggle the British could not
annihilate it. The people-both leaders and masses-understood the features and efficacy of Gandhian
struggle thus Gandhi could retain his popularity.
145. Did Nehru really speak the language of Gandhi? Locate the points of their agreements
and departures.
Gandhi declared Nehru as his political heir. Once he called Nehru his ears and eyes. Gandhi nursed
the hope that after him, Nehru will carry forward his legacy. Nehru did it, though, in a limited sense.
Gandhi and Nehru both related politics to ethics. They tried to build politics of consensus and
peace. They were pro-people. Both had indomitable courage, will to sacrifice, breadth of outlook
and innate nobility of character. They were adherent votaries of democracy, liberalism and social
justice. [A progressive secular independent India was the vision Nehru borrowed from Gandhi.
Denouncement of feudalism, capitalism and imperialism was common to both. Nehru firmly
believed in Gandhian non-violent struggle. Nehru had impeccable faith in Gandhis leadership. He
was the first to sign the declaration of Satyagraha proposed by Gandhi after Jallianwalla Bagh
tragedy. True to Gandhian legacy, he favoured rationality of mankind empowerment of the masses
and village development. He supported the Gandhian mode of struggle and social construction fullfledged.
Gandhi and Nehru differed from each other in respect of philosophy of life, social and political
philosophy and in regard to the shape of social, economic and political structure in India. As a
young socialist, Nehru was a revolutionary against Gandhian gradualism. His radical views in
Madras Congress (1928) deeply disturbed Gandhi. Nehru supported complete independence as
opposed to dominium status, since, his baptism in politics. He, as opposed to Gandhi preferred glory
and power. He was in favour of westernization of India against Gandhi who indianized the west by
his philosophy. Nehru was deeply destructed with Gandhis call to stop Non-cooperation Movement
after the Chauri Chaura incident. He was opposed to Gandhian cocept of trust ship, scheme of
education and importance of religion in politics. He favoured radical social reform, rapid
industrialization of India and had deep interest in scientific inventions.

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Inspite of differences, Gandhi and Nehru understood each other. It was Gandhis greatness and
Nehrus wisdom that made Nehrus loyalty true. Gandhis love for him was deep and strong. Nehru
was content to follow Mahatma when he failed to understand his logic. Each reinforced the other.
Nehru without Gandhi is ineffective and Gandhi without Nehru is incomplete.
146. Why had Nehru in his autobiography been so critical of the liberals?
Nehrus criticism of liberal leaders canvases his deep distrust with them during the non-cooperation
movement. Liberals left Congress in 1920 to form Indian Liberal Federation. They supported the
provisions of the Government of India Act 1919. They even denounced the non-cooperation
struggle by the mass. Nehru was disillusioned with their attitude towards the alien rule and their
consequent apathy towards popular sentiments. Liberals, instead of non-cooperation, supported the
government, which indulged in brutal suppression of the movement. As a nationalist, Nehru was
very much disgusted with liberals attitude of not boycotting government posts and allurements,
when the common mass boycotted everything at the peak of nationalist struggle in 1921.
Jawaharlal Nehru, being a politician, was very much influenced by the Bolshevik revolution of
Russia. Though influenced by the content of this revolution, socialist ideas came to bear upon his
nationalism when he visited Europe in 1926. In 1927 he attended the conference of colonized
countries at Brussels. Here his anti-imperialist attitude was at its height. His visit to the USSR
changed his philosophy of life.
During late twenties, he did considerable reading of Marxist and Leninist literature. It, coupled with
happenings in Russia, made him a confirmed believer in socialistic goals. But, he did not approve
the Bolshevik method of achieving it. He believed that socialism alone offered solution to Indias
problems. To him, achieving political independence in shortest possible time was the prerequisite
for social struggle.
148. Regardless of distance in time, there were lots of similarities between Lord Curzon and
Jawaharlal Lal Nehru. Discuss.
Lord Curzons time is 1899 to 1905 AD., while Nehru worked for India both in pre and post
independence era.
Conditions against them were, of course, different. Then too, their attitude shows us many
similarities in their nature and method of work.
Administration: Both were firm administrators. Curzon worked for the interest of British India and
Nehru for the interest of India and both of them worked efficiently. They were able to work in spite
of having differences with system. For example, Curzon did not fully agree with Parliamentary and
Viceroy-in-Council matters. Nehru, on the other hand, had differences with Congress over the
issues like socialism, international stand, policy objectives, constitutional reforms etc.
Reforms: Curzon reformed the police administration and judicial system. Nehru, during his interim
government also tried to do it. Both Curzon and Nehru make some structural changes in army by
dividing it into commands.
Development: Curzon constructed canals on rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Bari. Nehru constructed
Bhakhra dam. Curzon recommended setting up the Railway Board.
Industries: To develop industry or commerce, Curzon set up a department. Nehru followed the
policy of public sector industries to boost industrial development.
Foreign policy: Curzon was expert in this area and so was about Nehru. To make India
interferenceless territory, he had some attempts against possible infiltration of Russia France or
Germany. While Nehru gave Panchsheel providing principles of non-interference.
Partition: Lord Curzon ruled the controversial partition of Bengal in the interest of British Indias
peaceful rule. Same had been done by Nehru regarding the partition of India-Pakistan for peace and
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development of India. Thus, we can find out many similarities among them in their nature, method
of work, rule administration etc., at least, from a single point of view.
149. How far Tagores concept of religion wedded to his love of nature?
Tagores writings are deeply tinged with religion. But it was not the conventional religion. In his
Geetanjali he found his God there where the tiller is tilling the land and the path maker is breaking
the stones. His God is in Sun Shower. The Tulsi plant in the corner of the terrace, the Kadam tree in
the open field, the kiss of moonlight on the edge of a vanishing autumn clouds, the boatman on the
darkening riverscape and other such natural sceneries are lavishly used by Tagore to express his
religious sentiments. The whole of his poetry is resplendent with passages pregnant with religious
meanings, symbolized by beautiful objects of nature. Thus religion and nature are formed sublimely
mixed in his poetry.
150. Why did Tagore emphasize the primary of social order over political order?
Tagore emphasized on the primacy of the society over the political order because he believed that a
country and the people perpetuating some worst form of social tyranny at home would have no
moral conscience to protest against imperialistic arrogances. He viewed politics only as a
specialized and professionalized aspect of society. He believed that the function of government was
not to remove the obstacles but to enable the people to remove their obstacles themselves. To him,
if the people perform their obligations, their initiative and capacity is strengthened, otherwise they
suffer from atrophy.
151. Tagores emphasis on internalism and humanism was ahead on his times. Explain?
Tagores internal ism was a manifestation of spiritual humanism. He accepted every individual as a
global citizen. His poetic heart and wide ranging vision decried the narrowness of political
boundaries. He accepted human beings as a part of international order, based on fraternity. To him,
the psychology feelings of a social man are free from the bondages of territory and time. The entire
human society encompasses and gives due care to the emotions and good will among the human
beings irrespective of nationalities. He analysed the conditions in India from a greater international
perspective. He was antagonistic to a humanism confined to a territorial nationalism.

153. Describe the role played by Mohammad Iqbal in shaping Indias freedom struggle.
It was Muhammad Iqbal who sowed the seed of a separate Muslim state in 1930 which bosomed in
1947 in the form of Pakistan. By doing so the poet and philosopher was shaping the density of his
people on the basis of religion.
Muhammad Iqbal, at the Allahabad session of the All-India Muslim League in 1930 declared that
if the Indian Muslim is entitled to full and free development on the lines of his own culture and
tradition, the formation of a consolidated North-west Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the
final destiny of the Muslims. It was form this idea of separate homeland for Muslims that the
further stages of two national theory developed. Rahmat Ali, a young undergraduate at Cambridge
coined the word Pakistan for such a separate state in 1933. Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared it in the
most unequivocal words in 1940, Lahore session of the Muslim League. The Pakistan Resolution
passed at the session demanded the Constitution of an independent state in which Muslims are
numerically in a majority. It was further taken forward by the Muslim League in the next seven
years. During this period in all the discussions and plans for constitutional developments like Cripps
Mission, Wavell Plan and the Cabinet Mission, it upheld the two nation theory. Finally, through
Direct Action of 16 August 1946 and the communal riots that followed the Muslim League
achieved the long cherished dream of a separate Muslim nation in the form of Pakistan in August
1947.
Thus, the formation of the separate nation led to the fruitfulness of Mohammad Iqbals idea and it
was also a miracle by a poet and philosopher in shaping the destiny of the people.
154. What was Tilaks contribution towards shaping the nationalistic movement in India?
Tilaks powerful intellect, robust realism, indomitable will and self sacrifice work up the masses
from their slumber. His newspapers Kesari and Maratha became powerful organs of spreading
the principles and policies of nationalism. He resuscitated Ganapati festival to unite people for
discussing national questions on religious grab. He revived Shivaji festival to inspire people with
heroism, patriotic flavour and self-sacrificing spirit to fight for freedom. He led the people from the
front by declaring Swaraj is my birth right. As an extremist leader he effectively used Boycott and
Swadeshi movement against the British. On his recommendations the stewardness had transformed
the anti-partition agitation into a mass struggle for national regeneration and gave it a mass base.

152. Describe the role of Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad during Indias freedom struggle.
Born in Mecca, where his forefather had settled during the 1857 Revolt, Abul Kalam Azad came
with his parents to India in 1898. Settled in Calcutta, he began participating in the freedom struggle
by associating himself with the revolutionaries during the swadeshi uprising. Though Al-Hilal and
Al-Balagh, weeklies which be began in 1912 and 1915 respectively, be started spreading
nationalistic thoughts. He came in contact with Gandhi and began lending support to the noncooperation agitation. He was made the head of the Khilafat Committee as well. He presided over
the Congress Special Session at Delhi in 1923 to become the youngest President. He was again
elected President of the Congress at its Ramgarh session in 1940. He remained President as no
session was held in the five following years.
Confined to the Ahmednagar fort after his arrest along with other leaders in 1942, Maulana Azad
participated in the Shimal Conference after his release. He also negotiated with the British Cabinet
Mission in 1946 for Indias independene. He was made a member of the Constituent Assembly and
became Minister of Education and Arts in the interim government.
After Indias independence, he was first appointed minister in charge of education and later give the
portfolios of natural resources and scientific research.

155. Assess the role of C. Rajagopalchari during the pre-partition years of Indian public life.
During the pre-partition years Rajagopalchari was viewed as the natural successor to Gandhiji. He
acted as the Chief Minister of undivided Madras province (1937-39). He led the people in Civil
Disobedience and Quit India movements with effect. In 1945, he proposed a formula, known as CR
Plan, to block partition to take place. His plan was for a loose federation with single handling of
defence and communication affairs. As a minister in the interim cabinet he laid his voice in shaping
political structure of India.

75

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156. Evaluate Subash Chandra Boses contribution to Indias freedom.

Subash Chandra Bose was selected in India Civil Services but he joined the Disobedience
Movement under the influence of Gandhi. He became an active Congress. He was also elected the
President of Congress in 1938 and 1939. But due to differences with Gandhi, he resigned from
Congress Presidentship and formed his Forward Block in 1940.
Due to his activities, British had held him under house arrest in Calcutta. But he secretly left India
in March 1941. He approaches Russia and Germany for help in Indias freedom. He went to Japan
in July 1943 and provided leadership to the Indian National Army. He organised soldiers and
formed provisional government in October 1943. This provisional Government was recognised by

the axis powers. The INA attacked the North Eastern borders and even captured a portion but due to
Japanese biased policy and adverse weather conditions, they had to surrender.
Subash Chandra Bose provided an influential leadership and kept the spirit of nationalism burning
during the slack period of national movement in India.
157. The ideology of Subhash Chandra Bose a combination of nationalism, fascim and
communism. Comment.
Ans, Subhash Chandra Bose represented a new spirit in the national struggle. This spirit was a
combination of nationalism, fascism and communism.
Subhash Chandra Bose was a true nationalist. His activities since he resigned from I.C.S to join the
National Movement are clear proof to it. Subhash Bose actively participated in Salt Satyagraha,
trade union movement and in the youth organisation of the Congress. Moreover, Bose activities in
India Independence League show that he is a true nationalist.
It was Boses firm belief in nationalism and Indias freedom that led him to the fascist block during
Second World War. Believing in the maxim enemys enemy is a friend, Subhash Chandra Bose
thought of seeking help of fascist powers. To free the country from the colonial power Subhash
Bose revived INA and joined hands with Japan in their assault of North-Eastern Frontier.
Further, Subhash Bose was also a believer in Communism. Being an important member of the
Congress-Socialist Party, he felt some form of synthesis was possible between communism and
nationalism. It was this communistic orientation that led him to setup a National Planning
Committee in 1938. It was also the same spirit that led him to the formation of Forward Bloc to
radicalize the national movement.
Thus, it can be seen that Subhash Chandra Bose combined fascism and communism for the cause of
nationalism which was the supreme matter to him till his end.
The recurring famines in the 19th century were the inevitable consequence of the British policy and
expose the real character of the paternal solicitude for the peasantry on the part of the British
administration. Examine this statement critically.
158. Critically assess Sir Tej Bahadur Saprus views on Indian Nationalism.
Sapru under the influence of Gokhale believed in Constitutional means of agitation. But they were
not in concurrence with the extra-constitutional methods of agitation that were adopted by Congress
later on. Sapru wanted to accept Jinnahs proposals and concede some more seats to him, if peace
and agreement could be procured through it. But here he failed to understand Jinnahs attitude. He
wanted India as a federation of the whole territorial units, under the British rule, by Indian
Constitution. It shows appreciable feelings of unity in him.
As a liberal leader he favoured formation of interim government and he opposed creation of
Pakistan as a separate state. He was with national feelings of undivided India. He always tried to
make Indian National Movement more participatory in nature. He educated people for public
opinion. His national spirit was filled up with deep patriotism.
159. Swami Vivekananda might well be called the Father of Indian Nationalism.
Swami Vivekanandas influence on national movement was remarkable, in spite of the fact that he
did not leave any political message. He infused into the new generation a sense of pride in Indias
past, a new faith in Indias culture and a rare sense of confidence in Indias future. He emphasized
on social good and reform to make the nation strong. For him, India was a junction of great cultures.
He believed that it was an insult to teach religion to a starving man. He called upon his countrymen
to imbibe a spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking he stood for the use of modern technology for
the service of mankind. Halt of exploitation of poor by the rich, social regeneration, amelioration of
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poverty and casteism to him were preconditions for generation of nationalism. Leaders like Gandhi
and Bose noticed the political wisdom in Vivekanandas teachings and adopted it in their struggle
against the British.
160. The name of Raja Rammohan Roy stands foremost in the field of religious and social
reforms. Elucidate.
Raja Rammohan Ray was foremost among the socio-religious reformer; during 19th century. He
established Atmiya Sabha (1814) to propagate monotheism and to fight against evil practices and
customs in Hindu religion. He showed that such practices were not found in the scriptures. His
Brahmo Samaj (1818) tried to purify the Hinduism, based on the pillars of reason and ancient
scriptures.
Rammohan had lifelong crusade against practice of sati. His persuasion of government resulted in
its abolition (1829). He championed the cause of womens right to inheritance and property. He
attacked polygamy and degraded status of widows. He supported widow-marriage. He emphasised
on Shaiva marriage to tend off caste barriers and rituals. He was a pioneer for spread of western
education in India.
In 1856, the government passed an act enabling Hindu windows to remarry. It acted after Iswar
Chandra Vidyasagar and other social reformers carried a crusade in favour of such measure.
In 1811, import of slaves from outside was banned. In 1843, Lord Ellenborough abolished slavery
in India. To have slaves was made illegal.
The abominable custom of branding to convicts in criminal cases was abolished in 1849. Another
legislation providing for custody of lunatics in the country was made.
During 1831-1837, Bentick made laws banning the Thugi and made it punishable, Dalhousie, by an
Act, made it an offence punishable with life imprisonment.
Thus, the first part of the 19th century witnessed British efforts to reform the Indian society. But,
these officials reforms touched no more than the fringes of the Indian social system. The real work
was done ill the second half of the 19th century. A group of Indians unleashed a crusade to reform
and modernize the Indian society. They were able to transform the lives of the vast majority.
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES OF MODERN INDIA
A.K. Fazl-ul-Haq (1873-1962): One of the founder members of the Ali India Muslim League,
he fought for the rights of the Muslims. From 1916 to 1921, he was the President of the League.
He played a significant role during negotiations between the Congress and the League over the
Lucknow pact in 1916.
Acharya Narendra Dev (1889-1956): A reputed scholar, educationist, socialist and nationalist.
He was a lawyer by profession. He was one of the first persons to join the Non-Cooperation
Movement and give up his practice. In 1948, he cut off links with the Congress to form the
Socialist Party and became its Chairman.
Achyut S. Patwardhan (1905-1971): He was one of the founder members of the Congress
Socialist Party. During the Quit India Movement, he played an active role in keeping the
popular morale high.
Ajay Kumar Ghosh: He was a revolutionary. He was member of Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association. Later he joined Communist Party of India.
Ajit Singh: He was a revolutionary who worked in close association with Lala Lajpat Rai. He
founded Bharat Mata Society. He fled India in 1908 but continued to work for the national cause
by assisting the Ghadar Party in its activities.

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Allan Octavian Hume (1829-1912): He came to India after joining the Indian Civil Service.
After retiring from the ICS in 1882, Hume began mobilizing loading intellectuals and
nationalistic forces of the time and formed the Indian National Congress. Hume is thus
appropriately known as the father of the INC.
Alluri Sitaramaraju (1897-1924): Himself a non-tribal, he played a significant role in bringing
the tribal into the political mainstream and merged their demands with the principals of the NonCo-operation Movement. He led Rampa Revolts against the British Army.
Amir Chand (1869-1915): He was a great social reformer and educationist who later became
revolutionary; He was accused of throwing a bomb on Lord Hardinge during a procession in
Delhi. He was tried and sentenced to death.
Ananda Mohan Bose (1847-1906): He played a pioneering role in the establishment of the
Indian Association working in close association with Surendernath Bannerjee. Bose was one of
the architects of the Congress and presided over its 1898 Madras Session. He also participated
in agitation launched against the Ilbert Bill, the Vernacular Press Act and the partition of
Bengal.
Annie Besant (1847-1933): An Irish woman, who came to India to work for social reform in
various fields. As head of the Theosophical society, she did commendable reform in higher
education. She began the Central Hindu College which later developed into the Banaras Hindu
University. Set up Home Rule League. Ms. Besant spread her ideas on political and social
reform through her journals New India and Commonwealth. She was made President of the
Congress at Calcutta session in 1917.
Aruna Asif Ali (1909-1996): She went to prison during Civil Disobediences Movements. In
1942, she hoisted the tricolors at Mumbai during Quit India Movement. She was elected the first
Mayor of Delhi in 1958. She served as President of the National Federation of Indian Women
and also the All India Womens Conference.
Asaf Ali (1888-1953): A lawyer by profession, he gave up his legal practice in response to
Gandhis call for non-cooperation. Indias first Ambassador to U.S.A. He also served as the
Governor of Orissa and as Indias Ambassador to Switzerland.
Ashfakullah Khan: He was a revolutionary. He was one of the active members of Hindustan
Socialist Republican Association. He was involved in Kakori case in which he was sentenced to
death.
Ashwini Kumar Dutta: He was initially a teacher, later became lawyer. Initially a moderate
but after partition of Bengal he became extremists.
Azimulla Khan: He was Saheb Peshwa Bahadurs agent who played a prominent role in
organizing the revolt of 1857 at Kanpur.
B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956): He was the leader of the depressed classes in India who played a
key role in framing Indias constitution, spent a lifetime fighting against the caste prejudice and
injustices within the Hindu society. He was the Law minister in the first Union Cabinet.
Baba Ramchandra: Founder of Oudh Kisan Sabha; led the peasant movement in 1921. Also
founded Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha.
Badruddin Tyabi (1844-1906): He was the first Indian Barrister of Bombay High Court. In
1886, he presided over the third Congress session in Madras.
Baliram Keshavrao Hedgewar (1899-1940): he was a medical graduate. He actively
participated in the freedom struggle. He established the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh in
1925.
Balwant Wasudev Phadke (1845-1883): One of the earliest revolutionaries, Wasudev Phadke
successfully organized members of Ramosi tribe for a revolt against the British.

