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16th IFAC Symposium on Automation in Mining, Mineral

and Metal Processing


August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, California, USA

Mass-Flow Estimation in Mineral-processing Applications


Teemu Vyrynen*
Pekka Itvuo*
Matti Vilkko*
Antti Jaatinen**
Mika Peltonen***
*Department of Automation Science and Engineering, Tampere
University of Technology, P.O. Box 692, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland
(Tel: +358503775196; e-mail: teemu.vayrynen@tut.fi, pekka.itavuo@tut.fi, matti.vilkko@tut.fi)
**Metso Automation, P.O. Box 237, FIN-33101
Tampere, Finland (e-mail: antti.jaatinen@metso.com)
***Metso Minerals, P.O. Box 306, FIN-33101, Tampere, Finland
(e-mail:mika.peltonen@metso.com)
Abstract: This paper evaluates mass-flow estimation capabilities of four online mass-flow sensors: Power
transducer, laser profilometer, ultrasonic sensor, and strain gauge. Mass-flow estimates are generated
with two methods, linear-regression and non-linear physical mass-flow estimation models. The results of
this work indicate very good mass-flow estimation capabilities for all of the sensor types. These accurate
and cost-effective mass-flow sensors increase online monitoring capabilities in the mineral-processing
plants significantly, also allowing more effective manual process control, as well as the development and
implementation of more advanced automatic process control and optimisation systems. However, a
reference mass-flow measurement needs to be available for the calibration of the sensors.
Keywords: mass-flow, estimation, mineral-processing, sensors, linear regression
considerable benefits, such as improvements in energy
efficiency, spare parts usage, and end-product quality
optimization [Hulthen, 2010, Itvuo et al., 2012].

1. INTRODUCTION
Developing and implementing automated monitoring,
control, and optimization systems for mineral-processing
applications require accurate online mass-flow measurements
from the processes. The mass-flow sensors currently used in
mineral-processing plants are designed to monitor the
production volumes of end products.

The most significant technological issue delaying the


development and implementation of more advanced
automated control and optimization systems for mineralprocessing plants has been the lack of accurate, robust, and
cost-effective online mass-flow measurement methods.
Academic and commercial research has provided multiple
methods for online mass-flow measurements: Machine vision
[Mkwelo, 2004, Guyot et al., 2004, Al-Thaybat et al., 2006,
Kaartinen, 2009], laser profilometers [Taskinen et al., 2010],
ultrasonic sensors [GTi Gasser, 2012], radiation based
sensors [Omhart Vega, 2013], power transducers [Hulthn,
2010] and strain gauges [Yamazaki et al., 2002]. However,
none of these methods have yet managed to overcome the
traditional belt scale as the standard method for online massflow measurements.

The belt scale is the most common online bulk material massflow sensor used in the mineral-processing. The belt scale
provides an accurate online mass-flow measurement from the
process if calibrated properly. However, the high price of the
sensor prevents the installation of multiple belt scales in a
single mineral-processing plant. In addition to the online
mass-flow measurements of the belt scales, offline mass-flow
measurements can also be done at the plants. Offline massflow sensors include wheel-loader scales and truck scales.
The high price, low measurement frequency and variable
measurement delays prevent the offline mass-flow sensors
from being used in automated process control.

The main research question of this work is: How accurately


do the measurement signals of the online mass-flow sensors
correlate with the reference mass-flow measurement of the
belt scale? Four sensor types are presented and evaluated as
mass-flow sensors: Power transducer, laser profilometer,
ultrasonic sensor, and strain gauge. Additional research
questions concentrate on the operational evaluation of the
online mass-flow sensors, as well as the accuracies of the
non-linear physical mass-flow estimation models presented in

The full potential of the mass-flow measurements in process


control and optimization has long been overlooked by
mineral-processing industries such as comminution.
However, there is a trend toward increasing advanced
automated process control and optimization. Mass-flow
sensors such as belt scales are currently not widely utilised in
process control of the mineral-processing plants. Despite the
fact that previous research has indicated there could be
978-3-902823-42-7/2013 IFAC

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10.3182/20130825-4-US-2038.00023

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August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, USA

this work. The results of this work are divided into analytical
and operational evaluation sections.

The regression line generated by the linear-regression method


is the best possible linear fitting of the signals. However, due
to several factors, such as nonlinearity, trends, outliers, and
other abnormalities in data, the prediction might not be very
accurate throughout the data. Linear regression algorithm was
performed with Matlab software.

Section 2 of this work presents the measurement, mass-flow


estimation and evaluation methods used in this work. The
results of this work are presented in Section 3. Section 4 is
the conclusion chapter of this work which sums up the work.

2.3 Non-linear physical mass-flow estimation models

2. METHODS

Non-linear physical mass-flow estimation models are


presented for power transducer, laser profilometer, and
ultrasonic sensor. The mass-flow estimation model for the
power transducer was introduced by Erik Hulthn in his PhD
thesis in 2010. The mass-flow estimate mPT for the material
moving on the belt-conveyor is calculated based on the power
measurement of the electrical motor and the belt-conveyor
system geometrics, as presented in equation 4

This section presents the measurement, mass-flow estimation


and, evaluation methods used in this work. The mass-flow
estimation methods are linear-regression and non-linear
physical mass-flow estimation models, both of which are
used to generate mass-flow estimates based on measurement
signals of the sensors. Evaluation methods used in this work
are root mean-squared error and R-squared.
2.1 Measurement methods

mPT

The sensors used in this work are: Power transducer, laser


profilometer, ultrasonic sensor, and strain gauge. All of the
sensors are estimating material mass-flows from an industrial
belt-conveyor. Depending on the sensor type, the installation
place of the sensor is above the conveyor (laser profilometer
and ultrasonic sensor), on the conveyor roller rack (strain
gauge), or in the electrical cabinet of the mineral-processing
plant (power transducer). The belt scale provided a reference
mass-flow measurement during the experiments.

( Pelectrical
gh v

Pidle )ntot

v 2 ghdrop sin(D )

(4)

2.2 Linear-regression

where Pelectrical is the electrical power consumed in the motor,


Pidle is the power consumed by the motor when driving the
empty conveyor system, ntot is the coefficient factor of the
belt-conveyor system, g is the acceleration of gravity (9.81
m/s2), h is the lifting height of the conveyor, v is the velocity
of the conveyor-belt, hdrop is the material drop height to the
conveyor, and . is the inclination angle of the belt-conveyor
system.

A linear-regression method is used to answer the main


research question concerning the correlation of the
measurement signals. The linear-regression is designed to
find the best-fitting straight line through the data. The most
common criterion for the best fit is that the line minimizes the
sum of the squared errors of the prediction. The best-fitting
line is called a regression line. The regression line is used to
estimate mass-flows based on the measurement signals of the
online mass-flow sensors. The regression line is presented in
equation 1

The mass-flow estimation model of the laser profilometer is


based on material-height profile measurement, conveyor-belt
geometrics, conveyor-belt velocity, and the estimated bulk
density for the material. The operation principle of the laserprofilometer is based on a method called laser triangulation
[Dorch et al., 1994]. An empty conveyor-belt profile Hconveyor
is first measured with the laser profilometer. In order to
generate material-height profile Hmaterial, the material-surface
profiles Hsurface are measured and subtracted by the empty
conveyor profiles. This is presented in equation 5

A,

y' Bx

(1)

H material ( x)

where \ is the predicted value and x is the measurement


value. The equation of the regression line consists of two
linear parameters, which are the correlation coefficient B of
the regression line and the y-axis intercept point A. The
parameters of the used regression line are calculated based on
statistical variables obtained from the data. The statistical
parameters required for computing of the regression line are
the mean values of data Mi (i denotes data sets y or x),
standard deviations Si of data, and the correlation r between
the data. The linear parameters B and A can be calculated as
presented in equations 2 and 3.