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Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (or Chatterji) (1838-1894): He was composer of the hymm
Vande Mataram (and incorporated it in his historical novel Anandmath) that inspired love for
the motherland in millions of Indian hearts. He was a great writer, rationalist thinker and
philosopher.
Barindra Kumar Ghosh (1880-1959): He was influenced by the revolutionary philosophy or
Aurobindo Ghosh. He assisted Aurobindo in various patriotic ventures, especially during the
Swadeshi movement in Bengal.
Barkatullah Khan: He was a revolutionary. He along with Raja Mahender Pratap set up a
provisional government of India at Kabul.
Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912): He was one of the greatest social reformers in India. He
relentlessly worked with other social reformers to initiate legislative enactments on social
issues. Founded a social service organization, Seva Sadan.
Bhai Parmanand (1874-1947): He was a close associate of Lal Hardyal and assisted him in
organizing the activities of the Ghadar party in the U.S.A. He returned to India in 1913 and was
arrested in the Lahore conspiracy case. He joined the Hindu Mahasabha and in 1933 was elected
as its President.
Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946): He palyed a significant role in negotiations between the Muslim
league and the Congress over the issue of the formation of an interim Government at the Centre.
The negotiations resulted in the Desai-Liaquat Pact. The last among Desais memorable
achievements was his defence of the prisoners of the Indian National Army.
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932): He was a patriot, an orator, teacher preacher, writer and critic
and the chief architect of the Bengal Renaissance Movement.
Birsa Munda: He led the revolt against zamindars, missionaries & British Government, which
ended with his capture and death during trial.
Ilbert: He became famous for having introduced a bill in 1883 that aimed at abolishing the law
forbidding the trial of Europeans by Indian Magistrates.
Sankaran Nair: The first Indian to be appointed Advocate General of Madras (1907). He
became judge of High Court. He resigned from Viceroys Executive council in reaction to the
Jalianwala Bagh massacre. He became President of Indian National Congress.
C.R. Das (18870-1925): He was elected as President of the Congress for its Gaya session
(1922). C.R. Das founded All India Swaraj Party in 1923. He was the President along with
Motilal Nehru, serving as Secretary.
C.Y. Chintamani (1880-1941): He was a well known journalist and editor. He was founder
member of the Liberal Party and represented it at the Round Table Conference.
Chakravarthi Raj Gopalachari (1879-1972): He was a lawyer who gave up his practice in
response to the non-cooperation call by Gandhi. He played a prominent role in spreading the
Civil Disobedience Movement in Tamil Nadu. He was the first and last Indian Governor
General of India (1948-50). Rajaji (as he was fondly called) was awarded the Bharat Ratna in
1954.
Chakravarthi Vijaraghavacharjar (1852-1944): He went on to help A.O. Hume and
Dadabhai Naroji to found the Congress in 1885. He was member of the Imperial Legislative
Council. He was the president at the important congress session of 1920 that adopted noncooperation. He was the first Indian to prepare a Swaraj Constitution for the country that was
presented at the 1927 Congress session in Madras.
Champakaranan Pillai (1891-1934): He became involved in anti-British polities while he was
still a student. He left India for Germany and persuaded the German government to help end the
colonial rule in India. In 1914, he founded the Indian National Party at Berlin with the help of

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Lal Hardyal, Tarakhat Das, G.K. Chakravarthy and Haramba Lal Gupta. Later in 1919, he
organized the League of Repressed Nations.
Chandrashekhar Azad (1906-1931): He was a revolutionary who became popular as Azad.
When arrested during the non-co-operation movement and questioned by the court, he
repeatedly gave his name as Azad. He became a leader of the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Army. He was involved in number of incidents such as Kakori conspiracy, 2 nd Lahore
conspiracy, Delhi conspiracy, the killing of Sounders in Lahore, throwing of the bomb in the
Central Assembly. Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad, while fighting the police.
Chapekars Brothers (Balkrishna Chapekar-1873-1899): Damodar Chapekar 1869-1898;
Vasudeva Chapekar 1880-1899): The Chapekar brothers belonged to Maharashtra and under
the influence of Tilak engaged themselves in revolutionary activities. In 1897 Damodar and
Balkishan attacked and killed Mr. Rand, the British Plague Commissioner of Puna against
whome there was great imprisonment. Both brothers were arrested, tried and sentenced to death.
Vasudeva killed Ganesh Shankar Dravid the man who helped in getting Damodar and Balkishan
arrested. He too was arrested, tried and sentenced to death.
Charles Freer Andrews (1871-1940): He was an English missionary known for selfless social
service. He also took part in political and social movements launched by the Indian leaders. He
was twice elected president of the Trade Union Congress. He joined campaigns launched
against untouchability. His compassion for the poor and under privilege earned him a title Din
Bhandhu from Gandhi.
Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai (1909-1969): He was a prominent social worker and
political activist from Tamil Nadu. His Dravida Munnetra Kazahagam (Dravida Progressive
Federation) or the DMK went a long way in awakening social and political consciousness in
Tamil Nadu. In 1967, he became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917): The Grand Old Man in his book Poverty and with British Rule
in India shown that India was being drained of its wealth under the British Rule. He played a
key role in founding the Indian National Congress in 1885.
David Hare (1775-1842): A Scotsman, who played a pioneering role in introducing the western
education in India, he founded a number of schools and colleges such as the Hindu college and
the Medical College at Calcutta. He was closely associated with the Young Bengal Movement
launched by Derozio to inspire a spirit of rationalism and liberty among the youth of Bengal.
Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883): Dayanand (named Mool Shankar at birth) received
guidance under Swami Virjananda. Dayanands inspiration was the Vedas. He gave the call of
Back of the Vedas. Dayanand found the Arya Samaj at Bombay with a view to reform
Hinduism. With the setting up of the Samaj, many Gurukuls and Anglo-Vedic colleges came to
be. The Arya Samajists continue to perform welfare activities to this day.
Deen Dayal Sharma: He was an anti-Arya Samaji. He founded Sant Sanatan Dharam Sabha at
Haridwar.
Dhondo Keshav Karve (1858-1962): He was a devoted social reformer and educationist. He
dedicated his life for the upliftment of widows and he married a widow to prove his sincerity for
the cause. He founded several institutions to promote widow marriage and womens education.
He started first Indian Womens University in 1916 at Pune.
Dinabandhu Mitra (1830-1873): He was a Bengali writer whose play Neel Darpan brought to
light the hardship faced by Indian Indigo cultivators due to the policies of European planters.
The play initiated a movement to protest against oppression of indigo cultivators.
Dinshaw Edulji Wacha: The leading figure of earlier phase of national movement. He was the
President of Congress (1901).

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E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (1879-1973): He was primarily a social reformer who selflessly
works for the upliftment of the lower castes. In 1925, he started the Self Respect Movement,
which rejected Brahminical religion and culture. He was a member of the Indian National
Congress and participated in several movements.
Edwin Lutyens: He was a renowned architect who was responsible for designing new capital of
British India-New Delhi. His landmark designs are Rashtrapti Bhawan, Parliament House, India
Gate and Connaught Place.
Ganesh Shankar Vidhyarthi (1890-1935): He was a journalist who wrote in Hindi on social
and educational problems prevalent in India. He was the President of UP Provincial Congress
Committee. From 1926 to 1929, he remained member of UP Legislative Council. He was
murdered in an attempt to prevent communal riots.
Ganesh Vasudeo Malvankar (1888-1956): He joined the non-cooperation movement in 1921.
He participated in all the major Congress activities like Non-Co-operation Movement, Salt
Satyagraha, Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement etc. In free India, he
was appointed the speaker of the lower house in Parliament.
George Arundale: He was organizing secretary of Home Rule League founded by Annie
Besant.
George Yule: He was the first British President of the Indian National Congress in 1888.
Gobind Ballabh Pant (1889-1961): He was a sawarajist, who actively, participated in Civil
Disobedience Movement. He was the first Chief Minister of U.P. In 1955, he was given the
Home Ministry in the Union Cabinet. He played a major role in reorganization of states. He is
the recipient of Bharat Ratna.
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856-1895): He was a great patriot and a social reformer. In 1881, he
along with Tilak, started the journals Mahratta and Kesari to arouse national sentiments in
the masses. In 1888, he launched his own weekly Sudharak through which he condemned the
caste system and untouchability. Agarkar founded Fergusan College and was made its Principal
in 1892.
Gopal Hari Deshmukh Lokhatiwadi (1823-1892): He was a dedicated social reformer. He
attacked Hindu orthodoxy and supported social and religious equality. He was the editor of a
monthly Marathi magazine, Lokhitwadi.
Gopal Kishan Gokhle (1866-1915): The man whom Mahatma Gandhi referred to as his
political guru was a great social worker and early nationalist. He presided over the National
Congress Meeting at Banaras in 1905. He founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 to train
workers who could enthusiastically dedicate themselves to serving the Nationa.
Gopinath Bardoloi: One of the builders of modern Assam. He was imprisoned for participating
in individual Satyagraha and the Quit India Movement.
Gunabhi Ram Bordoloi. Born in March 1910 in Assam, he took part in the Quit India
Movement. Became a member of a group of villagers, which banded together to dig up a road in
order to prevent raids by the police. Shot dead by a military patrol on 26 August 1942 while
cutting the road leading to the Jangal Balahugath Bridge.
Guru Ram Singh: Formed the nucleus of the Namdhari movement. Abolished all caste
distinctions among the Sikhs. Enjoined remarriage of widows. Gathered round him 40,000
military disciples known as Kukas. Arrested and deported to Burma.
Hakim Ajmal Khan (1868-1927): Hindu-Muslim unity was the breath of his nostrils. Social
reform went hand in hand with his political fight for Indias Independence. He was President of
the All India Muslim League. He has also been President of the Indian National Congress. He
founded the Jamia Millia Islamia Univeristy.

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Henry Cotton: President of the Congress at the 1904 session. Member of ICS. M.P. from 1906
to 1910. Authored New India.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-1831): A prominent Anglo-Indian, Derozio played a major
role in introducing western attitudes into Indian intellectual life. He also supported womens
rights and education. His followers known as Derozians launched the Young Bengal
Movement and demanded several rights for Indians from the British.
Indu Lal Yajnik (1892-1972): He was a social worker, freedom fighter and a journalist. He
took part in the Home Rule Movement and Khaira Satyagraha.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891): He was a famous scholar and writer, devoted his
entire life to the cause of social welfare. One of his deepest concerns was the prohibition of
widow remarriage. He was able to get the Widow Marriage Act Bill passed in 1856.
Jadunath Sarkar: Born in 1870 in Calcutta, he is well known for his historical works. Some of
his famous books are Aurangzeb and Shivaji, Later Mughals and Fall of Mughal Empire.
James Wilson: He was the first finance member in the executive council of the Viceroy of
India who presented first budget of India in 1860.
Jamna Lal Bajaj (1899-1942): He was a well known Industrialist. He joined the Indian
National Congress at the age of 30 and remained the treasure of the Congress for the rest of his
life. He took keen interest in the development of rural industries and promoted the cause of
Harijan upliftment.
Jatinder Nath Das (1904-1929): He was a revolutionary, who was arrested on June 14, 1929
for his involvement in the Lahore Conspiracy case. He died while in imprisonment on
September 13, 1929 after observing fast for sixty three days.
Jatinder Nath Mukherji (1880-1915): A revolutionary nicknamed Bagha Jatin (Jatin, the
tiger). He was arrested in connection with Howrah Conspiracy case, but released in 1911. In
1915, he was seriously wounded in an encounter with the police near Balasore.
Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979): He was an ardent freedom fighter and crusader for social
reform, was popularly known as Loknayak. He was jailed for his participation in Civil
Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement. He was instrumental in formation of Janta
Party.
Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee (1895-1969): Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee was an enthusiastic
participant in the non-cooperation movement. However, disillusioned by the early withdrawl of
the movement, he joined the revolutionary group of nationalists. He played a prominent role in
the founding of Hindustan Socialist Republic Association. He was arrested for being involved in
the Kakori robbery in 1925. He was once again arrested during the Quit India Movement.
John Simon: He was chairman of commission (Simon Commission appointed by the British
Parliament to ascertain the success of 1910 reforms and to suggest the course of future reforms
in governance of India.
Jyotiha Phule (1827-1890): He worked for upliftment of the lower castes. In 1873, he founded
the Satyasodhak Samaj (Truth Seckers Society). The Samaj aimed at spreading education
among women and lower caste people. He wrote Gulamgiri.
Kailash Nath Katju (1887-1969): He was a well known advocate and a political activist. He
defended the accused in the Meerut Conspiracy case. He was also elected to the Constituent
Assembly, Later; he became the Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh.
Kaka Saheb Kalekar: He was a discipline of Gandhiji. He was member of Sawaraj Party. He
was chairman of first backward class commission.
Kalpana Dutt (1913-1978): A prominent women revolutionary in Bengal, influenced by the
revolutionary ideas of Surya Sen, participated in the Chittangong Armoury raids. She was

83

arrested and sentenced to transportation for life. After being released in 1936. She joined the
Communist Party of India.
Kamla Devi Chattopadhya: She was General Secretary and President of All India Women
Confederation. She was member of Socialist party. She was associated with Academy of Music
& Dance. She was Magsaysay awardee for community work (1964).
Kanahiyalal Manaklal Munshi (1887-1971): He participated in the Salt Satyagraha Movement
and Civil Disobedience Movement. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly. KM. Munshi
was also a renowned writer, educationist and social reformer; in 1938 he founded the Bhartiya
Vidhya Bhawan.
Kashinath Trinbank Telang: He was an expert on Sanskrit Iltornture, High Court Judge,
Secretary of INC, and Champion of womens cause
Kasturba Gandhi (1869-1944): Kasturba, affectionately nicknamed Ba married to Mohan
Das Karamchand Gandhi in 1882 in became the backbone of his struggle against the British. For
her involvement in the Quit Indian Movement in 1942, she was arrested and imprisoned. She
died in a jail in Poona two years later.
Kasturi Ranga Iyengar (1859-1923): He was a well-known journalist, social reformer and
political leader from Madras. In 1905, he acquired the Hindu, which he edited till his death.
Through his paper, he launched powerful campaigns to rouse patriotic sentiments.
Keshab Chandra Sen (1938-1884): She was a well-known social and religious reformer.
Keshub and his friends set up the Brahmo Samaj of India. The Samaj was distinct from
Debendranaths Adi Brahmo Samaj considered equality.
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (1890-1988): He came to be known as Frontier Gandhi because of
his close association with Gandhi. Apart from being an ardent freedom fighter, he was a
dedicated social reformer. For the purpose of bringing about positive social changes, he set up
Khudia Khidmatgars (Servants of God) in 1929. It was also known, as Red Shirts.
Khudi Ram Bose (1889-1908): In 1908, he along with Prafulla Chakki organized a bomb attack
on the carriage of Kingsford, the session judge at Muzaffarpur (Bihar), who had passed harsh
sentences against some nationalist. Bose was arrested and was sentenced to death at a tender age
of 19.
Krishna Kumar Mitra: The Bengali leader in the Swadeshi period who first suggested the
concept of boycott. Edited the weekly Sanjivani.
Lala Hardyal (1884-1939): He was an ardent nationalist and counts among the few who
steadfastly and consistently pursued the cause of Indias freedom struggle abroad to win
international support. He was the first President of the Ghadar Party.
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865 1928): He was an ardent nationalist and dedicated social reformer
whose achievements earned him the title of the Lion of Punjab (Sher-e-Punjab). His extremist
idea helped him team up with Bal Gangadahr Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal to form the famous
group, Bal, Pal, Lal. He founded Lok Sewa Mandal. He was the first President of All India
Trade Union Congress. He died on November 27, 1928 after receiving heavy injuries while
leading demonstration against the Simon Commission in Lahore.
Liaquat Ali Khan (1895-1951): Liaquat Ali Khan championed the rights of Muslims and was a
prominent members of the Muslim League. He was instrumental in bringing about negotiations
between the Congress and the league in 1944, which resulted in the Liaquat- Desai pact. He was
the Finance Minister in the interim central government in 1946-1947. after partition, he became
the first Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Lokmanya Tilak (1856-1920): He was the founded editor of the journals. Maharatta in English
and Kesari in Marathi. He penned down his thoughts of the Bhagvad Gita to produce the

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Gitarahasya. To foster Indians sense of pride, he began celebrating the Ganapati Pooja
festivals and the Shivaji festival.
M.A. Ansari (1880-1936): He studied medicine and qualified as a surgeon. In 1912-13, he
played an important role in organizing the All India Medical Mission to Turkey. He later joined
Home Rule League Movement and participated in the Non-cooperation and the Khilafat
Movements. M.A. Ansari is also regarded as one of the Indianss great educationists. He was
closely associated with the founding of Jamia Millia Islamia in 1920.
Madam Bikaji Cama (1861-1936): She joined hands with Savarkar, Sardar Singh Rana and
others in extremism. A source of inspirationj of Indian Youths in the U.K. she encouraged them
to fight for their nations cause.
Madan Lal Dhingra (1887-1909): He was involved in Indian Revolutionary activities in
Britain. He participated in the activities of the Indian Home Rule Society, the Abhinava
Bharata and the India House. In July, 1909 he assassinated Sir Williams Curzon Wyllie, an
advisor to the secretary of State of India at a gathering in the imperial institute. He was
sentenced to death and died in the prison.
Madan Mohan Mnlviya (1861-1946): He was one of the moderates in the Congress. He helped
found the Banaras Hindu University and later became its Vice Chancellor. He also served as the
editor of publications such as the Hindustan, the Indian Union and Abyudaya.
Madeleine State (Mira Beha-1892-1982): Deeply influenced by Gandhian philosophy, she
joined the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmadabad. The name Mira Behn was given to her by Gandhi
himself. She toured several parts of the country to promote the concept of Khadi and the
Satyagrah movement.
Mahadeo Govind Ranade (1842-1901): He was social and political reformer. He was judge of
the Bombay high court. He was associated with the Prathna Samaj and the Indian National
Congress.
Mahadev Desai (1892-1942): He was secretary to Mahatma Gandhi for 25 years. He was a
great non-violent fighter of Indias struggle for independence; He actively participated in
Champaran Satyagraha (1917), Non-Cooperation Movement (1921), Civil Disobedience
Movement (1930), Individual Satyagraha (1941) and the Quit India Movement (1942).
Manabendra Nath Roy (1887-1954): He was a nationalist who supported communist ideology.
Roy associated himself with the founding of the Marxian Communist Party. His major work was
India in Transition, a book on Marxist ideology.
Mangal Pandey: The first martyr of the revolt of 1857. He opposed the greased cartridges &
revolt. He was court marshaled and hanged.
Manidra Nath Banerji: He participated in the Kakori conspiracy case. He killed one of his
uncles, J.N. Banerji, who was the Deputy Superintendent of Police and as investigating the
Kakori conspiracy case. He was sentenced to 10 years harsh imprisonment. Maninder Nath died
in Fatohgarh central Jail after observing a hunger strike for 66 days in protest against inhuman
treatment meted to him by police.
Margret Elizabeth Noble (Sister-Nivedita 1867-1911): She was Irish by birth. She was a
well-known educationist. She joined the Rama Krishna Mission and became nun. Henceforth,
she came to be known as Sister Nivedita. She established a school for girls and took part in
programmes for upliftment of women. She also worked for promoting national consciousness
and criticized and racial policies of the British.
Mazhar-ul-Haq: He condemned introduction of communal electorate and because president of
Muslim League in 1915 and brought Muslim League near to Congress. He stood by Gandhiji in
CHamparan in 1917.