A My

rS y

(5)

where x stands for index of the height measurement in crossdirection of the conveyor-belt. Individual material-height
profiles calculate the material mass-flow estimate mLP as
presented in equation 6. The material-height profiles are
scaled based on the belt-conveyor geometrics and velocity.
n

mLP

vU k x k y H material ( x)

(6)

x 1

In equation 6, v is the velocity of the conveyor-belt, U is the


bulk density estimate of the material, n is the amount of
height measurements in a single profile, kx is the horizontal
scaling factor, and ky is the vertical scaling factor. Figure 1
presents the material-height profile measurements of the laser
profilometer. The scaling of the measurement values is
performed based on conveyor geometrics. Two sets of height

(2)

Sx

BM x

H surface( x) H conveyor ( x) ,

(3)

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IFAC MMM 2013


August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, USA

profiles are presented in Figure 1: Material-height profiles


and empty conveyor-belt height profiles.

factor and ky is the vertical scaling factor. Figure 2 presents


the height profiles generated by the ultrasonic sensor
measurement and the non-linear mass-flow estimation model.

0.1

Height [m]

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
30
1
20

0.8
0.6
10

Fig. 1. Height profiles measured by the laser profilometer

Lenght [m]

The distance measurement of the ultrasonic sensor is based


on the time of flight of the ultrasonic pulse [Ihara, 2008]. The
mass-flow model of the ultrasonic sensor is similar to that of
the laser profilometer. The only difference between the
models is that while the laser profilometer measures the
entire height profile of the material in cross-direction of the
conveyor-belt, the ultrasonic sensor measures single height
values of the material bed. These momentary height values
Haverage are used to approximate the average height of the
material surface on the conveyor-belt. The conveyor-belt
shape can be measured either with the laser profilometer or
manually, and then approximated with a polynomial
equation. The order of the polynomial n and the coefficients
ai are determined by the shape of the conveyor-belt. Accurate
fitting is required. Estimate for the height profile of the
material Hmaterial can be calculated as shown in equation 7.

H material ( x)
a2 x 2

H average (an x

an 1 x

n 1

...

The linear regression models of the measurement signals are


compared with the reference mass-flow measurement signal
of the belt scale with measures of fit. The correlations of the
measurement signals can be evaluated based on measures of
fit. The analytical evaluation methods used in this work are
the root mean-squared error and the R-squared.
The root mean-squared error or RMSE is a quadratic method
that measures the average magnitude of the error. RMSE
method calculates the momentary differences between the
two signals, squares the differences and averages them over
the whole data. The square root of the average error is then
taken. The calculation of RMSE is presented in equation 10

(7)

RMSE

i 1

( xi
n

yi ' ) 2

(10)

where xi is the reference mass-flow value of the belt scale, yi


is the prediction of the linear-regression model, and n is the
number of samples in the data. The results of RMSE method
can be used to evaluate correlation accuracy between the
linear-regression models and the reference measurement
signal of the belt scale. The smaller the RMSE value, the
better the correlation of the signals.

(8)

conveyor is calculated as shown in equation 9

The R-squared or R2 is a goodness-of-fit method, which


describes how well a regression line fits a set of data. The
value of R-squared is between 0 and 1. If the R-squared value
of data is close to 1, the regression line fits the data well.
However, if the value is close to 0, it indicates poor fitting of
the regression line. Equation 11 presents the mathematic form
of R-squared

vU k x k y H material ( x) ,

Width [m]

2.3 Evaluation methods

The mass-flow estimate mUS for the material moving on the

mUS

The height profiles are presented upside-down compared to


the actual form of the height profiles on the conveyor, for
better visualisation.

Equation 7 returns negative height values outside the


intersection points of the average material-height level and
the empty-conveyor profile in cross-direction of the
conveyor- belt. Equation 8 presents how these height values
are modified to produce the correct height profile of the
material.