85

Mohammad Iqbal (1873-1938): A renewed poet, philosopher and lawyer, Iqbal began writing
patriotic songs at an early age. One of his most famous compositions was sare jahan se accha
Hindustan hamara. Later he joined the Muslim League. In 1930, he presided over Allahabad
session of the Muslim League and in his speech mooted the idea of the formation of a separate
Muslim state.
Mohammnad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948): Jinnah was elected to the Presidentship of the Muslim
League in 1916. He called for formation of a separate state for Muslims. He became the first
Governor General of Pakistan and died at Karachi in September 1948.
Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (1861-1962): He was an engineer, who worked in government
public works department. From 1927-55, he was the director of Tata Iron and Steel Co. A
genius in planning, he was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1955.
Moulana Abdul Kalam Azad (1888-1958): Through Al Hilal and Al Balgh weeklies which the
began in 1912 and 1915 respectively, he started spreading nationalistic thoughts. He presided
over the Congress special session at Delhi in 1923 to become the youngest President. After
independence he became Education Minister.
Moulana Mohamamd Ali (1876-1948): He took part in Khilafat agitation and NonCooperation Movement. He was involved in anti Simon demonstrations. ]
Mukund Ramarao Jayakar (1873-1959): He was a member of the Congress Commission to
enquire into the Punjab disturbances in 1919. He gave up his successful practice in response to
the Non-Cooperation call by Gandhi. He led the Swaraj Party in the Bombay. In 1937, he was
made the Judge of a Federal Court. He was one of the members of the constituent assembly. He
also served the Poona University as its Vice Chancellor.
Muzaffar Ahmed: He was prominent communist leader of Calcutta. He was arrested in Kanpur
and Merrut conspiracy case in 1924 and 1929. He edited Navyug.
N. Gopal Swami Ayangar (1882-1953): He worked for the Civil service for over 30 years
before retiring in 1937 and assuming the premiership of Kashmir. As Minister of Transport and
Railways of independent India, he developed an efficient railway network in the country. He
played a crucial role in reorganizing the states after succeeding Sardar Patel in 1950 as the
Minister of Stats. He also served Indias Minister of Defence.
N. Kumar Asan (1873 1924): He was one of the finest among the Malayalam poets. He was
an ardent social reformer, who worked to uplift the social status of the backward castes. He
became the first general secretary of the Shri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam (S.N.D.P.
Yogam), founded to improve the social and economic condition of the Eazhava community to
which he belonged.
N.G. Ranga: Veteran kisan leader and co-founder of All India Kisan Sabha. Presided over the
second session of All India Kisan Congress at Faizpur.
Nalini Sengupta (1886-1971): She was a British woman who married to an eminent Indian
Nationalist. She actively participated in boycott and non-cooperation movements. In 1933, she
was elected to the post of Presidentship of the Indian National Congress, a rare achievement
since she was a woman and that too a woman from Britain.
Nana Sahib: Dhondal, popularly known as Nana Saheb. Adopted son of Poshwa Baji Rao II.
Fought Havelocks forces but lost the battle. At the end of 1858 was forced by the British army
to take refuge in Nepalese terrain, where he died.
Narayan Malhar Joshi (1875-1955): He was associated with several labour organisations and
in 1921 he joined the All India Tracie Union Congress. In 1931, N.N. Joshi broke away from the
J\ITUC and formed the All India Trade Union Federation. He was also a member of the
governing body of ILO. N.M. Joshi was also responsible of several enactments on labour
legislation.
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Narsimha Chintamani Kelkar (1872-1947): He was one of Lokmanya Tilaks close

associates. He edited Tilaks Maharatta and Kesari . He was a member of the Congress
Working Committee for several years.
Nazir Hasan: He worked with Sir Saiyyad Ahmed Khan for the socio-cultural and economic
upliftment of Muslims and was an ardent supporter of Aligarh Movement.
NIlakantha Das (1884-1967): He played a significant role during the Non-Cooperation
Movement. In 1923, he joined the Swaraj Party. After Independence, he led the Independent
Peoples Party. He was also a great educationist.
P. Ananda Churlu (1843 1908): With the help of his associates (such as M. Viraraghavachari
and G. Subramaniya Aiyer). He set up a political organization known as the Madras Mahajan
Sabha. He was one of the 72 delegates (also called the brave-72) who attended the first session
of the INC. In 1891, he presided over the annual session of the Congress at Nagpur.
P.K. Veersalingam: He was a social reformer, who condemned child marriage and support
widow remarriage. He founded the Hitkurni Trust in Andhra Pradesh.
Pandita Ramabui Itanude (1858-1922): She relentlessly worked for the uplift of women. In
1809, she set up Shard a Sadan, an institution of the education of women. She founded Mahila
Arya Samaj.
Pattabhi Sitaramuyya (1845-1915): He was an eminent leader of the Indian National
Congress. He distinguished himself in the legal profession after returning to India. He became
President of Congress in 1908 after the Congress Surat split (1907). For his social activities, he
gained popularity as The Uncrowned King of Bombay. He started the newspaper, The Bombay
Chronicle.
Pratap Singh Kairon (1901-1965): He organized peasant activities in Punjab. The Journal New
Era was started by him. He became a cabinet minister, in Punjab and later served as chief
minister. He was shot dead in 1965.
Preetilata Waddedar (1911-1932): She was the discipline of Surya Sen. The hallmark of
Preetilatas career was the courageous attack on European Club at Chittagong. Though she
escaped unhurt, the police launched frantic search for her. Preetilata preferred death to
confinement when she realized she could no longer hide. Her death, however, set an example of
selfless service for others to follow.
Purushottamdas Tandon (1882-1962): A lawyer by profession, Purushottamdas Tandon
joined the Non-Cooperation Movement and later the Civil Disobedience Movement in U.P.
Also known as Rajarshi, he was made the speaker of the U.P. Legislative Assembly (1937) and
President of the Congress (1951). He was a great champion of Hindi.
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai: He participated in Non-Cooperation Movement and Individual
Satyagraha. He was Minister in Nehrus Government. He as a minister introduced night air
service, own your telephone services.
Raj Kumar Shukla: Peasant leader from Champaran who contacted Gandhi at the Lucknow
Congress of 1916 and called him to Champaran to enquire into the conditions of indigo
plantations.
Raja Mahender Pratap (1886-1964): He was an Indian prince, who strenuously worked for
the freedom of the country. From 1914 to 1945, he stayed outside India and organized
revolutionary activities. In 1915, he set up provisional government of free India in Kabul.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833): He became familiar with a number of languages. He
emphasizes the importance of modern western education. In 1815, he founded the Atmiya Sabha
and in 1928, the Brahmo Sabha (renamed, Brahmo Samaj). He opposed corrupt practice of sati
or widow burning.

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Rajender Nath Lahiri (1898-1927): He joined the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
and played a significant role in several raids organized by the HSRA. He was also involved in
the Kakori dccoity on August 9, 1925 for which he was arrested, tried and sentenced to death.
Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963): In 1917, he joined the Champaran satyagrahis in their cause.
After relinquishing his legal practice, he was actively involved in the Non-Cooperation
Movement in Bihar and later, the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and Civil Disobedience in 1932. He
was president of the Constituent Assembly and first President of the Indian Republic.
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur (1889-1964): A member of the Kapurthala ruling family in Punjab,
who impressed by Gandhiji began involving herself in Congress activities. She participated in
the Civil Disobedience Movement. She was put behind bars for the agitation during the Quit
India Movement in 1942. She was appointed Indias first health minister after the country won
freedom. From then on, she concentrated her efforts on uplift of the poor, women and children.
Ram Chandra Bhardwaj (1886-1918): In 1911, he went to the USA where he became
involved in the activities of the Ghadr Party and edited their journal Ghadr. Later he took over
the leadership of the movement from Lala Hardayal, after the latters departure from the USA.
A secret agent of the British government assassinated Ram Chandra allegedly.
Ram Prasad Bismil (1897-1927): He was a member of Hidustan Socialist Republican
Association. He was involved in the Kakori Mail dacoity (1925). He was arrested and sentenced
to death. His composition Sarforoshi hi tamana ab hamare dil mein hail, dekhana luii zor hitana
bazue-e-katil meiti hai- became a source of inspiration for hundreds of young men and women,
who continued the struggle for freedom.
Ramakrishan Paramhansa (1836-1886): He was a poor priest at the Kali temple in
Dakshineswar, Calcutta. He was one of the most prominent socio-religious reformers of his
time. After his death, Narendranath Dutta (Swami Vivekananda) founded the Ramakrishna
Mission (in 1897) to propagate the teachings of Paramhansa.
Ramm Manohar Lohia (1910-1968): Ram Manohar Lohia was a founder member of the
Congress Socialist Party in 1934. In post-Independent India, Lohia is credited with the founding
of the Socialist Party of India. He excelled as a parliamentarian and a forceful journalist. He
favored and worked for the growth of Hindi, the national language.
Ramsay Macdonald: He was P.M. of British who introduced communal Award in which
separate electorates were granted to depressed classes in India.
Rani Gaidinliu (1915-1981): She was a Nega woman, nationalist leader and a disciple of
Jadonang, a Naga tribal who had launched a political movement to overthrow the British from
Manipur. After the capture and execution of Jadonang, Gaidinliu led the movement and
organized a popular tribal rebellion. She was arrested in 1932 and spent 14 years in jail. She was
finally released from prison after independence. It was Jawaharlal Nehru who described her as
the Rani of the Nagas and since then, the title Rani is used before for her name.
Rnshbehari Bose: He was one of the great revolutionaries of the first half of the 20th century.
He came into limelight when the threw of bomb on Lord Hardinges (the then Viceroy of India)
procession in Chandni Chowk. Bose managed to escape from India in 1915 and went to Japan
where he lived as a fugitive. He mobilized Indian soldiers taken as prisoners of war by the
Japanese forces for an armed rebellion against the British rule. In 1943, he handed over the
charge of INA to Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.
Romesh Chanderjit Dutt (1848-1909): A noted nationalist and an economist. Dutt was among
the first Indians to clear the LC.S. Examination and worked for the Indianisation of the Civil
Services. After retiring from service, he became actively involved in the nationalist movement.
In 1899, he was made the President of the Indian National Congress (Lucknow session). As a
scholar, he conducted pioneering research in the field or economics. His famous works include:
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The Economic History of British India, India in the Victorian Age, and History of Civilization in
Ancient India.
S.H. Slocum: A British who designed Bhakra dam which is built over river Sutluj in Ambala
district. It is one of the highest straight gravity dams.
S. Satyamurti (1887-1943): He was a prominent leader of the Indian National Congress. He
propagated nationalist views in the South and became the Secretary and later President of the
Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, Because of his activities; he came to be known as the
Fireband of South India, He participated in the Salt Satyagraha, Civil Disobedience Movement
and the Quit India Movement.
S. Srinivasa Iyengar (1874-1941): He gave up all his titles including the Advocate-Generalship
and he withdrew from the Legislative Council in order to protest against the killing of his
countrymen in Jallialwala Bagh. A swarajist, he was made deputy leader of the opposition in the
Central Legislative Assembly.
S. Subramaniya Iyer (1842-1924): He was popularly known as the Grand Old Man of South
India. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress. He was closely associated
with Annie Besants Home Rule League. A lawyer by profession, he was the first Indian to be
appointed as the Vice-chancellor of Madras University.
Sachidananda Sinha (1871-1950): He was one of Indias well-known lawyers and
educationists. He participated in the Home Rule League Movement. He was elected to the
central and provincial legislatures a number of times. He held the post of vice-chancellor of
Patna University. In 1946, he was made the interim president of the Indian Constituent
Assembly.
Sachindranath Sanyal (1895-1945): He was a dose associate of Ras Behari Bose. He helped in
the founding of the Hindustan Republication Association. Saschindranuth was arrested in
Kakori Conspiracy case in 1925 and sentenced to life imprisonment. He wrote Bandi Jivan
which was translated in Hindi & Gurumukhi.
Saifuddin Kitchlew (1888-1963): He worked for Indias freedom in close association with
Gandhi. He actively participated in all the programmes of the freedom struggle. He was the first
among the Indian recipients of the Stalin Peace Prize.
Sajjad Zahir: He was a famous personality in Urdu literature who contributed a lot in Muslim
reform movement.
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949): The Nightingale of India, is remembered as a leading woman
nationalist leader of Indias political struggle for independence. She was a great poet. She
became the President of the Indian National Congress. Following Indias independence, she was
given the governorship of Uttar Pradesh.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975): He was associated with several prestigious
educational institutions in India as well as abroad. He was appointed as the Vice-Chancellor of
Andhra University and later that Of Banaras Hindu University. Radhakrishnan authored several
books on philosophy, theology, education and other subjects. He served as President of the
nation. His birthday (September 5) is celebrated as Teachers Day.
Satya Pal (1885-1954): A doctor by profession, Satya Pal resigned from government service
and joined against Rowlatt Bill. He was imprisonment a number of times but that did not
dissuade him from participating in nationalist activities. He served as Secretary and President of
Punjab Congress and as the Speaker of Punjab Legislative Assembly.
Satyendranath Basu (1882-1908): He was a teacher in a government school. Impressed by the
philosophy of revolutionary terrorism, he pioneered the formation of Ananda Math, a
revolutionary secret society. He was arrested on charges of involvement in the Muzaffarpur and
Alipur bomb cases. He was tried and sentenced to death.
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Shaukat Ali: Ali Brothers (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) left government service to enter
politics during Khilafat movement. They actively participated in Non Cooperation Movements.
They were leaders of Arhar Movement.
Shayamji Krishnaverma: He fought for Indian freedom from abroad. With other
revolutionaries he founded India House, London that became the centre of revolutionary
activities.
Shhiv Narayan Agnihotri: He founded Dev Samaj at Lahore in 1887 on the pattern of Brahmo
Samaj.
Shivram Rajguru (1908-1931): He was a brave revolutionary leader from Maharashtra. He
was involved in several underground activities, aimed at overthrowing the British. Angered the
death of Lala Lajpat Rai due to lathi charge of police during an anti-Simon procession, Rajguru
(alongwith his associates-Bhagat Singh and Chandra Shekhar Azad) assassinated inspector
Saunders on December 17, 1928 in Lahore. Rajguru was arrested and was tried as one of the
main accused in the Lahore Conspiracy Case. He was sentenced to death.
Shri Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950): He has been one of the fines thinkers and philosophers of
modern India. He was also a popular leader of the freedom movement. He urged Indians to
boycott all foreign-made goods and programmes of the British Government.
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1901-1953): He was a distinguished educationist. From 1940 to
1944, he remained the President of the Hindu Mahasabha. In April 1950, he resigned from the
post of Union Minister for Industries and Supplies. He fouded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and
advocated the full integration of the state of Jammu and Kashmir with India.
Sohan Lal Pathak (1883-1916): He was an associate of Lala Lajpat Rai. In 1914, he went to
the US to join the Ghadar Party. Sohan Lal was arrested in 1915 in Burma, where he was trying
to organize an uprising. He was tried and sentenced to death.
Sohan Singh Bhakna (1870-1968): Sohan Singh was, one of the founders of Ghadr Party. He
played a major role in uniting Indians settled outside India for the common aim of achieving
independence. He was arrested for his anti-British activities under the Lahore Conspiracy Case
and sentenced to death. Later, his death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. After his
release in 1930, he devoted the rest of his life in organizing Kisan Sabha and other welfare
programmes for peasants.
Sri Narayan Guru (1845-1928): He was a famous socio-religious reformer from Kerala. He
launched the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (the SNDPY), which took up the cause of
social quality. The movement demanded: (i) right of admission to public schools; (ii)
recruitment to government employment; (iii) access to roads and entry to temples; and (iv)
political representation for the depressed classes. The SNDPY had a great impact and helped in
the emancipation of the lower castes.
Subba Rao Pantulu: He was a well-known freedom and social reformer. He served as General
Secretary of the Congress from 1913 to 1917. He was one of the prime builders of modern
Andhra; He was also one of the four founders of The Hindu, English daily.
Subhash Chandra Bose (1897-1945): He passed the Indian Civil Service Examination but he
did not join the ICS. In spite of Gandhis opposition, he was elected the Congress President in
1938 (at Haripur) and 1939 (Tripura). Owing to political differences, he resigned from the
Congress in 1939. He left India in 1941. He made a major impact on the Indian nationalist
movement with his reorganization of the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) in 1943. He
coined the slogans Delhi Chalo and Jai Hindi which proved to be a constant source of
inspiration to INA men.

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Subramania Bharti (1882 1921): The poet, social reformer and freedom fighter to South
India is renowned for his beautiful verses celebrating the freedom struggle, the theme of
patriotism and his motherland.
Surendranath Bannerji (1848-1928): He was one of the founding members of the Indian
National Congress and was elected its President twice. He played a prominent role in the
Swadeshi Movement and in movements launched against the partition of Bengal.
Surya Sen (1894-1934): Surya Sen led the revolutionary movement in Chittagong. He wanted
to free Chittagong from the hold of the British and to establish an independent government. For
the purpose, he set up several organizations, including the revolutionary Chittagong Republican
Army. He led Chittagong Armory raid. The British forces captured him. He was sentenced to
death and hanged. The Chittagong raid, however, succeeded in its attempt to fire the
imagination of the youth who recruited themselves in several revolutionary groups.
Swami Saraswati Sahajnand (1889 1950): He was a staunch upholder of the peasants cause.
He was the Bihar Kisan Sabha first President (1929). Later, he became the President of the AllIndia Kisan Sabha. He joined the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
Swami Shraddhanand (1856-1926): Strongly influenced by Swami Dayanand Saraswati,
Shraddhanand started working for the Arya Samaj. He spread the social ideals of the Arya
Samaj Movement. In 1902, Swami Shraddhanand established a residential university-Gurukul-at
Haridwar to impart education to students in the traditional framework. Swami Shraddhanand
was also involved in the political struggle, especially during agitations against Rowlatt Act. A
Muslim fanatic assassinated him.
Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898): He was a great Muslim educationist and social reformer of
his times. He was in favour of liberal education and advocated the introduction of western
learning besides traditional Islamic studies, Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh
(later, the Aligarh Muslim University) owes its origin to him.
Tanguturi Prakasam (1872-1957): Fondly regarded as Andhra Kesari, He made significant
contributions during the agitations against the Simon Commission and during Salt Satyagrah,
After independence, he became the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh.
Tantya Tope (Ram Chandra Pandurang): He was a military leader of ability during 1857
revolt. He helped Nana Saheb at Kanpur and Rani Jhansi against Sir Hugh Rose.
Tej Bhadur Sapru (1875-1949): He was an advocate & freedom fighter, Tej Bahadur called for
a boycott when the all-white Simon Commission was appointed. He was in INA Defence
Committee to fight INA prisoners case.
Theodore Beck: He was principal of Aligarh Muslim University. He was instrumental in the
rise of Muslim communalism.
Udham Singh (1899-1940): A revolutionary from Punjab, Udham Singh assassinated the
Punjab Governor, Sir Michael ODyer, the main responsible for the Jallianwallah Bagh tragedy.
He was arrested and sentenced to death.
Vallabhbhai Patel (1875-1950): Vallabhbhai Patel, remembered as Sardar Patel and
honoured with the title of the Iron Man of India, assumes a special place in the history of
Indias freedom struggle. His unique achievement was his creation of a new, united India or the
Bharat the India of today-by integrating the crstwhile, princely states into the Indian Union
within a years time. Vallabhbhai was involved himself in the peasant struggle. In 1918, he
started the Kheda or Kaira Satyagraha.
Verrier Elwin (1903-1964): A British by birth, Verrier Elwin came to India in 1927. On
Gandhis advice, he started to work for the upliftment of the tribal people. He served as member

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of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Commission. Elwin also wrote a number of books
related to the field of anthropology.
Vijyalaxmi Pandit: She was sister of Nehru. She was a Cabinet Minister in 1937. She
participated in Quite India Movement. In 1946 she represented India in U.N.O. She was an
ambassador to various countries.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883-1966): He was a poet, scholar, social worker, historian and
as one of the earliest revolutionaries. He founded Mitra Mela (Assembly of Friends), which was
renamed as the Abhinav Bharat Society. He wrote Indian War of Independence in which he
called the Revolt as the first war of independence. He was arrested in connection with the
Nasik Conspiracy Case. In 1937, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha and was elected its
President.
Vinayak Narahari Bhave (Acharya Vinobha Bhave (1895-1982): He was actively involved
in the Nagpur Salt Satyagraha, the Dandi March and the Temple Entry Movement in Kerala. In
1940, he was chosen by Gandhi to be the first Satyagrahi for the individual civil disobedience
movement. He started the Bhoodan Movement after, independence to enable agricultural
labourers acquires some land, He also led the Sarvodaya movement.
Vishnu Diganmbar Paluskar: Founded the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya at Lahore on 5 May
1901. Paluskars Ram Dhun, Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram was sung at the head of the famous
Dandi March led by Gandhiji in 1930.
Vithalbhai Patel (1871-1933): He was the President of the Bombay Municipal Corporation in
1924 and the President of the Central Legislative Assembly a year later. For his participation in
the Civil Disobedience Movement, the British put him in jail.
W.W. Hunter: He was the chairman of the commission appointed by government in 1882. The
Hunger commission gave its recommendations on primary and secondary education into literacy
education and practical education.
William Jones (1746-1794): Known as Oriental Jones and the father of Indology, Jones was
the founder-president of the Asiatic Society, an association to promote interest and research in
Asian culture.
William Wedderburn: Sir William Wedderbrun was the only British to be twice elected
president of the Indian National Congress.
Woomesh Chandra Bannerjee (1844-1906): He played a pioneering role in the formation of
the Indian National Congress. He was its first president.
Zakir Hussain (1897-1969): Dr. Zakir Hussain was a staunch nationalist and a renowned
educationist. He was made the Jamia Millia Islarnia Universitys Vice-Chancellor at a young
age of 29.
Miscellaneous 2 or 3 Markers on Indian History
1. AI-Hilal: Is a journal published by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in Urdu during the course of
Indian freedom movement.
2. Aligarh Movement: Started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan to reconcile the teachings of Islam with
the needs of the new age. MAO College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University, was
the product of it.
3. Alinagar: Silajuddaulah named Calcutta as Alinagar in 1756 after its victory.
4. Anand Matha, A novel written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee on the Sanyasi Revolt in
Bengal. Vande Mataram was taken out from this book to become the national song.

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5. Atmiya Sabha: Was established by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1814 to propagate monotheism and
to fight against evil practices and customs in Hindu religion. It emphasised that such practices
were not found in the scriptures.
6. August Declaration: of 1947 by Montague outlining the British interest to establish liberal rule
in India. It was a predecessor to development of institutions of self government.
7. August Offer, 1940 was a set of proposal by Linlithgo to pacify the Indians. It offered
dominion status, expansion of Viceroys executive council and post-war Constituent Assembly.
It was rejected by the Congress.
8. Bandi Jiwan: Is a book by Sachindranath Sanyal, a revolutionary nationalist. It is based on his
experiences during his Kalapani at Cellular jail.
9. Bengal British India Society: Established in 1843 under the chairmanship of George
Thompson. Its members were liberal Zamindars who aimed at giving concessions to India
peasants. Indian League: Established in 1875 to educate people in nationalism. Its chairman
Shishir Kumar Ghosh decried to provide the political education to Indians.
10. Bhawani Mandir: A journal published by Bindra Kumar Ghosh in 1905. It planned out
revolutionary activities in India.
11. Bordoli: In Gujarat, the place of Satyagraha against hike in land revenue in 1928. Sardar Patel
led it.
12. Brahmo Movement: Started with foundation of Brahmo Samaj by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1 S
18. Its aim was a reform the Hindu Society. Purification of Hinduism, monotheism, brotherhood
of man and empowerment of women were its basic objectives.
13. British Indiai Society: In 1838, the Zamindar Sabha and British India Society were merged and
in 1851 British India Society was established for demanding the representation of Indians in
administration.
14. Buttler Committee Report: Was on relations between the British and Indian Princes. It defined
the meaning and extent of British paramountancy on the Princely States as complete and
supreme with regard to international affairs. It appointed Lord Irwin.
15. Calcutta Madrasa: To study teachings of Muslim law and related subjects, Warren Hastings
set up it in 1781 in Calcutta.
16. Carnatic Wars: In the region of Karnataka, the French and English both had trade companies
and both indulged in wars against each other. Thus, wars were fought in 1746, 1749 and 1756.
17. Chamber of Princes: An offshoot creation of Moni-Ford reforms of 1929. It was a advisory
body to Government of British India solely constitutes of the Princes of princely states in India.
18. Chauri-Chaura: Is a place in UP where villagers burnt alive 22 policemen in 1922. This
incident led to the suspension of non-cooperation movement.
19. Convenanted Service: The group of officials working in the East India Company who signed a
paper of contract during recruitment.
20. Dandi: Is a place in Gujarat, which Gandhiji selected to start the Civil Disobedience Movement
(Dandi March). Here Gandhi openly violated the salt law in 1931.
21. Darul-Uloom: An anti-British Islamic Semanary founded by M.Q. Nanawatawai and R.A.
Gangohi in 1867.
22. Dharma Sabha: Was founded by Radhakant Deo in 1830 to secure the Hinduism against
wayward reform movements to reestablish its ancient glory.
23. Divide it empire: Meaning divide and rule adopted by the British to keep Indian divide on
social and religious lines so as to diminish any challenge to their authority. First adopted by
Dalhousie.
24. Diwani: The right to collect the land tax and other taxes. On 12 August, 1765, the East India got
this right in Bengal.

25. Doctrine of Lapse: In this, the adopted son was not allowed to be the successor and the state
was merged in British India Empire.
26. Dual Government: Two parallel authorities in administration. In 1765, East India Company
administered as tax collector and the Nawab looked after law and order.
27. Dustak: The right to trade documents possessed by East India Company to the free trade.
28. Fort William College: Was established by Lord Wellesley in 1800 to train the English Civil
Servants in Indian affairs.
29. Fort William College: Was established by Lord Wellessly in 1800 to train the English Civil
Servants in Indian affairs.
30. Ghadr Party: Was a revolutionary organization founded in 1913 outside India. It had its
branches in USA and Europe, Singapore etc. It was instrumental in highlighting Kamagatamaru
incident and aimed at inciting armed rebellion in India.
31. Ghulam Giri: Is a book written by Jyotibarao Phule which describes the plight of lower caste
people against the treatment of higher caste Hindus.
32. Haripura: Was the first village to host a Congress full session (1935). Subhash Chandra Bose
was elected as President.
33. Hunter Commission: Was appointed in 1882 under W.W. Hunter to examine the progress of
education in India since 1854.
34. Ijara System: The system of revenue realization based on contractor ship or auction.
35. Illbert Bill: Was tabled by CP Illbert on February 2, 1883 in Legislative Council. It aimed at
giving powers to Indian judges to try the case of an European.
36. Indigo Revolt: All European exploited the local peasants by forcing them to grow indigo on
their lands instead of the more paying crops like rice and finally and anger of the peasants
exploded in 1855 in the form of revolt under the leadership of Digamber and Bishan Biswas.
37. Jagat Seth: A banker of Bengal who conspired with British to help them in deposing Siraj-udDaula in the battle of Plassey.
38. Jatiya Sarkar of Tamluk: National government was established for few days in Tarnluk of
Midnapur district of Bengal during the Quit India Movement of 1942.
39. Khudai Khidmatgar. Famously known as the Redshirts was an organisation founded by Khan
Abdul Gaffar Khan in NWFP during non-cooperation movement.
40. Macaulays Minute: The Education policy in which the right of education was given only to
the higher class to make all inactive.
41. Masterly Inactivity: The policy of John Lawrence in Afghanistan to not to disturb the ongoing
there.
42. Midnapur: In West Bengal saw the establishment of national government during the Quit India
Movement, of KP Keshavan.
43. Moplah Rebellion: A violent movement of farmers in Kerala during 19th century. It was
targeted towards Zamindars.
44. Nila Darpana: is a novel by Dinabandhu Mitra on the Indigo revolt of 1860. It shows the
exploitation of Indian indigo.
45. Plassey Plunder: One important feature of the economic history of India in the decades
following the battle of Plassey was the flow of a vast amount of her wealth out of the country
with no returns. This economic drain was an integral feature of East India Companys
administrative and economic policies.
46. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha: established in 1867 by Ranade and Atmaram in Pune as a media
between the government and the public.
47. Sabarmati Ashram: Was founded by Gandhiji in 1916 near Ahmadabad to train Satyagrahis in
moral disciplines of life. It is also known as Satyagrah Ashram.

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48. Sardar Sadana: Was established in 1889 by Rarnabi in Maharashtra. It was social organisation
with the aim of opposing child marriage and came in support of widow remarriage.
49. Sarda Act: A law increasing the marriageable age and banning child marriage enacted in 1928.
It was named after Harvilas Rai Sardar who was instrumental in passing it.
50. Satyagarah: A weapon of Gandhiji mode of mamss struggle. Literally meaning search for truth
it speaks about nonviolent, movement devoid of hatred towards the enemy of change the
evildoer. Theoder Beck. A former principal of Aligarh Muslim University. He was father of
Hindu Muslim Communal fighting in India.
51. Satyasodhak Samaj: Founded by Jyoribarao Phule in Maharashtra, in 1973. It aimed at
amelioration of conditions of untouchables. It aimed at bringing social justice by struggle
against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy.
52. Shudhi Movement: An effort by the orthodox Hindus and supported by the Arya Samaj to
reconvert those Hindus who had got converted to other religions.
53. Sir Thomas Roe: A representative of King James I of England. He was sent to India to get
permission for trade concession.
54. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri: It was written by Minhaj-us-Siraj in 1260, during the early medieval period
of Delhi Sultanate. In Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, he starts with the account of earlier prophets and
ancestors of Muhammad, leading to birth of Islam.
55. Tavernier: This French traveler arrived in India during the reign of Shahjahan. He wrote an
account of his time.
56. Thana Bhagat Movement: Organised by tribals of Chottanagpur area in 1914-15. They
stopped payment of Chowkidari tax and rent to the government. It developed link with the
Gandhian nationalism and absorbed into non-cooperation movement and national struggle.
57. Vaikom Satyagraha: Vaikom is a place in Kerela famous for Temple Entry Movement, called
Vaikom Satyagraha.
58. Woods Education Despatch (1854): Also known Woods Despatch was the magnacratra of
education in British India. It suggested spreading of English education in India on priority basis.

INDIAN CULTURE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
1. Anthropology Survey of India. The Anthropological Survey of India is a premier research
organization under the Ministry of Culture. It has completed 59 years of its splendorous
existence and has adhered itself to its commitments to carry out anthropological researches in
the area of bio-cultural aspects of Indian population in general and on those who are referred to
as the Weakest of the Weak in particular. Besides this there are other pertinent activities of the
Survey, which include collection, preservation maintenance; documentation and study of
ethnographic materials as well as ancient human skeletal remains.
2. Archaeological Survey of India: Founded in 1861, it leads archaeological survey research. It
conducts exploration and excavations as well as maintenance of historic sites. The major
activities of the Archaeological Survey of India are:
(a) Survey of archaeological remains and excavations;
(b) Maintenance and conservation of centrally protected monuments sites and remains;
(c) Chemical preservation of monuments and antiquarian remains;
(d) Architectural survey of monuments; and
(e) Development of epigraphical research and numismatic studies;
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3. Indian Council for Cultural Relations: An autonomous body to ICCR functions as the
principal agency for promoting Indias cultural relations with foreign countries. Formed in
1950s the ICCR is a corporate body, under the Ministry of External Affairs. With Headquarters
at New Delhi, it has six regional. Council has set up cultural centres outside India. The ICCR
regularly invites distinguished scholars, artistes, writers and intellectuals from abroad to meet
their counterparts in India and to participate in symposia and to lecture of different subjects.
Since the organization of the first Festival of India, held in UK in 1982, the ICCR has been
playing vital role in the selection of various art objects exhibited and programmes organised in
the Festivals of India held in the U.K., France, the USA, Japan etc. It organize Nehru Memorial
award for International Understanding. It has established cultural centers for Indians abroad.
4. Indian Council of Historical Research: It enunciates and implements a national policy of
historical research and encourages scientific writing of history. It gives grants for seminars,
research activities, and publications in the field of history.
5. Indian Institute of Islamic Studies: Set up in 1963, at New Delhi, its main objects are to
promote the study of Islamic culture and civilization, to promote intercourse between scholars
and institutions engaged in Islamic studies in different countries and focus on Indias
contribution of Islam. It has 5000 plus manuscripts in Arabic and Persian.
6. Indian Society or Oriental Art: Set up in Kolkata, it promotes knowledge of ancient and
modern India and oriental art; collects objects of art; holds exhibitions, lectures seminars etc. it
also researches and study. It has collection of rare and modern art books.
7. Indira Gandhi National Centre Arts: Launched in 1985, it aims encompassing study and
experiences all the arts, each for with its own integrity, within interrelatedness.
8. Lalit Kala Academy: National Academy of Fine Arts was set up in 1954, to promote
understanding of Indian art both within and outside the country. Every year it holds a national
exhibition and an internal exhibition called Triennial India in every three years. It organizes
artists camps, seminars, and lectures and gives fellowship to scholars. It has a permanent
artists studio complex at Delhi. It has set up regional centers at Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai and
Bhubaneswar. The academy has regional centers at Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai, Garhi and
Bhubaneswar with workshop facilities in painting, sculpture, print making and ceramics. It also
accords recognition to art institutions or associations and extends financial assistance to these
bodies as well. It brings out bi-annual art journals Lalit Kala contemporary (English). Lalit Kala
ancient (English) and Samkaleen Kala (Hindi).
9. National Archives of India: It contains more than half a million files, volumes, manuscripts
and maps. It also has a micro-film library regarding our connection with western world. Its
library has more than one million volumes on Indian history and culture.
10. National Book Trust: Set up in 1957, its work is to produce and encourage the production of
good literature and make it available at cheaper rates. It subsidizes the publication of university
level textbook written by Indian authors. It organizes national book fairs and regional book
fairs.
11. National Gallery or Modern Art: Set up in 1954, it is for the promotion of contemporary art in
India. It acquires painting, sculpture, graphic art and photographs. It organizes exhibition of its
collections and under cultural exchange programme. Its objective is to help people to look at the
works of modern art with understanding and sensitivity.
12. National Library: The National Library, Kolkata was established in 1948 with the passing of
the Imperial Library (Change of Name) Act, 1948. The basic functions of the Library, which
enjoys the status of an institution of national importance, are:
(i) Acquisition and conservation of all significant production of printed material as well as of
manuscripts of national importance.
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(ii) Collection of printed material concerning the country, no matter where this is published;
(iii)Rendering of bibliographical and documentary services of current and retrospective
material, both general and specialized.
(iv) Acting as referral centre, surveying full and accurate knowledge of all sources of
bibliographical information and participation in international bibliographical activities.
13. National Museum: The National Museum, which was set up in 1949 and which has been
functioning as a subordinate office under the Ministry of Culture since 1960, houses over 2.6
lakh art objects dating from prehistoric era onwards. The main activities of Museum are
Exhibitions, Reorganization or Modernization of Galleries, Educational Activities and Outreach
Programmes, Public Relations, Publications, Photo Documentation, Summer Holiday
Programme, Memorial Lectures, etc.
14. National School of Drama (NSD): It is one of the foremost theatre institutions in the world and
only one of its kinds in India was set up by Sangeet Natak Akademi in 1959. Later in 1975, it
became an autonomous organization, totally financed by Department of Culture. The objective
of NSD is to train students in all aspects of theatre, history, production, scene design, costume
design, lighting make up, etc.
15. Prasar Bharati: Prasar Bharati is the public service broadcaster in the country, with All Indida
Radio and Doordarshan as its two constituents. It came into existence on 23 November 1997,
with a mandate to organize and conduct public broadcasting services to inform, educate and
entertain people and to ensure balanced development of broadcasting radio and television.
16. Press Council of India: Press Council is a statutory quasi-judicial authority mandated by the
Parliament to preserve the freedom of the press and maintain and improve the standards
newspapers and the news agencies in India. It is an autonomous body with the quasi-judicial
authority over the authorities and the press persons. For the discharge of the above objects, the
Council comprises a Chairman and 28 members.
17. Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture: The Institute was conceived in 1936 as one of the
permanent memorials of Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) and formally established on 29 January
1938 at Kolkata, as a branch centre of the Ramakrishnan Mission founded by Swami
Vivekananda to propagate the message of Vedanta as propounded by Sri Ramakrishna.
18. Sahitya Academy: Set up in 1954, it is a national academy of letters meant to promote the
cause of Indian literature through publications, translations, seminars, and workshops and
literary meets organized all over India. It has recognized 22 languages. It has 4 regional boards
to promote regional interaction among the languages of the north, west, east, and south. It has its
regional offices at Kolkata, Mumbai, Bangalore and Cheenai. It has also four translation centers,
besides a project office at Baroda. It confers fellowship on eminent writers. It presents Bhasa
Samman awards to promote regional languages.
19. Sangeet Nata Academy: It is the first national academy of arts set by the Republic of India in
January 1953. It acts as academy of music, dance and drama. It is an apex body of the
performing arts in the country and has been preserving and promoting vast intangible heritage of
Indias diverse culture expressed in the form of music dance and drama. The academy
establishes and looks after institutions and projects of natural importance in the field of
performing arts. It has set up Jawaharlal Nehru Manipur Dance Academy in Imphal and Kathak
Kendra in New Delhi in 1964. The academy confers fellowship and scholars to 30 living
participants. Its audio-visual archives are the longest in the country and is extensively drawn
upon for research on the performing arts. It has a reference library consisting of books in
English, Hindi and regional languages. The Academy is presently an autonomous body fully
funded by the government for implementation of its schemes and programmes.