H material ( x)

Fig. 2. Height profiles generated by ultrasonic sensor


measurement and the non-linear mass-flow estimation model

a1 x a0 )

-H material ( x), H material ( x) t 0

0, H material ( x) 0

0.4
0.2

(9)

x 1

where v is the velocity of the conveyor-belt, U is the bulkdensity estimate of the material, n is the measurement-width
resolution selected by the user, kx is the horizontal scaling
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IFAC MMM 2013


August 25-28, 2013. San Diego, USA

( xi

yi ' ) 2

( xi
1

y)2

i 1
n
i

Based on the results shown in Table 2, the measurement


signal of the power transducer has the best correlation values,
compared to the reference mass-flow measurement of the belt
scale. The RMSE and R-squared values of 12.8 tons and
0.984 indicate very good mass-flow estimation capabilities of
the power-transducer measurement. The excellent results for
the power transducer are due to the mass-related operation
principle of the sensor. Previous research in the field of massflow measurements with the power transducer also found
good accuracy against the belt scale [Hulthn, 2010].

(11)

where xi is the reference mass-flow value of the belt scale, yi


is the prediction of the linear-regression model, y is the
average value of all linear-regression predictions, and n is the
amount of the measurement samples in the data.
3. RESULTS

The measurement signal of the laser profilometer also has


very good RMSE value of 16.0 tons and an R-squared value
of 0.975. Good correlation and accuracy results were
expected, due to the operating principle of the laser
profilometer. The laser profilometer used in this work can
measure the momentary volume-flow changes with very good
accuracy and measurement frequencies of up to 10,000
profiles in a second.

The results are presented in three subsections considering


different research questions: Correlation of measurement
signals (linear-regression), accuracies of the non-linear
physical mass-flow estimation models, and operational
features of the online mass-flow sensors. The sensors were
installed in a lifting industrial belt-conveyor of an aggregate
production plant. Total mass-flow value, measured by the
reference belt scale, was 56,147 kg during the experiment.
Bulk-density of the rock material was 1,440 kg/m3. The
duration of the experiment was 27 minutes and 39 seconds,
and the data acquisition frequency was 500 Hz. The velocity
of the conveyor-belt was measured with a tachometer.
Coefficient factor ntot of the belt-conveyor was determined
based on previous power and mass-flow measurements. In
order to evaluate the reliability of the results, a propagation of
uncertainty was calculated for every result based on all
identified error sources of the measurement setup and
sensors.

The measurement signal of the ultrasonic sensor correlated


surprisingly well with the reference measurement of the belt
scale. An RMSE value of 19.9 tons and an R-squared value
of 0.961 indicate that the measurement signal of the
ultrasonic sensor is well-correlated throughout the whole
mass-flow scale. This is unexpected, since the height
measurement should not be linear compared to the volume
flow, and therefore not linear compared to the mass-flow.
The measurement signal of the ultrasonic sensor had large
momentary measurement errors due to low measurement
frequency of the used sensor model. Large momentary
measurement errors cause significant problems if ultrasonic
sensor is used as part of an automated control system.
However, high measurement frequency of the sensor and
sufficient filtering can be used to provide useful measurement
data for the automatic control systems.

3.1 Correlation of the measurements (linear-regression)


This subsection presents the results of the correlation analysis
of the online mass-flow sensors and the belt scale. Table 1
presents the linear-regression parameters calculated for each
sensor, based on the measurement data of the experiment.

The strain gauge has RMSE and R-squared values of 19.1


tons and 0.964. The operating principle of the strain gauge is
mass-related, which explains the good correlation values.
However, the strain-gauge measurement is prone to
additional forces, which generate strains on the measured
object. Therefore the installation place of the strain gauge has
significant effect on the mass-flow estimation capabilities of
the sensor. If properly installed, the measurement signal of
the strain gauge is well-correlated with the reference massflow measurement of the belt scale.