20. Sports Authority of India: The Sports Authority of India (SAI) was established by the
Government of India in January 1984 as a registered society primarily to ensure effective
maintenance and optimum utilization of the various sports infrastructure that were built in Delhi
during Asiad, 1982 it is now the nodal agency in the country for braod-basing sports and for
training of sportspersons to achieve excellence in national and international sports, the Society
for National Institute of Physical Education and Sports (SNIPES) was merged with SIA with
effect from 1 May 1987. It has now six regional centres at Bangalore, Gandhingar, Kolkata,
Chandigarh, Bhopal and Imphal. Sports infrastructure is being created at Sonepat and the
Northern Regional Centre would be shifted from Chandigrah to Sonepath. SAI has one Centre
which is at Guwahati.

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IMPORTANT LIBRARIES
1. Central Reference Library Kolkata: Publication of national bibliography in 14 languages.
2. Central Secretariat Library Delhi: Central government documents.
3. Connemara Public Library, Chennai: Copyright library.
4. Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Library, Panta: Rich collection of books of different languages and
paintains, video films etc. Awards PhD degrees.
5. National Library, Kolkata: Permanent repository of all reading and information material in
India by Indians abroad and publications.
6. Raza Library, Rampur: Treasure house Indo-Islamic calligraphy.
7. Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjavore: Exists since medieval times.
8. State Central Library, Mumbai: Houses 8 lakh books and maps.
World Heritage List
The UNESCO on recommendation of its world heritage committee has included 14 cult
monuments from India in its list. Important ones are Kangra Valley Railway, Darjeeling
Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway, Kalka Shimla Railway, Mussorie Oak Grove
School, Mumbais VT station.
INDIAN ARCHITECHTURE
Rock Cut Cave Architecture: Began in the pre-Mauryan age and continued till early medieval
age in India. Bagh Caves, Carle Chaitya, Barbara Caves, Udayagiri caves, Chariot temples of the
Pallavas, Kailash temple of Ellora ere are best specimen of it. The Sculptures show amazing
knowledge of rock formations and designed their hollowed out halls with remarkable precision.
Nagara Style Temple Architecture: Prevalent in North India. The Nagara type temples were
build on a cruciform group-plan, on a raised platform with projection Rathas or rathakas on the
sides of its walls. Khajurao in MP, Jain Temple at Dilwara, and Sun Temple at Modhera are best
examples of this style.
Dravidian Temple Architecture: The temple architecture that was developed in South India by
Cholas, Pallavas and Chalukyas. Its structural style includes rectangular top of temple shaped like a
Pyramid. Gopurams or entrances are more imposing than the temple proper. The two early finest
temples belonging to the Pallava period are Kailashnath, and Vaikunatha temple, and
Chidambaram Temple are typical Dravidian style temples.
Chola Architecture: developed during 11 and 12th century Chola Kings was the peak period of
Dravidian art. Brihadeswar Temple of Tanjore was its best example.
Gopuram: is the entrance of Dravidian styled temples in South India. It was developed during the
rule of Cholas. Its decoration and magnanimity often overshadows the main temple.

Vijaynagar Art: is a part of Dravidian architecture. Known as Provida Style is was famous for
the prominence of carved pillars and peirs. Amman or consort hall is a distinguished feature. Best
example is Vithalswami temple.
Vesera Style Architecture: also known as Chalukayan style or Karnataka Style is a hybrid or
mixture of Dravidian or Nagara style, it beginning being traced back to Chalukayan kings. These
temples are highly ornamented porches, additional open Mandapa, very artificially carved
doorways, crowded with Gods, demons and animals.
Mughal Architecture
The Mughal architecture reveals a happy blending of Persian and Indian styles, and therefore, is
known as Indo-Persian architecture. The chief characteristics of the Mughal buildings are their
bulbous graceful domes, foliated or cupsed arches, the cupolas at the corners standing on slender
pillars, lofty vaulted gateways, use of graceful and durable building material such red sandstone or
marble. The Mughal architecture was more sumptuous and decorative than the preceding Imperial
style. But perhaps the greatest contribution of the Mughals from the environmental and ecological
point of view was the development of gardens, tomb gardens and landscape architecture.
Jaunpur style of Architecture: refers to the architectural style Jaunpur for build by Feroz Shah,
located on the north of the Gomti River. The architecture is noted for its characteristic arched
pylons in the centre of the facades, two storey arcades, monumental gateways and the unified use if
the depressed four-centered arch with a fringe of ornament. Also referred to as Sharki style.
European Style
The neoclassical European style of architecture flourished in the past century. The Victoria
memorial in Calcutta is provided with an Italian renaissance dome, Lutyents, the designer of new
capital of Delhi, adopted neo-classical approach. The city was dominated with the ceremonial
avenues leading to the Viceroys House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) Bakers Council House (now
Parliament House) was a more conventional neo-classical exercise.
INDIAN MUSIC
There are two distinct styles of music practices in India. The Hindustani of the North, and
Karnataka of the South.
Hindustani Music
The Zenith of Hindustani music is associated with the great Tansen, Amir Khusroo, etc. Hindustani
music style is based on composition which is set to meter and from which extemporized variations
are generated.
A performance begins with an alap. Once the alap is ended the composition proper is performed.
The composition is set to recurring rhythmic cycle (tala).
Hindustani vocal music is performed in three major and several minor styles. The oldest and most
austere is a four part composition known as Dhrupad. The main classical vocal from today is the
two part composition known as Khayal (pers, imagination), usually followed at the end of a
concert by a light classical form known as Thumri.
Sadarang School: A school of Hindustani Music founded by Nyamat Khan. He took Khayal
singing to its peak.
Adarang School: A school of Hindustani Music founded by Firoz Khan. It was known for its
exquisite beauty & philosophical content in Khayal singing.
Khayal: is a style of Hindustani music developed by the efforts of Sharagi rules of Jaunpur. It is
more delicate and romantic. The Gharanas of Gwalior, Agra, Atroli and Kirana are associated
with it.

Rag Darbari: is one of the most popular raags in the entire North Indian system of classical
Hindustani music in Kabnnada family which originated in the Karnatic music tradition. It is said to
have been invented by the Tan Sen who sang in the darbar (royal court) of Emperor Akbar. It is a
night raag, also called as Darbar Kanada
Karnatak Music
What is performed today as Karnatak music is derived most immediately from three outstanding
composers of the eighteen century, known collectively as the Trinity: Thyagaraja (1759-1847);
Swami Shastri (1763-1827) and Dikshitar (1775-1835). The Trinity, although not themselves
patronized by the courts, spent most of their lives within a few miles radius of Tanjore, which
became the focal point of musical patronage in the south after the fall of Vijayangar (1565).
Thyagaraja is revered both as the supreme artist and a saint, and epitomizes the ideal of
musicianship in the south. Most of his immediate disciples were not professional musicians but
devotees and is only after the succeeding generation that professional musicians received
Thavagarajas compositions.
Karnataka music has the fixed and memorized composition along with its memorized variations is
longer and constitute proportionately much more of a given performance than in the north.
Karnataka music include three major performance genres as well as some minor ones: the varnam
as advanced etude-like composition of ten performed as the first item of a performance. The kriti,
which is the classical compositional form most often associated with the eighteenth century
Trinity, is devotional in its textual material, and the ragarntangam-pallavi, a somewhat more
abstract musical form embodying extensive unmetered sections along with a new or borrowed
compositional line characterized by rhythmic variation in the pallavi section.
PERSONALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH INDIAN MUSIC
1. Amir Khusrau: At the court of Alauddin Khilji. He invented Sitar. Khaval and Qawwali. He
invented Rekht, the precursor of Urdu language.
2. Kazi Nazrul Islam: The famous patriotic poet of Bengal.
3. Muthuswami Dikhsitar: A well known exponent of Karnataka music. He composed various
ragas of Karnataka music. He invented techniques with certain complex use of varying tempo.
He innovated violin in India.
4. Parandaradasa: Father of the Karnataka music. He was the first to standardize teaching
methods of music in India. He wrote Maya Malavagaula.
5. Rabindranat Tagore: Composed unique songs under the title of Rabindra Sangeet.
6. Subramaniam Bharati: Famous patriotic poet of Tamil literature.
7. Tansen: Adorned the court of Akbar. He authored Sangeeta Sara & Ragmala. He established
Senia Gharana.
8. Vishnu Digambar Pulaskar: A great musician, he founded Gandharva Mahavidyalaya &
Prayag Samiti. His Rarn-dhun music, i.e. Raghupati Raghaba was sung during the Dandi
March.
9. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande: Founded Morris College of Music at Lucknow. His pen name
was Chatura. His works are Hindustani Sangeet Padhati, Abhinava Raga Manjari, A short
Historical Survey of Music of Upper India, Lakhya Sangeeta etc.
10. Vidyaratna: He put Karnataka music on scientific lines. He wrote Sangitasastra.
CLASSICAL DANCES OF INDIA
Bharatnatyam

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One of the most ancient forms of dance art is Bharatnatyam, with its origins in an unbounded faith
in God and having the purpose of conveying to the human mind the virtues of purity coupled with
an admiration for aesthetic values. Bharatnatyam combines with itself poetry and music dance and
acting, in order to express itself to the outer world in its fullness. The dance flourished in Tamil
Nadu, and its influenced extended over a wide area of the South. Rukmini Devi Arundale, is the
champion of Bharatnatyam, brought about radical changes in the costumes of the dancers.
Kuchipudi
Among the old forms of the south Indian dance (Andra Pradesh), Kuchipudi has survived with
distinct characteristics of its own and has attracted wide attention in modern times. Thought its
origin was from the dance-dramas of very ancient times, it individually as a separate style dates
back to the days of the Bhakti movements. It depicted Krishnas life through music and drama to
carry the devotional appeal to the heart to man. The name has no relation to the dance itself, at it is
derived from the place Kuchipudi in Krishan district of Andhra Pradesh where the dance
flourished.
Kathakali
Kathakali is the classical dance of Kerala, with its origins in remote antiquity, and has been
developed through an admixture of Dravidian and Aryan dance concepts. In the evolution of the
Kathakali dance, the Nairs of Kerala had a good deal to do. They developed its modes and
techniques and made it a robust form of dance, at once masculine and skilful. The epics and the
mythology supply the themes for the dance in great abundance.
Kathak
North Indian Dance, particularly of UP has a great influence of Islam. The devotional feeling of the
medieval vaishinavities towards Krishna finds expression in Kathak Dance. It has simpler but
appealing style. Costumes are diverse and varied. The grace and majesty of the dance, coupled
with its aesthetic refinements make it pleasant from beginning to end.
There are two styles of Kathak Dance: Jaipur Style and Lucknow Style. Gurus like Lachhu
Maharaj, Shambu Maharaj, and Birju Maharaj established Kathak as a dance art of great
merit. Manipuri Dance of beautiful valley of Manipur. The mode of dance, melody of music,
emotions represented and the artist value of performance is so appealing that it caught the Tagores
imagination in a profound sense. He supplied themes for the dance dramas in Manipur technique,
and his Rabindra Sangeet made the dance especially charming in many respects. Bakhti cult is
deeply rooted in this dance.
Oddisi Ntriya or Dance
It is the classical art of Orrisa. The dance is in chaste and simple form through beautiful body
postures, artistically oriented body bends and rhythmic movements. The costume of oddisi is
related to the graceful elegance of the dance.
Mohini Attam
It is one of the important forms of the classical dance tradition of Kerala, presenting a perfect mode
for solo performance that incorporates lasya and tandava styles. Its technique is based on the
Kathakali mode, which includes the peculiar manner of dancing with the feet and legs apart, knees
greatly bent, and utilizing the rhythmic syllable words in the recitation and play of the drum, with
perfect synchronization of the dancers feet.
Krishna Attam
As the name suggests, is a dance drama associated with Krishna legends. It is believed that
Kathakali originated from Krishna Attam, sometime in the middle of the 17th century A.D., the
Zamorin King of Calicut named Mahadevan, who was a poet of distinction and a votary of Lord
Krishna, composed eight dramatic lyrical plays dealing with various episodes of Krishnas life.
The poet king incorporated them into an ensemble which he named as Krishna Attam.

Yakshagana
It is a typical folk form of drama of Karnataka on themes drawn from the epics related to
incarnations of Lord Vishnu. It is a true peoples theatre. It is an amalgam of the sky with the earth.
It is an ancient form of art. It includes song, dance and drama and is popular in Uttar, Malenadu
and Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka. Elaborate make up, colourful dresses and huge head
dress are its chief marks.
Other important dances
Gouf Gantham is the popular dance of Gujarat, popularly known as athanga ntriya. In this dance
every player holds a stick in one hand and a colored string in the other which is attached to hook at
the top.
Ghumar or Jhumar is popular folk dance of Rajasthan. Performed in all seasons it is always
accompanied by songs of love, glory of defeat. Men and women dance in circles, one half made of
men and the other half of women, with the accompaniment of music and vocal instrument.

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FAIRS OR FESTIVALS OF INDIA

Holi (February or March) All over India: Especially in the North
Celebrating the advent of spring men, women and children revel in throwing colored water and
powder on their friends. The most interesting Holi celebration is the Lathmar Holi at Barsana near
Mathura. In the Punjab particularly at Anandpur Sahib, a sect of the Sikh community observes
Holla Mohalla, a day after holi, and stag mock battles with ancient weapons.
Jamshed Navroz (March) Maharashtra, Gujarat
New Years day for the Parsi followers of the Fazli calendar. The celebrations, which include
donning fine clothes, prayers at temples, greetings, alms-giving and feasting at home, data back to
Jamshed, the legendary king of Persia.
Mahavir Jayanti (March or April) All over India
This festival is dedicated to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, who has a large following
in Gujarat and other parts of India.
Easter (March or April) All over India.
Good Friday and Easter-Sunday conform to the same pattern of alternate reverence and gaiety that
exist in the West.
Baishakhi (April or May) North India
This the Indian Solar New Year observed virtually all over northern India and in Tamil Nadu. It is
a religious festival when people bathe in rivers and go to temples to worship. The Ganga is
believed to have discerned on earth on this day. For the Sikh community, Baishakhi is of special
significance. On this day in 1689. Guru Gobind Sing organised the Sikhs into the Khalsa or the
pure one. On 13th April, the Baishakhi festival is celebrated in the Mughal Gardens of Kashmir.
Pooram (April or May) Kerala
The most spectacular temple festival in Kerala begins as twilight descends on the temple of
Vadakkunathan atop of hillock near Trichur. Thirty richy caparisoned elephants carrying
ceremonial umbrellas and fanned by whisks stride out through the gopurarn (temple gate). The
elephant in the centre carries the processional image of the temple deity Vadakkunathan. To the
sound display of fireworks, soon after the midnight, continues till the break of dawn.
Id-ul-Fitr- All over India.
Celebrated to mark the end of Ramzan, the Muslim month of fasting. Idul-Fitr is an occasion for
feasting and rejoicing. The faithful gather in mosques to pray, and friends and relatives meet to
exchange greetings.
Id-ul-Zuha: Throughout India

It commemorates the sacrifice of Abraham. Prayers are offered at mosque during the day.
Celebrants wear new clothes and there is feasting and rejoicing.
Rath Yatra (July) Varanasi, Serampore and Puri
Of the great temple festivals of India, the one held in Puri in Orissa is the most spectacular. The
festival held in honour of Jagannath (Lord of the Universe) attracts thousands of pilgrims from all
parts of the country.
Naag Panchami (July or August) Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and North India.
Reverence for the cobra (Naag) is shown by people all over the country during Naag Panchami,
usually in late July or early August. This day is dedicated to the great thousand mythical serpent
called Sesha or Anant meaning infinite.
Teej (July or August) Rajasthan, Eastern U.P. and North India
Teej is an important festival in Rajasthan. It welcomes the monsoon and is essentially a womens
festival. The presiding deity is the goddess Parvati who, in the form of a bridge, leaves her parents
home for her husbands.
Raksha Bandhan (July or August) Throughout northern and Western India.
A Hindu festival which falls on Poornima or Full Moon Day of the month of Shravan (JulyAugust). On this day sisters tie Rakhi or amuiet around the wrists of their brothers to seek their
protection. During the agitation against the partition of Bengal. Rabindra Nath Tagore popularised
the Rakhi Bandhan, to strengthen the brotherhood and solidarity of the people of Bengal.
Amarnath Yatra (July or August) Kashmir
Each year, in the month of Shravan (July or August), when the moon is full, thousands of devout
Hindus gather at the Amarnath cave in the Lidder Valley in Kashmir to offer their prayers to Lord
Shiva. It enshrined a naturally formed ice lingam which waxes and wanes with the moor. This is
where, Hindus believe, Lord Shiva explained Secret of Salvation to his cosort Parvati.
Onam (August or September) Kerala
Keralas greatest festival is Onam, celebrated with tremendous enthusiasm. It is primarily a harvest
festival observed not only in home but also in the open against the background of lush green
tropical vegetation in which the region abounds. The most exciting features of the festival are the
snake boat races held at several places in palm fringed lagoons. Various kinds of boats, beak
shaped, take part in these thrilling contests.
Janmashtami (August or September) Throughout India
The birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, believed to be the reincarnation of Vishnu and the author of
the Bhagavat Gita, is observe all over India. It is celebrated with special enthusiasm at Mathura and
Vrindaban where Lord Krishna spent his childhood.
Ganesh Chaturthi (August or September) Maharashtra
Ganesh, the deity with an elephants head, is the good of good omen and is worshipped by most
Hindus. In Maharashtra, particularly in and around Bombay, the festival of Ganesh is celebrated
with tremendous enthusiasm. Clay models of the deity are worshipped and taken out in grand
procession accompanied by the sound of cymbals and drums. The images, sometimes as much as
eight meters high, are finally immerse in a sea or a lake.
Dussehra, Rama Lila, Durga Puja (September or October) All over India
The most popular of Indias festivals is Dussehra. Every region observes this festival lasting for ten
days. It is celebrated in a special way. In north India, it is Ram Lila and consists of plays,
recitations and music which recall the life of legendry hero, Rama. All over, amateur troupes
perform plays based on the epic story of Rama. On the tenth day, an elaborate processing is taken
to Ram Lila grounds where immense effigies of the demon Ravan, his brother and son explode to
the cheers of thousands of spectators. In Kullu the celebrations have a different flavor.

In Bengal and other parts of eastern India, Dussehra is celebrated as music, dance, and drama. On
the last day, images of the warrior goddess Durga are taken out in procession and immersed in a
sea or a river.
In Mysore, Dussehra is celebrated with pimp and pageantry reminiscent of grandeur or medieval
India. In other parts of South India, the festival is celebrated as Navaratri.
Diwali (October or November) All over India
The gayest of all Indian festivals, Diwali is an occasion for great excitement and rejoicing. In some
parts, Diwali marks the start as the Hindu New Year. Every city, town and village is turned into a
fairy-land with thousands of flickering oil lamps and electric light illuminating homes and public
buildings.
On this night, a great part of India workships Lakshmi, the goddess symbolizing prospent, In
eastern India, particularly in Bengal, people worship Kali, the goddess symbolising strength.
Gurupurav (October or November ) Mainly in North India
Birth anniversaries of the ten gurus, spiritual teachers of preceptors of Sikhism are observed as
holy days, but those of Nanak and Govind Singh, the first and the last Gurus celebrated as festivals.
Guru Nanaks birthday falls in Kartik (October or November) and Guru Govind Singhs birthday
falls in December or January. The main celebrations are Akhand path, the recitation of the Gurus
verses and procession carrying the Guru Granth Sahib, the Holy Books of the Sikhs.
Muharram (November) All over India
Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussain, the grandson of prophet Mohammed
(SAW). In all cities and towns in India there are impressive procession of colourfully decorated
tazias which are made of paper and bamboo and are replicas of martyrs tomb at Karbala. In many
parts of South India, tiger-dancers (men painted all over with stripes and wearing tiger masks) lead
the procession.
Christmas (December 25)- Mainly Bombay, Goa, Delhi and Calcutta
A fine and exhilarating distillation of traditional and local influences, Christmas is observed in
much splendor at services in churches and cathedrals. Carol singing, dancing and balls are the high
water-marks. Among the most joyous and colourful celebrations are the festivities at Goa which
retain the pageantry of the Latin temper brought to a brilliant culmination under an Indian sun.
Shab-e-Barat: On the 13th and 14th day of Shahabh, of the 18th month of the Muslim calendar. On
this day, the fortune of every living being is thought to be recorded in the heaven. A vigil is kept all
the night and feast is held.
Shabe Qadr or Lailat-ul-qadr: Quran was revealed to Mohammad (SAW) during this night of
Ramzan month of Islamic calendar. During this night Muslims observe night long prayers to see of
their sins.
Goa Carnival (February) Goa
In the South-West of India, in February, as the rigour and fasting of Lent approach, the residents of
Goa, especially of Panaji, give vent to an exuberance and zest for life in a carnival that lasts for a
week.
This carnival, rivals the best in the world. Bright colourful costumes, masks and filtrations favour
the revellers. Procession follow processions. Geniously made floats ply down the picturesque
roads. And for an unforgettable week exuberance and joy find a home amidst the sandy beaches
and beauty of Goa.
Urs (April or May) Ajmer Sharif
New clothes and feasts at home for friends, acquaintance and strangers. At the fair, the wonderland
of saints, fakirs and pilgrims. The endless voices in gawalising the praise of Hazarat Khwaza
Moinuddin Chisti, helper of the poor. Such an environment welcomes visitors at the Urs of Ajmer
Sharif.

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The fair, like all fairs in India, is just not a commercial venture. It is a great out-pouring of culture.
All night-long, qawals, regardless of religion, sing in the mehfil and poets sprout amidst the, shop,
above the hubbuh in the streets.
Kulu Mela (September or October) Himachal Pradesh
To the north, Dussehra, brings with it a fair in Kulu Valley. It is time for gods and goddess to
forsake their temples and adore the fields amidst the sun. each village has its god. They are led in a
noisy procession by musicians and minstrels from their various high perches in the hills to the
fields of Kulu below.
Pushkar Mela (October or November) Rajasthan
Pushkar, near Ajmer, in Rajasthan is famous place of Hindus pilgrimage. Pushkar is famous for its
large natural lake and its temple dedicated to Lord Brahma. On Kartik Poornima, or any of the four
days preceding it, an annual festival is held here. During this fair animals from all parts of North
India are brought here for sale.
Kumbha Mela:
Kumbha Mahaparya, a festival and fair of great antiquity any magnitude is held once every twelve
years on the banks of Ganga at Hardwar. The Ardha Kumbha and Kumbhis are held at an interval
of three years, between each other, at Ujjain, Allahabad and Nasik.
INDIAN PAINTING
Ajanta Paintings
The earliest and most important ancient wall-paintings are found in the Buddhist rock-cut caves of
Ajanta in the western Deccan (second century B.C. to late fifth century A.D.) The walls, ceilings
and columns of these monastic and temple halls were covered at different times with complex
narrative compositions of Jataka stories and other Buddhist themes, together with 8 wealth of floral
and animal decoration. Even in their damaged state, the Ajanta paintings are one of the glories of
world art.
The subjects of these paintings are one of the glories of world ar.
The subjects of these paintings are three-fold (i) decorative designs; (ii) portraits of Buddha (iii)
narrative scenes from Jatakas.
Mughal School of Painting
The Mughal School of painting which prospered from the reigns of Akbar to Shahjahan (15561658) was one of the most significant phases of Indian art. Mughal painting was largely influenced
by the Persian school of Painting, which again was an amalgam of the Chinese, the Indian, the
Buddhist, the Bactrian and the Mongolian influences.
The Mughal painting was absolutely secular and aristocratic. The religious scenes were totally
absent in this school and the patrons of this school were the royal people. The subjects Mughal
painting were mainly derived from court life and nature. Mughal painting reached its logical
culmination during the reign of Jahangir.
The Rajput or Rajasthan School
Rajput or Rajasthan School of painting is a common name to the various schools of painting which
flourished in various States of Rajasthan from the 16th to 18th centuries.
The Rajput School of Painting was genuinely realistic, democratic, mystic and socially relevant. It
mirrored the life of common people, their everyday life and religious beliefs. Religious themes
from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, particularly the life and stories of Lord Krishna, were
vividly painted. Besides Krishna, Shiva and his cosort Parvti were also painted with reverence.
Love romance and religion were happily symbolised in popular divinities.
Sub-Schools of the Rajasthan or Rajput Paintings
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Mewar School
The school of painting flourishing in the former State of Udaipur, the historic principality of
Mewar, is one of the most important schools of Rajasthani paintings, was achieved during the reign
of Rana Jagat Singh (1628-52). A brilliant set of nine Ragmala paintings, the Bhagavta Purana and
the Ramayana were illustrated during this period. The dominating characteristics of Mewar
paintings are the use of dazzling colours against the patches of blue, red or green, the appearance
of stylised trees, naturalised birds and flowers and an admixuture of Mughal and traditional
Rajasthani costumes adorning the male and female figures.
Bundi School
The Bundi paintings of the 17th century rank as one of the finest schools of Indian Painting. Highly
influenced by Mughal painting in subject matter and technical details, Bundi painting retained its
originality in expression. The Bundi artists for instance depicted women with small round faces,
receding foreheads, and full cheeks. The painters took particular care to render the luch vegetation
of well laid gardens full of mango, peepal and plantain trees, flowering creepers, birds and animals
in every painting.
Kishangarh School
A small and almost negligible state situated between Ajmer and Jaipur, belonging to a line of
Rathors of Marwar, was founded by Kishan Singh (1600-1615). At the court of Kishangarh the
development of a district school of painting has been called as a minor miracle in the history of the
Indian art. Raja Sawant Singh of Kishangarh (1748 1764) gave a new stylistic form to these
paintings. In a pretty woman popularly known as Bani Thani, Raja Sawant Singh got all his
inspiration leading to his poetical creations and patronisation of a very special style of paintings
depicting Radha and Krishna, painted by a highly talented painter Nihan Chand.
Jaipur School
The most celebrated name in the history of Amer-Jaipur school was Raja Sawai Pratap Singh.
Under his patronage more than 50 court painters turned out miniatures in numerous manuscripts of
Ramayana, Bhagavata, Purana, Durga-path, etc. Many miniatures illustrating Ragmala, portraitstudies, court, hunting and restive scenes were painted during his region. These paintings are
highly refined products with a bright colour scheme with a lavish use of gold. The achievement of
the Jaipur School had its impact on local school of Alwar, Tonk, Bharatpur etc.
Bikaner School
The subject matter of this school included excellent portrait studies, beautiful Baramas, Ragmala,
Bhagavata, Purana, Krishnalila illustrations, etc. The Bikaner School produced extremely
sophisticated works with delicate lines and topal range normally seen in the Mughal paintings. The
female figures of Bikaner school are tall, slender damsels with big eyes and thin waist. The
landscape pattern has also been rendered with regard to skills.
Kota School
The most famous Kota paintings are the hunting scenes, animal fights, royal portraits and usual
sets of Ragamala, Ramayan, Bhagavata Purana, etc. produced during the 18 19th centuries. The
Kota paintings exhibit great naturalism in depicting the landscape.
Pahari or Hill School of Painting
Another well known school of painting which flourished in the hilly States of the Himalayas at
Basholi near Jammu and Kangra, Kulu, etc. in Himachal Pradesh. Under Ranjeet Singh and his
successors the Himachali School infuenced the Punjab-Hills or the Sikh School. But the Punjab
Hills School was closer to the Basholi than the Himachali Schools.
The Pahari School is one of the most interesting facets of Indian painting, which lived and
flourished valleys of the Himalayas. The Pahari School was an art of patient labour and nave

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devotion. Its chief features are delicacy of lines, brilliancy of colour and minuteness decorative
details. In the Pahari School miniatures and portraitures were both produced at local demand.
Kangra School
The portraiture was the special feature of the Kangra School. However, its miniatures resemble
with the Mughal miniatures. Numerous mythological and religious paintings were also executed in
this school. The Kangra School of paintings has lyrical appeal, liner rhythm, rich harmony of
colour and sentiments of love and devotion are mingled with an exuberant joy of life. The reign of
Raja Sansarchand of Kangra, who was the greatest patron of this school, the Kangra paintings
showed greatest charm, beauty and workmanship. The earthquake of 1905 brought a physical ruin
to this school.
The Basholi School
A vigorous school of painting flourished at Basholi in the Jammu Hills. This school was a blend or
mixture of the Rajput and the Mughal School with distinctive individually of its own. The Basholi
School emerged in the 18th century. The use of colours in this school is contrasting and
discriminates. The human figures, accentuated with heavily by jeweled make-up, appear as
designs. Great emphasis was laid in the depiction of landscape and architectural details. In this
school the portraiture and miniature both were given equal emphasis.
Kullu School is a distinctive form of painting in India. It is focused on love depicted with purity
and beauty. The pageant of seasons, the lively colours and beautiful doted lines are its features.
PERSONALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH INDIAN PAINTINGS:
Abanindranath Tagore: He founded Bengal School along with E.B. Haveli. He led the neo-art
movement i.e. to regenerate ancient and medieval artists supreme mental weapon in modern
setting
Amrita Sher Gill (1913-1941): She was born of a Hungarian mother and a Sikh father. Before her
tragic demise at the age of 28 she produced important works which shows influence of Ajanta
paintings, Rajputs and Mughal miniatures. Her paintings were Indian in spirit which shows
elements of silence and static peace. Her painting shows her concern for poverty. She used real
models and monochromatic colour at times for her paintings. Her work showed the fusion of the
Eastern and Western Style.
Arpita Sen: Her paintings show an arbitrary approach to form space and colour-full of personal
fantasy. She carried decoration to the paint of scattering small flowers, dots and other patterns in
the spaces unoccupied by the man figures. She fabricates her paintings like a tapestry with a
variety of repetitive motives spread all over, simplified in form and modified in colour.
Jamini Roy (1887-1972): He attempted to crate a distinct indigenous style in seeking inspiration
from folk art tradition (Kalighat Pata) as against the elitist approach of the Bengal School. He used
firm and majestic curves in simple forms. His pictures are bold and static. He used mineral and
vegetables dyes popularly used in the villages to identify with the village ethos. He painted large
fish shaped eyes and oval faces which shows the influence of the Jaina School. He painted on the
theme of Christianity also. He omitted light and shade. His pictures went out of the frame and used
pure and positive colours.
Jatin Das: His paintings are mainly involved in the expression of the man women relationship.
He paints young female and massive male nudes who are emotionally charged. They are intended
to provoke the sensual feelings.
M.F. Hussain: A Bombay progressive painter, who rejected the Bengal School as the academic
style for being basically ornamental, like his other colleagues. He is a symbol of modern Indian art
with international flavour. He paints a black social environment, often using distorted human
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figures, horses and objects. At times he uses highly violent distortions in form and colour to
display emotions. His famous work includes Ramanayana, Mahabharata, Mother Teresa and
images of the British Raj.
Nandalal Bose (1882-1966): He remained nationalistic in spite of the fact that he was aware of
prevailing international trends. He preferred Oriental rather than Western. He was influenced by
the Upanishads, Ajanta Paintings, and Mughal Miniatures. He fused these with Chinese and
Japanese techniques. He was a master of bold lines. He belonged to the Bengal School and painted
Mahabharata scenes.
Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941): He started painting from 1893 onwards and emerged as a
creative exponent of graphic art in 1928. He had a flair for calligraphy. His paintings and drawing
are generally of small sizes. His images show sense of rhythm. There is a kind of spiritually in his
images. He used dominant black ink lines. He was an experimentalist and his paintings are directly
linked with his writings.
Ramachandran: He is the figurative painter who was influenced by the murals of Kerala temples
and tribal art. He used light and shade (chiaroscuro) technique.
Ravi Verma: He reestablished Indian art through Western methods, techniques and traits. He
introduced oil painting in India. His chief concern was Indian life, mythology in oil painting of
Western style.
Satish Gujral: He is a painter, sculptor, muralist and architect in one. His dynamic social-realistic
paints can be seen in the paintings of Partition (revolution) which shows influence of Mexican
grotesque distortion.
PLACES OF CULTURAL IMPORTANCE IN INDIA
1. Aihole: Situated on the Mallaprabha River in Bijapur district of Karnataka. Aihole was the
cradle of the Chalukyan architecture of all the throe principal religions of India-Buddhism,
Jainsim and Brahmanism. The Chalukyan architecture of Aihole is particularly famous for tile
Buddhist rock cut caves.
2. Ajanta: Sited about 100 km north-west of Aurangabad in Maharashtra, Ajanta is famous for
its ancient caves and cave paintings and is known as museum of Buddhist paintings.
3. Ajmer: Situated at the feet Taragrah hill, Ajmer now a principal town of Rajasthan, was
founded by the Chaharnan King Ajayapala who named the city as Ajaymeru. Ajmer was also
the abode of greatest Indian Sufi saint Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chisti whose Dargah is a great
centre of pilgrimage for the Hindus and Muslims alike.
4. Ashokan Rock Edicts: the 14 rock edicts of Emperor Ashok, first reported by James Todd in
1822. They are engraved on the granite boulder. The edicts are basically a collection of 33
inscriptions that are carved on the pillars of Ashoka. They are the primary evidence of spread
of Buddhism India.
5. Aurangabad: Situated on the Kham River, in Maharashtra, Aurangabad is one of the famous
historic towns of Indian and no other district in India has so many historical monuments such
as Ajanta, Ellora, Daulatabad, Paithan etc., as this district. Aurangabad was founded by the
Nizam Shahi, Prime Minister Malik Amber in 1610.
6. Ayodhya: Located in the Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh, Ayodhya is one of the seven
sacred cities for the Hindus. The ancient town of Ayodhya was also known as Saketa and is
supposed to be in birth place of the epic hero Rama in the 6th century B.C. It was the capital of
the Southern Kosala.