Table 1. Linear-regression parameters


Sensor
Power transducer
Laser profilometer
Ultrasonic sensor
Strain gauge

B
63.95
2436400
11.87
57.89

A
201.48
11.19
6.20
24.95

Table 2 presents the RMSE and R-squared values for each


linear-regression model of the measurement signals. The unit
of the RMSE is in tons, while the R-squared is dimensionless
value.

Figure 3 presents a small section of the mass-flow data. It


demonstrates effects of the operating principles of the sensor
on the mass-flow estimates. The mass-flow estimate of the
power transducer is very smooth due to the averaging nature
of the power measurement. The mass-flow estimate of the
laser profilometer demonstrates the accurate momentary
mass-flow measurement capabilities of the sensor. The large
momentary measurement errors of the ultrasonic sensor are
caused by the operating principle of the sensor. The massflow estimate of the strain gauge correlates well with the
reference measurement, due to similar operating principles
for the sensor and the belt scale. Results also indicate good
linear correlation for all sensors throughout the whole massflow scale of 0400 tons per hour.

Table 2. Results of the linear-regression fitting


Sensor

RMSE (tons)

R-squared

Power transducer

0.011

Laser profilometer

Ultrasonic sensor

Strain gauge

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Mass flow [Tons/hour]

As presented in Table 3, the mass-flow estimation models of


the power transducer and laser profilometer were very
accurate, with cumulative error values of 0.91 percent and
0.88 percent. The mass-flow estimation model of the
ultrasonic sensor was relatively inaccurate with a cumulative
error value of 4.45 percent. The unstable and variable surface
profile of the rock-material bed is expected to cause most of
the inaccuracy with the mass-flow estimate of the ultrasonicsensor model. Multiple experiments are required for
statistical analysis to more comprehensively analyse the
accuracies of the non-linear mass-flow estimation models.
The lack of multiple experiments and the unknown real
accuracy of the belt scale reduce reliability of these results.

Belt scale
Power transducer

350

300

250

200

2.6

3.2
Samples

3.4

3.6

3.8
5

x 10

Belt scale
Laser profilometer

350

Mass flow [Tons/hour]

2.8

3.3 Operational features of the online mass-flow sensors

300

This subsection presents both financial and operational


features of each online mass-flow sensor used in this work.
Utilisation of the online mass-flow sensors in an actual
mineral-processing plant requires understanding of multiple
features of the sensors. Table 4 shows some of the important
factors that can be specified for each online mass-flow
sensor.

250

200

2.6

2.8

3.2
Samples

3.4

3.6

3.8
5

x 10

400
Belt scale
Ultrasonic sensor

Mass flow [Tons/hour]

350

High price has been the most fundamental issue preventing


the installation of multiple belt scales in a single mineralprocessing plant. The prices for power transducers, ultrasonic
sensors, and strain gauges are one-tenth the price of a
traditional belt scale. This allows more comprehensive
monitoring of the mineral-processing plant with equal
financial investment of a single belt scale.

300

250

200

2.5

3.5

Samples

360

Each of the presented online mass-flow sensors has different


operational principles and features that need to be addressed
to generate accurate mass-flow estimates. Installation
locations and required conveyor specifications vary,
depending on the sensor type. Various data-processing
features also need to be considered, such as calibration
equations and parameters, possible zero level drift,
temperature drift, and measurement noise levels. The features
presented in Table 4 represent only the most general factors
that need to be considered. Depending on the sensor model,
various other factors may arise, including accuracy,
measurement frequency, internal filtering operations, and
data-transfer methods.

Belt scale
Strain gauge 3

340

Mass flow [Tons/hour]

x 10

320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
2.6

2.8

3.2
Samples

3.4

3.6

3.8
5

x 10

Fig. 3. The mass-flow estimates of the sensors and the


reference mass-flow measurement of the belt scale
3.2 Accuracies of the non-linear mass-flow estimation models

4. CONCLUSION

The accuracy of each non-linear mass-flow estimation model


is determined by the cumulative error between the mass-flow
estimate generated by the model and the reference mass-flow
measurement of the belt scale. Table 3 presents the
cumulative mass-flow estimates and errors of each sensor.