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7. Badami: Located in Bijapur district of Karnataka, Badami was the capital of Chalukyas and is
famous for its cave temples which were excavated by the Chaulukyas in the 6th and 7th
centuries and by their political successors the Rashtrakutas between the 7th and 9th centuries.
8. Belur: Situated in Hassan district of Karnataka, Belur was an ancient place of pilgrimage and
therefore was also called as a Dakshina-Varanasi. It emerged as a great city under the
Hoysalas, who built numerous temples- of them the Chinnakeshava temple is one of the finest
specimens of the Hoysala architecture and sculpture.
9. Bhubaneswar: Presently the capital of Orissa, Bhubaneswar is a very ancient city having a
continued history from 2nd century B.C. of the 16th century A.D. and provides a panorama of
the Orrissian art. The most famous ancient monument of Orissa is a famous Lingaraja temple.
10. Bijapur: Located on the Maharashtra-Karnataka border, Bijapur is the headquarters of a
district of the same name in Karnataka. It was the important town under the Chalukyas of
Badami and the Yadavas of Devagiri.
11. Bodh-Gaya or Buddha Gaya: Situated about 10 kms to the South of Gaya in Bihar, BodhGaya is one of the most sacred spot in the history of Buddhism (where Lord Buddha attained
enlightenment under the celebrated people or Bodhi Tree). The most famous monument at
Bodh-Gaya is the famous Mahabodhi.
12. Chanderi: Situated on the bank of Betwa, about 80 km west of Guna in Madhya Pradesh,
Chanderi was a very famous medieval city which is said to have been founded by one of the
early Chandela Kings. Chanderi was a well laid out town, a rich centre of trade and commerce
and also the scene of considerable military activities during the medieval period.
13. Chidambaram: Situated about 24 km. south of Madras in South Arcot district of Tamil Nadu,
Chidambaram was a great town and a place of pilgrimage. It was also once the capital of the
Cholas. The Cholas and the Pandhyas build numerous magnificent temples here. The most
famous of these is the great Nataraja temple which is dedicated to Lord Shiva in his Cosmic
Dancer manifestation.
14. Chittor: Situated about 108 km. to the North-East of Udaipur in Rajasthan, Chitor has been
the cradle of Rajput Chivalry and valour. The city and the fort of Chitor we said to have been
founded by the Mauryan ruler Chitrangada.
15. Dwarka: Located in the extreme west of Saurashtra on the Arabian Sea about 137 km from
Jamnagar in Gujarat, Dwarka was considered as a Gateway to the mainland of Western India.
According to mythological accounts, it was the adopted home and capital of Lord Krishna
after he gave up Mathura. As a place of Hindu pilgrimage, it was considered to be one of the
seven sacred towns of Hindu pilgrims.
16. Elephanta: Situated about 11 km east of Apollo Bunder and 5 km south of Trombay (near
Bombay, Elephanta is a small island in Kolaba district of Maharashtra. Elephant from 3rd to
the 10th century A.D. was the site of an ancient city and a place of religious resort to the
Buddhist and Shaivites alike. It was famous for rock cut caves mostly excavated between the
6th and the 8th centuries A.D. There are four caves in Elephanta, one of these caves contains a
Buddhist Chaitya.
17. Ellora: Situated about 24 km north-west of Aurangabad, Ellora was once a large town and is
known to the world for its wonderful rock-cut cave temples in the hills. Ellora contains some
of the largest and most elaborately carved specimens of the Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain
styles of cave architecture. Cave No. 16, well known as Kailasha or Rang Mahal is regarded
as the greatest monolithic structure in the world.
18. Faizabad: Situated on the right bank of Ghaghra, about 126 km. east of lucknow in Uttar
Pradesh, Faizabad was founded by Nawab Safdarjung of Avadh the transfer of capital to
Lucknow by Nawab Asif-ud-daula.
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19. Fatepur Sikri: Situated about 37 km south of Agra in U.P. Fatehpur Sikri owes its glory and
greatness to Akbar who founded the new capital city here and made it its capital in lieu of
Agra. The construction of the city began in 1569 and was completed in 1574. fatehpur Sikri
remained the defecto capital of the Mughal empire from 1572 1585. Fatehpur Sikri is known
as an apic poem in red-sand stone. Great buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akbar include
places, assembly halls, public offices, schools, hospitals, the Jami Masjid, the Panch Mahal
etc. The Buland Darwaja erected to commemorate Akbars victory in the Deccan is the loftiest
gateway in India and is the crowning glory of Fatehpur Sikri.
20. Golconda: Situated about 8 km. west of Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh, Golconda was the
capital of the Qutab Shahi Kingdom, from 1515 till 1591 when the capital was transferred
from Golconda to Hyderabad. However, even after the transfer of their capital to Hyderabad,
Golconda continued to remain the military headquarter of the Qutab Shahis. Under the
Qutbshahis Golconda not only emerged as the greatest metropolis of the Deccan.
21. Hampi or Vijayanagar: Situated on the southern bank of Tungabhadra in Bellari district of
Karnataka. Hampi is the present name of Vijayanagar which was the capital of the great
empire of Vijayanagar from 1336 to 1565. During its hey days, the city of Vijayanagar was
the glory of medieval India and various foreign visitors from different parts of the world
compared it to the great cities of their times. It was compared with Rome, Milan, Venice,
London etc., and still the foreign travelers considered that this was the best provided city in
the world.
22. Hyderabad: Located on the bank of river Musi, Hyderabad now the capital of Andhra
Pradesh was founded by Sultan Mohammad Quli Qutb Shahin 1951, as the new capital of the
Qutb Shahi Kingdom. The new city was built in the form of a joint double cross. Of the many
buildings raised in the new capital by Mohammad Quli, the Char Minar occupies a pride
position.
23. Inamgaon: Situated in the Pune district of Maharashtra. It is an important Chalcolithic
settlement in the Godavari valley. The settlement in Inamgaon had more than one hundred
house and numerous burials. Inamgaon was also fortified and surrounded by a moat.
24. Jaipur: Situated about 307 km from Delhi. Jaipur present capital of Rajasthan was founded
by Swai Jai Singh 11 in 1727 as a new capital of his kingdom in place of Amber, Jaipur is one
of the most well planned cities of Northern India. Sawai Jaising built numerous beautiful
monuments in his new capital. Some of the important monuments at Jaipur are the Hawa
Mahal. Jantar Mantar or astronomical the observatory, palaces and gardens etc.
25. Kanchi or Kanchipuram : Situated about 69 km south-west of Madras in Tamil Nadu.
Kanchi is one of the seven most sacred places of Hindu pilgrimage. It was also regarded as the
Kashr or Varanasi of the South. It was the capital of the Pallavas from the 5th to the 9th century
A.D. Kanchi once contained about a thousand temples and, therefore, it was known as the city
of thousand temples. Two most famous temples built by the Pallavas here are the Kailashnath
temple and the Vaikuntnath temple.
26. Kanya Kumari or Cape Comorin: Situated at the southernmost tip of Indian main land,
where the waters of three seas coverage, Kanya Kumari is a very ancient port town which has
been mentioned by the early Greek writers. It is said that Parvati as a maiden meditated here
and therefore the place was known after her as Kanya Kumari.
27. Kashi or Varanasi: Located on the bank of Ganga, Kahi also known as Varanasi on account
of its geographical location between the two small rivers Varuna or Varna and Asi. In the 6th
century B.C., Kashi was one of the sixteen great states which were later on merged into the
empire of Magadh. It was also a great centre of Shaivism. The famous temple of Lord
Vishavnath is the most renowned centre of pilgrimage at Kashi.
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28. Khajuraho: Situated in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh, Khajuraho was the
religious capital of Chandelas. In the history of Indian Art, Khajuraho is famous for more than
thirty temples built by the Chandelas at Khajuraho and in the neighbouring village. The largest
and the most imposing of these temples is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple and the largest and
the finest of the Jain temples is the Parsvanath.
29. Konark: Located about 39 km. north-west of Puri on the sea-shore of Orissa, Konark is
famous for Sun Temple, known as Black Pagoda.
30. Kurushetra: Located about 160 km north to Delhi in Karnal District of Haryana. Kurukshetra
which means the land of the Kurus finds frequent mention in the ancient literature particularly,
the Mahabharata, the Puranas, etc.
31. Lumbini: Modern Ruminer located in the Terai region of Nepal. It is the birth place of Lord
Buddha. It is one among the 4 places of pilgrimage for the Buddhists.
32. Madurai or Madura: Situated on the banks of river Vaigaj, Madurai is a famous district and
town in Tamil Nadu and is one of the most ancient cities of South India. It was the centre of
early Tamil poets of the Sangam age. In the growth of Madurai, the Pandyas, Pallavas, the
Cholas, the Vijayanagar Kings and the Nayaks and Maduri contributed equally. Meenakshi
temple is the greatest religious culture and artistic landmark of Maduria.
33. Mathura: Situated on the banks of Yamuna, Mathura was the capital of the Suresenas, one of
the sixteen great states into which northern India was divided in the 6th century B.C. It is
believed to be the birth place of Lord Krishna. It was also a great centre of Jainism and one of
the richest centre of the Kushana art known as the Mathura School of Art.
34. Mohenjodaro: Situated in Larkhana district of Sind in Punjab. The site on the right bank of
the Indus was discovered by R.D. Bannerji in 1922. It is the most important of the Harappan
cities. The city was Nell planned and had wide streets. The city divided into citadel and lower
town has Great Bath. Assembly Hall and Granaries. Some of the important evidences from
this site include Bronze dancing girl, bearded priest and fragment of woven cloth.
35. Nalanda: Situated about 10 km north of Rajgir in Bihar, Nalanda was the principal centre of
Mahayan Buddhism and a renowned university town with numerous monastries and shrines
which attracted scholars from all parts of the India, and the far east.
36. Puri: Located on the Bay of Bengal. Puri a city in the district of the same name in Orissa is
one of the four holiest places of Hindu Pilgrimage and the abode of Lord Jagannath. The most
famous temple of Puri is the temple of Lord Jagannath known as the white Pagoda, which was
built in the 11th and 12th centuries.
37. Rameshwaram: Situated in the Bay of Bengal at a distance of about 19 km east-northeast of
Mantapam in Ramnathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, the island of Rameshwaram is an
ancient place of Hindu pilgrimage which was used by the epic hero Rama for his successful
invasion of Sri Lanka. In terms of its sculptures and dimensions, the temple of
Ramnathswaram is one of the finest temples in India. The corridors of this temple are the
worlds longest.
38. Sarnath: Located about 10 km from Varanasi in U.P. Sarnath is one of the four greatest
centres of Buddhist pilgrimage where Lord Buddha delivered his first sermon. At Sarnath
numerous monasteries, stupas and Buddhist temple were built and the famous Ashokan pillar
with the four lion-capitals, now our National Emblem, have also been found.
39. Thanjavur or Tanjore: A city and a district of the same name in Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur was
the capital of the great Cholas. Thanjavur owes its greatness to the imperial Cholas who
enriched the city with numerous temples and domes. The most famous monument at
Thanjavur is the Erinadiswara or the Rajrajeshwra temple built by King Rajaraja I (985
1041 A.D.). This temple is a unique repository of illustrations of dance and music.
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40. Trichanapali or Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu): It is famous for the temple of

Ranganathaswami at the centre of small island, surrounded by two streams of Kaveri.
41. Udaipur: Located about 267 km from Jaipur, in Rajasthan. Udaipur was found in 1559 by
Rana Udal Singh of Mewar after whome the town is known as Udaipur. Udaipur has been
called the city of Lakes, city of dreams, Venice of the east, city of sunrise and so on.
42. Ujjain: Situated on the banks of river Shipra, Ujjain which was the capital of ancient Avanti,
is the modern Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh from the 4th century B.C., to the 6th century A.D.,
Ujjain was as important city of the empire of Magadh. From the 9th to the 12th century, it
formed part of the Parmar Kingdom. Ujjain was also a great centre of Sanskrit learning and
astronomy. The temple of Mahakala here is one of the twelve most famous Shaiva temple in
India.
43. Warangal: Situated 18 km from Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh Warangal which means the
city of Stones, is a very ancient city. It was the capital of the Kaktiyas. Warangal also enjoyed
high reputation for the manufacture of carpets.
OTHER IMPORTANT FACETS OR PERSONALITIES OF INDIAN CULTURE
1. Acharya Nirmalya: A great contributor to Bengal cinema and literature. He wrote an essay
Chalchitra Pratham Sutre about the starting phase of cinema.
2. Allasani Peddana: A great poet in Telugu and wrote major Prabandha and his important
work was Manu charita. It is a short story from Markandya Purana. He lived during
Vijayanagar.
3. Amir Khusro: A poet laureate patronized by six sultans of Delhi during medieval period.
He was a scholar of Arabi, Parsi, Hindi and Urdu. He was the father of Urdu literature.
4. Arthasastra: Of all the secular literary sources of the history of the Mourayas, single most
important source is Arthasastra written by Kautilaya also known Vishno Gupta or Chanakya.
This work is a comprehensive treatise on state craft and Public Administration, society and
economy of the ancient India around 2 century BC.
5. Arya Bhatta: Most renowned astronomer and mathematician of ancient India (Gupta age).
He wrote Surya Siddhanta on astronomy and Aryabhauiyarn on mathematics. First
astronomer in the world to declare that the earth is revolving round the sun.
6. Bamiyan Buddha: The two colossal statues of Buddha carved into the Bamiyan.
Afghanistan constructed in the 4th century AD. They were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001.
international efforts are being made to reconstruct them.
7. Banabhatta: Was the court poet of Harsha Vardhan. He wrote Kadarnbani, a poetric treatise
and Harshacharita the biography of his patron.
8. Bhagawati Sutra: It is a Jaina religions holy text. It contains details about Mahavira, the
founder of Jainism.
9. Bhakti: is an important component of Hinduism and emphasizes devotion above ritual. The
so called Bhakti movement saw a rapid growth of Bhakti beginning in southern India. It
resulted in a mass of devotional literature music, dance, and art and gave India renewed
spiritual impetus. Bakhti poets like Ravidas, Kabir wrote among the hierarchy of caste. The
most famous Bhakti saints are Ramanuja, and Tulsi Das.
10. Bodhisattava: Bodhisattava can be incarnated as men or even as animals. According to
older doctrine of Bodhisattvas works in wisdom and love through many lives so that he may
become Buddha.
11. Brahmagupta: A famous astronomer and mathematician of ancient India who belongs to
Ujjain. He wrote Brahma Siddhanta (598 AD).
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12. Chaitya: Chaitya was a shrien or a Buddhist place of worship. In its the Buddhist devotes
used to assemble for prayers and worship. In its typical form it was a rectangular hall,
apsidal at the rear end and divided into three sections by two rows of pillars along the length
of the hall meeting at the back end. Over the entrance door way placed a huge horse-shoe
shaped window dominating the entire scheme of facade. These Chaityas were of two types
on the basis of religious beliefs The Mahayan and the Hinayan. The former had an image
of Buddha and the latter a votive Stupa at the rear end. Many of the Chaityas found in
Western India are the rock cut Chaityas, which were excavated at Pitalkhora, Vidisha,
Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Ellora, Karle etc.
13. Chisti order: The Chisti order was founded by Khawaja Abdal Chisti in Heart and was
brought to India by Sufi saint Khawaja Moin-u-din Chisti. It is famous for its emphasis on
love, tolerance and openness. They made themselves popular by adopting musical
recitations called Sama to create mood of nearness to God. The real founder of this silsilla
was Bahauddin Zakariyya. Other important exponents were Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki,
Hamiduddin Nagauri.
14. Dev Devail: Jain festival commemorating the nirvana of Mahavir Jina. It is observed on the
11th day of the Hindu festival. Deepawali.
15. Gandhar School of Art: Known as Indo-Greek School of art. First to make figures of
Buddha similar to Greek gods. Famous for rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and
complete symbolism. It flourished during the Ist century AD. It was patronised by the
Kushana King Kanishka.
16. Ganesh Chaturthi: Observed on the fourth day of bright half (Shukla Paksha) of Bhadav
(Bhadrapad) month of Hindu calendar. Birthday of God Ganesh, son of lord Shiva and
Parvati is commemorated. It is the main festival of Maharashtra.
17. Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Founded by Rajendra Chola as the capital city in Tamilnadu
to memorise his viceroy over north India.
18. Golkonda Fort: Built by MOhmmad Quli Qutub Shah in 1525. Golkunda was captured by
Aurangzeb in 1687 and their independence came to an end CST History Special Pg. No. 82
Box.
19. Gopikrishna. Was Kathak dancer of repute. The film Jhanak Jhanak Payale Baje was
become immortal due to his dance classies.
20. Grantha Sahib: Is the sacred scripture of the Sikhs. It was compiled by Guru Arjun Dev.
21. Guru Nanak Dev: Born in 1469 at Talwandi (now in Pakistan) and established the Sikh
order. He discarded caste and laid emphasis on love.
22. Indian Ballet: It is the presentation of a story in dance form through facial expressions.
Physical poses and symbolic expressions. Birju Maharaj and Pundit Uday Shankar are
pioneers in this field.
23. Jadunath Sarkar: A famous historian. He praised Shivaji in his Maratha history. He
explained economics and political aspects of Marathas.
24. Jayadev: The last great poet of Sanskrit literary age. He was the court poet of Laxman Sena
of Bengal and wrote Gita Govinda, a poem dedicated to Lord Krishna.
25. Kalhana: Kalhana was a 12th century Kashmirir poet and historian. He was the celebrated
author of Rajatarangini. He wrote this book during 1147-1149. He was in Harshas court
of Lohar dynasty. He received help in writing the book from his father Champak who was
the minister in the kings court.
26. Kumarsabhav: This is a Sanskrit epic by Mahakavi Kalidasa in Gupta period. The epic
narrates story of the birth of Kartikeya, son of Lord Shiva and Parvati.

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27. Lothal: Great port during the Indus Valley civilization. It is situated in the sea-plant of
Saurashtra all the bank of river Bhogva. Excavations show existence of artificial dockyard.
28. Madhura Vijayam: Madhura Vijayam (of 1305s) is related to Kampanas expedition. This
was against Madhura Sultanate in the time of Bukka-I.
29. Mahayan Buddhism emerged during the 5th Buddhist council. It favored worship of idols
of Buddha. Sanskrit became its language. The Bodhistava epic is related with it.
30. Mahayana Cult. A Buddhist cult which believes in salvation for all. It adopted idol worship
of Buddha and used Sanskrit as its language.
31. Margaret Noble. Also known sister Nivedita, and Irish lady who under the influence of
Swami Vivekananda adopted India and her culture.
32. Megasthenes: (c. 350 BC 390BC) was a Greek traveler and geographer who wrote
Indika. He sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Seleucus.
33. Mirza Haidar: Mirza Haider became rule of Kashmir in 1540. He was relative of
Humayun. Later on, he was removed by a Hindu ruler.
34. Natyasastra: It was written by Bharat Muni. It covers aspects of dance drama. It is a book
on principles of art, in Sanskrit.
35. Nicolo Cony An Italian traveler, who visited Vijayanagar in 15th century and wrote about
it.
36. Nizamuddin Auliya: A famous Sufi sant or Sultanate period. He popularized Sufi doctrines
among Hindus and Muslims. Amir Khusro was his discipline.
37. Pandurang Mahatmya: It is a holy literary work by Sridhar. It is divided into 10 Adhyayas
and celebrating the virtues of Pandharpur, probably the greatest centre of pilgrimage in
Maharashtra.
38. Panini: He was a Sanskrit grammarian from Gandhara, near modern day Peshawar. His
grammar of Sanskrit consist of four parts: (i) Shiva Sutras (phonology), (ii) Ashtadhyayi
(means eight capters) (morphology), (iii) Dhatupatha, (iv) Ganapatha.
39. Perini Shivatandavam: It is a made dance of the warriors; a dance performed in front of
idol of Natraja before leaving for the battlefield. This is popular in some parts of Andhra
Pradesh state. In earlier times the rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty patronized this form of
dance. It is performed to the accompaniment of the beat of the drums.
40. Prithviraj Raso: Composed by the Chand Baradai, Prithvirajs court poet. It narrates life of
Prithviraj III, of Chauhan Vansa who ruled Ajmer and Delhi. It is an epic. It is a source of
information of the Kshattriya community of northern India.
41. Pupul Jayakar: A former president of Indian Council for Cultural Relation (1982). Also
known as the Czar of Indian culture for his efforts to popularize Bharat Mahotsav.
42. Raidas. A bhakti saint of medieval India. He was a cobbler by caste. He had a great
following in North India. He belonged to lower caste. He was disciple of Ramananda.
43. Rama Sethu: The ambitious Rs 2,427-crore Sethusamundaram Shipping Canal Project has
considerably slowed down because even the strongest dredgers have failed to cut through an
unyielding chain of shoals and rocks. In British era, the area was called Adams Bridge.
44. Razmnama: It is Persian translation of the epic Mahabharata. It was translated in time of
Akbar by Badayuni, Abul Fazal, Faizi, etc.
45. Sangam Literature. The earliest stage of Tamil literature (500 BC 200 BC). It was
divided mainly into two group of poetry, i.e. on war and love.
46. Sardeshmukhi and Chauth: Sardeshmukhi The demand was 10 per cent. Ruler
demanded Sardeshmukhi on the basis of legal fiction that Shivaji was the hereditary
Sardeshmukh of Maharashtra. Chauth- it was 1/4th and was an amount given to the soldiers
in lieu of security; implies 1/4th of government income.
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47. Sarnath Pillar: Is built by Ashoka in the honour of Lord Buddha with 4 lions sitting back to
back on the top of a platform in which a deer, bullock, horse and rhinocerous are carved on
along a wheel. The national emblem of India is taken out of it.
48. Stupa: The Stupa was a conventional representation of a funeral tumulus evolved out of
earthen funerary mounds in which the ashes of the dead were buried. It comprises of an
almost hemispherical dome flattened at the top, supported on a low circular base approached
by a double ramp and enclosed by a balustrade serving as an upper procession path. The best
known Stupa in India is the great Stupa of Sanchi, near Bhopal (M.P.) which was completed
in the present form during the Shunga period.
49. Sufism: It emphasizes on the mystical dimensions of Islam, is generally believed to have
originated among Muslims in modern Iraq. Its history dates back to 9th and 10th centuries.
Sufism sprang from the doctrine of wahadal-ul-wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was
propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi. The Sufis were divided into 12 orders of silsilsilas.
50. Sutta Pitaka: This Buddhist divided into 12 orders to silsilsilas. Buddha throughout his life
in the form of an epic.
51. Town Planning in the Indus Valley Civilization exhibits parlances of modern urbanism.
Grid pattern, wide and straight roads, community centres, granaries, well planned houses
and public sanitation were chief features of the cities on river banks.
52. Upanishads: The last party of Vedic Literature, also called Vedantas. They are 108 in
numbers, dealing with philosophical aspects to search Gvana (knowledge).
53. Vailankanni: A former Protuguese settlement 10 km away from Negapattinam. It is famous
for the Church of Virgin Marry.
54. Vajrayana: A branch of Buddhism, which came into existence in seventh century. It
emphasised meat, sex and wine. It also believed in magic and charm. It gave a death knell
blow to Buddhism in India.
55. Vihara: A Vihara or a monastery was a hostel of the Buddhist monks and runs, which were
in much the same way as private dwellings houses-with four ranges of cells of sleeping
cubicles on four sides of an open quadrangular courtyard. The Viharas dating from the 5th
century A.D. are superbly executed, with finely decorated columns and doorways.
Sculptured and painted images of the Buddha and his attendants were incorporated into
architectural dcor, together with lively scenes illustrating Buddhist legends.
56. Yajnavalkya Smriti: It was written during the Gupta period. It throws light on various
aspects of Indian religion and society.
CULTURAL FACETS OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR
FOLK DANCES OF J&K
1. ALLEY YATE: It is basically the dance of shepherds of Zanskar area of Ladakh region. It
is a combination of poetry and dance. This dance is pecufiar to the time when people go out
of their homes with flocks.
2. BACHA-NAGMA: In this dance from a teen-aged boy is dressed as a girl dancer and goes
through measured steps and rounds to the accompaniment of singing by a troupe of singers.
The dance from has been introduced in the Kashmir Valley from Afghanistan and it became
popular with rural people especially farmers.
3. BANDA-PAATHAR: Bands are folk opera dancers and paathar means imitations and
mimicry. Such operas are held in country side. Highly dramatized theatrical anecdotes are
interspersed with songs, dance which entertain, arouse, interest, laughter.

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4. BHANGRA: is the most popular and best known dance of Punjab and J & K performed on
all festive occasions. It is symbolic of exuberance and gaiety generally associated with the
nature of people living in this part of India. Forming into usually large circles, dancers start
going round with as many new entrants as the time or occasion demands. The drummer is in
the centre giving fillip of dancers speed and movement. As the dancers get into the spirit of
the dance, they produce a rhythmic cry of joy.
5. DAM BALI: Performed by watals to the accompaniment of Nagada and Surnai, the dances
move round and round in Oueer Steps raising their pitch to crescendo.
6. HAFIZ-NAGMA: Persian dance form, introduced in Kashmir by Mughals who were fond
of it. The dancers perform to the accompanying Sufiana Kalam, a slow tuned Persian style
song sung to the tune of saaz and tabla and Santoor.
7. HIKAT: is another dance of Kashmir in which groups youth girls and boys express sheer
joy and exuberance. Their hands held crosswise pairs of dancers spin in fast circles. This is a
feat requiring good balance, perfect timing and precise movement of the feet.
8. JABRO: This dance form is peculiar to Chang. Thang and Rang areas of Ladakh region.
Both males and females face each other forming rows or circles and dance leaping hand in
hand forwards and backward reciting melodious songs.
9. JAGARNA: This song, cum dance form is a marriage ritual. When the groom leaves with
his barat, his mother, aunts and other womenfolk are left behind at home. They involve
themselves in this unending dance form interspersed with gossip.
10. KUDD: A dance performed by upland dwellers at night. A fire is lit in an open space. The
dancers move around the fire in slow rhythm which gradually rises in tempo as the dance
advances and he accompanying songs (called landdories) rise in crescendo. The dance is
performed after days preoccupations are over.
11. PHUMMIAN: It is a folk dance of rural areas of Jammu region. The dancers dress
themselves gaily and use their hands and fingers to express and emote.
12. RAUF: dances are performed essentially by women in Kashmir during harvesting season.
Dancing in two rows, about fifteen girls in each, form a sort of a chain by placing their arms
across one anothers backs. Dressed in bright skirts and draperies with heavy ornaments of
silver, their faces laden with smiles and animation, the dancers create a heavenly charm and
delight.
13. WEUG-NACHUN: This slow dance is performed by Kashmir Pandit women round the
bridal rangoli after the groom has left to wed his bride and after the bride has left for her
husbands home. This dance form has religious overtones is sober in form and taste.
SAINTS AND POETS
1. Abdul Sattar Asi: He was a milkman by profession, who studied, Hafiz and Sad, and
translated two poems of Iqbal Shikwa and Iawab-I-Shikwa into Kashmiri.
2. Gulam Ahmad Mahjoor: He received poetic inspiration from his father Pir Abdullah Shah,
who was a Persian scholar. The famous poem wolo hao baggvano (come, o gardner),
Gukshan vatan chu Sonny (Our land is garden). Flower of Nishat bagh etc.
3. Habba Khatun: Zoon, was maiden name and she learned the Quran and Persian classics.
Scared by her fame, her father married her to a peasant at an early age. Famous ruler from
Chak dynasty, Yusuf-Shah-Chak fell in love with her and married her. She became the royal
patron of arts and letters and advised the sultan on all matters of the state. Lol lyric is the
typical verse from that was popularized by Habba Khatun.

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4. Lal Ded: born in a Brahmin family in a village Pandrethan in Srinagar. She is the first saitn
poetess of the Kashmir. She preached doctrines in the idioms of the masses in the form of
vaakh. The vaakhs the Lal Ded brought about an intellectual revolution in Kashmir. Her
mystic ideas were in consonance with the wisdom of the Bhagwat Gita and she stressed on
securing freedom from material desire.
5. Mahmud Gami: He became famous for his narrative romantic poems-Shirin Khusro. Yusuf
Zulekhah and Laila Majnu. His lyrics dealt Sufiana and love themes Mahmud Gamis Yusuf
Zulekhah appeared in German Magazine in Al) 1895.
6. Nur-ud-Din Noorani (Nund Reshi): was the first Muslim saint to assume the title Rishi.
Nurnama the collection of his writings is presented in his shrine at Charar-e- Sharief.
His funeral was attended by the Sultan Zainul-Abidin. He is remembered for his pithy
sayings and maxims. He wrote Reshinama and Noornama.
7. Permananad: His real name was Nand Ram. He succeeded his father at the age of 25 as a
Patwari and later on resigned from the post. He affected the synthesis of Sufism with the
Vedanta which has been a glorious trait in the cultural development of Kashmir.
Permanand sang the Yoga of love in epic episodes development of Kashmir. Permanent
sang day along with his composition Shiva lagun.
8. Rasool Mir: called as father of Kashmiri Ghazals. He is remembered for his innovation in
the style of love songs. He became the favourite of musicians and Rasul Mir Day is
celebrated in valley on October 24 every year.
9. Zinda Kaul: winner of the Sahitya Academy award for Kashmiri for the fist time in 1956.
MONUMENTS OR RELIGIOUS OR TOURIST OR HISTORICAL PLACES OF
INTEREST
KASHMIR DIVISION
1. Amar Nath: Amarnath is a holy place in the Himalayas lying roughly at 80 miles distance
from Srinagar, and 48 from Pahalgam. It contains a huge cave sacred to Lord Siva, where a
Shivalingam naturally formed of Ice. It existence attracts innumerable pilgrims in spite of
the dangers that best this Journey every year. The yatra to the sacred cave is usually
performed in the month of Sravana (July-August). The cave is 50 feet long, 55 feet wide and
45 feet high.
2. Avantishwar: is significant monument built by Raja Awantivarman in 9th century AD.
3. Burzahom: Situated near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir, Burzahom was an important
Neolithic settlement. Neolithic people here lived on hunting and fishing and not on
agriculture. Important findings from this place are bone tools in the form of harpoons,
needles, arrowheads etc. A unique feature of the site is the graves where along with human
bones, bones of dogs and deer occur.
4. Cheshma Shabi and Pari Mahal: Emperor Shahjahan laid Chesh Shahi or the Royal
Spring in 1632 A.D. It is 9 km far from the city centre and famous for a spring of refreshing
digestive water. Two kilometer uphill from Cheshma Shahi is situated the Pari Mahal, a
school of astrology founded by Prince Dara Shikoh, Emperor Shah Jahans eldest son who
was killed in the war of succession.
5. Hair Parbat Fort: Constructed by Afghan Governor, Atta Mohammad Khan on the top of
Hari Parbat or Koh-e-Maraan Hill during the Dogra rule, artillery shells were periodically
fired from the fort to give the public an idea of the time during the day.

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6. Hazratbal Shrine: The most important Muslims shrine of Kashmir is situated on the left
(western) bank of Dal Lake, well known for Moi-e-Muqqadas (the sacred hair of Prophet
Mohammad (SAW) which is preserved here.
7. Jamia Masjid: The foundations one of the oldest and most spacious (348 ft x 381 ft)
mosques in Kashmir were laid by Sultan Sikander in 1398 A.D.
8. Khanqah-e-Maulla: The shrine of Shah-e-Hamdan of Khanqau-e-Moulla is one of the
oldest Muslim shrines in Kashmir situated on the bank of the river Jhelum in the old city.
The shrine was originally constructed by Sultan Sikander of Kashmir in memory of the
Muslim preacher, Mir Syed Ali Hamdani, who had earlier visisted Kashmir and stayed here
for mediation and preaching of Islam.
1. Khir Bhawani Temple: Situated at Tullamulla village in Ganderbal District is dedicated to
Ragnya Dev. The water of the sacred spring changes colour on it own. The annual festival
(Mela Kher Bhaawni) is held here on Jeshar Ashtami (May-June) when Hindus visit the
place in large numbers to offer prayers and seek the blessings of the deity.
2. Nishat Bagh: Laid down by Asif Khan, Queen Noor Jahans Brothers in 1633 A.D. in the
backdrop of Zabarwan hills. The garden presents a magnificent view of the Dal Lake.
3. Shalimar Bagh: Situated along Dal Lake, laid by Jahangir in 1619 A.D. for his wife
Noorjahan. The garden with four terraces and gets water from Harwan through a canal lined
with fountains. It is 15 kms from the city centre.
4. Shankaracharya Temple: Also known as Takht-e-Suleman, located at 1100 ft above
surface level was constructed by Raja Gopadalya in 371 B.C, Dogra ruler, Maharaja Gulab
Singh constructed stone stairs upto the temple.
5. Verinag: famous for its spring, out of which flows the river Jehlum. In ancient times it was
also known as Nilnag. Its construction was started by Mughal King Jahingir and completed
by Shah Jahan. The spring of deep blue water is full of fish. The remains of Mughal pavilion
and bath are found down the stream.
JAMMU DEVISION
1. Raghunath Temple: is one of the biggest temples of Jammu city. The complex consists of
17 temples with idols of all Hindus Gods and Goddesses. Construction started by Maharaja
Gulab Singh in 1851 and completed and Maharaja Ranbir Singh in 1857. Situated in the
heart of the city, the temple is a famous place of Shakti worship in Jammu.
2. Bahu Fort or Temple: is a renowned historical temple of Goddess Mahakali popularly
known as Bawe-wali Mata. The people of Jammu are having great faith in this temple. The
fort overlooks the river Tawi flowing placidly down the Jammu city. At the foothills of Fort
is a beautiful garden-Bagh-e-Bahu.
3. Amar Mahal Maseum: Beautiful place of Red Sand Stone, once presidential place of Raja
Amar Singh, Still has Golden throne of Raja made up of 120 kg pure gold and gallery of
paintings known as NALDAMYANT.
4. Dogra Art Museum: Located n the pink hall of Mubarak Mandi Complex. Has hand
written manuscripts of Shahnama, Sikandernama, gold painted bow and narrow of
Shahjahan and rare paintings from Basholi, Jammu and Kangra school of Paintings.
5. Mata Vaishno Devi: The most precious possession of Udhampur district is the world
famous Hindus shrine of Mata Vaishno Devi located in the sacred Trikuta Hills. It is the
principal site of Shakti worship in Jammu. Over five mission devotes visit the shrine
annually. The Goddess Vaishno Devis abode is in a 100 feet long cave with a narrow

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opening. The holy Gangas cold and crystal dear water washes the lotus feet of the hly
goddesses Pindian.
6. Nangali Sahib: Nangali Sahib Gurudwara is situated on the left bank of Drungli Nallah,
which is four km away from Poonch City. This gurudwara was established by Sant Bhai
Mela Singh who is said to have visited this shrine in 1810 A.D. When he was on his way to
conquer Kashmir.
7. Shiv Khori: Shiv Khori is a wonderful natural cave in a hillock in District Reasi which
contain a self made image of Lord Shiva. The Shiva Khori is 4.5 million from village
Bharakah in Pouni Block.
8. Shahdara Sharief: The shrine of Baba Ghulam Shah commonly known as Shahdara Sharief
is a popular tourist spot and symbol of commonly harmony as Hindus. Muslims and Sikhs
visit this people in large numbers, offer prayers and seek blessings of the Peer.

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PREVIOUS YEARS KAS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

CSE (Mains) 1995
1. Examine the causes of the revolt of 1857. Can it be called the First War of Indian
Independence?
Or
Explain Gandhijis swift rise to eminence just after the First World War. (in around 250
words)
(30)
2. Answer any two of the following
(a) 19th century, for the welfare of India women.
(b) Trace the growth of higher education in India between 1882 and 1940.
(c) Explain the rise of militant nationalism in India in the first two decades of the 20th century.
(Each less than 150 words)
(30)
3. Answer any three of the following: (Each less than 100 words)
(30)
(a) What is meant by the policy of masterly inactively? How was it pursued by the
Government of India between 1860 and 1875?
(b) What is the meant by separate electorate? When and why was it introduced in British
India?
(c) Assess the significance of the Brahmo Samaj in the cultural reawakening of India.
(d) What was the impact of the Deoband Movement on Indian Muslims?
4. Highlights the main features of any three of the following:
(i)
Arya Samaj
(ii)
Wahabi Movement
(iii)
Rama Krishna Mission
(iv)
Gurdwara Reform Movement
(12)
5. Write short notes of any three of the following:
(i)
Shakti worship in J&K State.
(ii)
Muharram
(iii)
Kumb Mela
(iv)
Kathak Dance
(09)
6. Write about any seven of them why they are famous.
(i)
Jyotiba Phule
(ii)
Sir Sayyid Ahmad
(iii)
Mrs. Annie Besant
(iv)
Shri Auroindo
(v)
Birsa Munda
(vi)
M.N. Roy
(vii) Justice B.J. Glancy
(viii) Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
(ix)
Satyajit Ray
(09)

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CSE (Mains) 1999

1. Analyse the forms of Drain after 1857.
Or
Did the events during 1945-47 make partition inevitable? (About 250 words)
(35)
2. Answer any of two of the following (about 150 words each)
(30)
(a) The Revolt of 1857 was but a Sepoy Mutiny Comment.
(b) What where the provisions of the Lucknow Pact? Examine its significance.
(c) What did the Ghadar party think of British Rule? What was its contribution to the freedom
struggle in India?
3. Answer any three of the following (about 75 words each)
(30)
(a) What were Gandhis views on the State?
(b) Analyse the significance of Gandhis pre-1919 Satyagrah as in India.
(c) What was the social legislation in the second half of the 19th century? Assess the
contribution of the men behind it.
(d) Was the Indian National Congress a safety valve for the continuance of the British
rule?
4. (a) What do you know of the following (About 20 words on each)
(30)
(i)
Simon Commision
(ii)
Indian National Army
(iii)
Vaikom Satyagraha
(iv)
Swaraj Party.
(b) Why have the following become famous?
(i)
William Wedderbunr
(ii)
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
(iii)
Madan lal Dhingra.
(iv)
Joytiba Phule.
(v)
Annie Besant
(c) Write about the chief features of the following
(i)
Bharatanatyam.
(ii)
Jaunpur style of architecture.
(iii) Gupta art
(iv)
Chola architecture
(v)
Mughal Paintings

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CSE (Mains) 2002

1. Discuss the circumstances leading to Swadeshi and Boycott movement (1905) in Bengal.
Or
Briefly describe the significant features of Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-31). (About
250 words)
(35)
2. Answer any of the following (About 150 words each)
(30)
(a) Why was Simon Commission Report regarded as a regressive document?
(b) Comment upon the terms of the Wavell Plan.
(c) Briefly discuss the resolutions passed at the Lahore Session of the Indian National
Congress. What was their significance?
(d) Comment upon the implications of Jinnahs two-nation theory for the Indian Freedom
Struggle.
3. Answer any three of the following (about 75 words each )
(20)
(a) What was the role of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in the national struggle
for freedom?
(b) Briefly discuss Gandhis views on Women.
(c) Discuss the Congress attitude to the Second World War. How for did it affect the
negotiations between the Congress and Cripps Mission?
(d) Why is Raja Ram Mohan Roy regarded as the maker of modern India?
4. (a) What do you know about the following: (About 20 words each)
(30)
(i)
Public Safety Bill
(ii)
Mahila Samitis
(iii)
Chittagong Army
(iv)
Lahore Conspiracy Case
(v)
Kheda Satyagraha.
(b) Why have the following become famous?
(i)
A.O. Hume
(ii)
Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur
(iii)
B.R Ambedkar
(iv)
Keshab Chandra Sen;
(v)
Swami Shradanand
(c) Describe briefly the chief features of the following
(i)
Pahari Painting
(ii)
Ashokan Rock Edicts
(iii)
Bamiyan Buddha
(iv)
Odissi Nritya
(vi)
Hindustani Style in Music

122

CSE (Mains) 2005

1. Evaluate the situation leading to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920-21 and
consequences thereof.
Or
Explain the important resolution of Lahore Congress and features of Poorna Swaraj (about
250 words)
(40)
2. Answer any two of the following (About 150 words each)
(i)
Keshab Chandra Sen
(ii)
Swami Shradanand
(d) Describe briefly the chief features of the following
(i)
Pahari Painting
(ii)
Ashokan Rock Edicts
(iii)
Bamiyan Buddha
(iv)
Odissi Nritya
(v)
Hindustani Style in Music
CSE (Mains) 2005
1. Evaluate the situation leading to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920-21 and consequences
thereof.
Or
Explain the important resolution of Lahore Congress and features of Poorna Swaraj (about 250
words).
(40)
2. Answer any of the following (About 150 words each)
(a) Discuss in brief the emergency of Indian National Congress
(b) Describe the background of Indian National Congress
(c) Narrate the resolutions passed at Tripura Session of the Indian National Congress
(d) Explain the importance of Nehru Report.
(40)
3. Answer and three of the following (About 75 words each)
(30)
(a) Second Round Table Conference
(b) Cripps Mission
(c) Rajajis formula and Wavell Plan
(d) Indian National Army
4. (a) What do you know about the following: (about 20 words)
(i)
Lucknow Pact 1916
(ii)
Rowlatt Act
(iii)
Bardoli Stayagraha
(iv)
The August Offer 1940
(v)
The Khilafat Movement
(15)
(b) Why have the following become famous?
(i)
Mahadev Govind Ranade.
(ii)
Vasudev Balwant Phadke
(iii)
Ashwini Kumar Datta.
(iv)
Shri Pherozshah Mehta.
(v)
C.R. Das
(15)
(c) Describe briefly the chief features of the following:
(i)
Ajanta Paintings,
123

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Pashmina
Sanchi Stupa,
Kathakali Dance
Rag Darbari

(15)
CSE (Mains) 2005 (Special)

1. Asses impact of Gandhijis policy of non-violence and non-cooperation in Indian politics.

Or
Critically examine the Montague Chelmsford reforms of 1919 (About 250 words) (30)
2. Answer any two of the following (about 150 words each)
(2 x 15) =
(30)
(a) Describe the evolution of Indian Nationalism during the late 19th century.
(b) Explain the Government of India act of 1935
(c) Describe the role of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad in the achievement of Indias independence
(d) The reforms of 1909 introduced a cardinal problem and the ground for controversy at every
requisition of the Indian electoral system. Examine.
3. Answer any three of the following (about 75 words each)
(3 x 10) =
(30)
(a) Describe the problems in the integration of the princely states into the Indian Union.
(b) Discuss the role of the extremist and their programme in the Indian National Movement.
(c) Describe the role of Subhash Chandra Bose in the Indian Struggle for Freedom.
(d) Give an account of the three phases of Indian National Congress during the freedom
movement.
4. (a) What do you know about the following:
(5 x 3) =
(15)
(i)
Quit India Movement
(ii)
Swaraj Party
(iii)
Indian National Army
(iv)
States Reorganization Commission
(v)
Poorna Swaraj
(b) Why have the following become famous?
(5 x 3) =
(15)
(i)
Dr. B.R> Ambedkar
(ii)
Sheikh Abdullah
(iii)
Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru
(iv)
Rabindranath Tagore
(v)
Swami Vivekananda
(c) Describe briefly the chief features of the following
(5 x 3) =
(15)
(i)
Sarnath Pillar
(ii)
Prasar Bharati
(iii)
Press Council of India
(iv)
Nishat Bagh
(v)
Amartya Sen.

124