This paper presented and evaluated four online mass-flow


sensors and two mass-flow estimation methods for mineralprocessing applications. The results of this work show that
alternative online mass-flow sensors and estimation models
can replace or work alongside with the traditional online
mass-flow sensors such as belt scales. These accurate and
cost-effective sensors significantly increase the online massflow measurement capabilities in mineral-processing plants.
However, utilisation of these sensors requires understanding
the features and error sources of each measurement method.
Multiple procedures, including installation, calibration,
filtering, and data-processing must be concerned and properly
performed to generate accurate mass-flow estimates with the
presented methods.

Table 3. Accuracies of the non-linear physical mass-flow


estimation models
Sensor

Cumulative massflow value (kg)

Cumulative
error (%)

Power transducer

56,600 +/ 1,700

0.91 +/ 0.03

Laser profilometer

56,600 +/ 3,000

0.88 +/ 0.05

Ultrasonic sensor

58,600 +/ 3,000

4.45 +/ 0.24
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Table 4. Features of the online mass-flow sensors


Feature
Estimated price
Measurement unit
Measurement type
Installation place
Requirement for
lifting conveyor
Zero level drift
Temperature drift
Measurement noise
Calibrated
parameters

Power
transducer
500
power
average over
length of the
belt-conveyor
electric cabinet

Laser
profilometer
15,000
volume
exact

exact

above conveyor

yes

Ultrasonic sensor

Strain gauge

Belt scale

500
height/volume

above conveyor

500
strain
average over
neighbouring
roller racks
roller rack

3,000-6,000
mass-flow
average over
neighbouring
roller racks
below conveyor

no

no

no

no

yes
yes
moderate

no
no
small

no
yes
moderate

Pidle , ntot

bulk density

bulk density

yes
yes
large
B, A (linearregression)

yes
yes
small
B, A (linearregression)

However, sensor calibration is still standing in the way of


implementing these online mass-flow sensors. Calibrated
belt, wheel loader and truck scales can generate the reference
mass-flow measurements for the calibration. Simplest
possible method for calibration of the sensors is the linearregression method presented in Subsection 2.2. Calibration of
the factors B (correlation coefficient) and A (zero-level
compensation) can be performed between the reference massflow and the sensor measurement.

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MSc thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South
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Ohmart Vega. W4800, Radiation-based weight systems for
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A. Taskinen, M. Vilkko, P. Itvuo, and A. Jaatinen. (2011)
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World Congress, Milano, Italy, 2011.

If a reference mass-flow measurement is not available


regularly, non-linear physical mass-flow estimation models
could be used to estimate mass-flows with reasonable
accuracy. However, the accuracy of the non-calibrated
physical mass-flow estimation model degreases over time,
when the estimated parameters became more inaccurate. The
non-linear models can be also calibrated with reference massflow measurements. The parameters that require calibration
are shown in Table 4. Belt scales also need periodic
calibration based on reference mass-flow measurement.
The presented online mass-flow sensors could solve the
fundamental problem concerning the lack of cost-effective
and accurate online bulk-material mass-flow measurements
in mineral-processing applications. Due to increased massflow measurement capability provided by sensors, process
optimization and automatic control systems can be developed
and implemented in mineral-processing plants. Significant
financial benefits can be gained at the plants in terms of
improved energy efficiency, spare parts usage, and optimized
end-product quality due to more advanced process control.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was performed as part of a SOREX project, a
collaboration project founded to develop new methods and
technology for mineral-processing applications. Funding for
this work was provided by Finnish Funding Agency of
Technology and Innovation (Tekes) and Metso Minerals. The
experiments of this work were carried out in the Metso
Minerals Research Centre Tampere, Finland.
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