Basics of Generator

Protection

Topic Outline

I.

Generator in a view of an Protection Engineer

II.

Typical Generator Protection

Generator Configuration

Generator Configuration

Generator Configuration

Generator Configuration

Generator Connections

Direct Connected

Unit Connected

Sample Nameplate

Generator Grounding

Generator Grounding

10

Generator Grounding

11

Generator Excitation Control and Generator

Capability
Excitation Control Basics
A generator excitation system provides the energy for the
magnetic field that keeps the generator in synchronism with the
power system.
Two types: those using ac generators as power source and
those using transformers.

12

Generator Excitation Control and Generator

Capability
Excitation Control Basics

13

Generator Excitation Control and Generator

Capability
Excitation Control Basics
Aside from maintaining synchronism of the generator, the
generator also:
Affects the amount of reactive power that the generator may
absorb or produce.
Increasing the excitation current results in increase reactive
power output.
Decreasing the excitation current results in decrease
reactive power output, extreme case loss of synchronism
will occur.

14

Generator Excitation Control and Generator

Capability
Generator Watt/VAR Capability

15

Generator Excitation Control and Generator

Capability
P-Q
Curve

16

Protection Requirements
To detect faults on the generator
To protect generator from the effects of abnormal
power system operating conditions
To isolate generator from system faults not cleared
remotely

17

Faults and Abnormal Conditions

18

Sample Generator Protection

19

Stator Phase Protection

20

Stator Phase Protection

This is achieved by:
Differential Relaying (87)
Turn Fault Protection (for split-phase generators)
Overcurrent (thermal)

RTDs

21

Differential Protection
High-Speed protection that can detect three-phase, phase to

phase and double-phase to ground faults.

Single-line to ground faults are not normally detectable unless its
neutral is solidly or low-impedance grounded.
Will not detect a turn-to-turn fault within the same phase
Both sides of the generator should be of the same ratio, rating,
connected burden, and preferably have the same manufacturer.

It could be high-impedance type, low-impedance type and selfbalancing differential schemes.

22

Differential Protection

23

Differential Protection

24

Overcurrent Protection
For small generators this may be the only protection applied.

With solid earthing, it will provide some protection against earth

faults
For a single generator, CTs must be connected to neutral end of
stator winding.
Generator
3

50/51

25

Overcurrent Protection
Some helpful points in setting overcurrent relays:
From C37.102-2005:
Use IOC and TOC unit having an EI characteristic.
IOC is set to 115% FLC and is used to torque-control TOC unit
TOC unit is set to 75%-100% FLC and a time settings operating
7sec @ 218% FLC or coordinate with downstream relay.
From ABCs of Overcurrent Protection:
Set protection above FLC and above decrement curve in the
lowest decade.
Set protection below overload curve.
Set protection to intersect with the decrement curve in the second
lowest decade.

26

Overcurrent Protection

27

Stator Ground Protection

28

Stator Ground Protection

This is achieved by (depends on the grounding method):
Differential Relaying (87N)
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection using voltage relays
Overcurrent

29

Stator Ground Fault Protection

Stator grounding determines the generator performance

during fault conditions.

If solidly grounded, it will deliver very high current to a
SLG fault at its terminals with no neutral voltage shift,
therefore equipment damage is severe.
If ungrounded, it will deliver a negligible amount current
during a SLG fault at its terminals with fill neutral voltage
shift which could cause failure of generation equipment
insulation.

30

Stator Ground Fault Protection

Because of this, stator windings on major generators are

grounded in a manner that will reduce fault current and

overvoltages and yet provide a means of detecting the
ground fault condition quickly enough to prevent burning
of core iron.

31

Low-Impedance Stator Grounding

32

Low-Impedance Stator Grounding

33

Low-Impedance Grounding
The grounding resistor or reactor is selected to limit the

generator contribution to an SLG fault to range of

currents between 200A and 150% of rated load current.
Supplementary protection is provided by using 87N

34

Low-Impedance Grounding

35

High-Impedance Grounding
High-resistance generator neutral grounding uses a

distribution transformer with a primary rating greater than

or equal to the line-to-neutral voltage rating of the
generator and a secondary rating of 120 or 240V.
Power dissipated in the resistor is approximately equal to
the reactive volt-amperes in the zero-sequence capacitive
reactive of the generators, windings of any transformers
connected to generator terminals.

36

High-Impedance Grounding
An SLG fault is generally limited to 3 to 25 primary

amperes.
Others only uses resistor aside from transformers but the
fault current is limited to 5A.

37

High-Impedance Grounding

38

Overvoltage/Overcurrent Schemes
59G works on fundamental
frequency (3V0)
Typically set at 5V
Measures maximum at

terminal fault and decreases

at faults moves toward the
neutral
Must be coordinated with
other protection that works
on ground faults
39

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

59G can provide protection for only about 80% to 95% of
the stator windings.
This is due to generator construction imperfections and
subsequent small amounts of zero-sequence current that

will flow in the generator ground.

This small amount of zero-sequence current makes it
impossible for conventional ground fault detection relays to
remain selective when set too low.
Additional ground fault protection is required.

40

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Protection can be done using:
Third-harmonic voltage-based techniques
Neutral or residual subharmonic voltage injection
Third-harmonic voltages components are present at the

terminals of nearly every machine to varying degrees; they

arise due to the nonsinusoidal nature of rotor flux and vary
based in machine design and manufacturer.
These voltages are used in detecting faults on the
generator to provide protection.

41

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

3rd-harmonic voltage is dependent
on operating conditions of the
generator.
There is a point where the 3rdharmonic is zero.
For a ground fault at the neutral, 3rd
harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to neutral
For a ground fault at the terminal,
3rd harmonic decreases as fault
approaches to the terminals.
The 3rd harmonic levels should be
measured with the generator
connected and disconnected from
the transformer before enabling 3rd
harmonic protection.
42

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Undervoltage

43

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Undervoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of thirdharmonic voltage at the neutral decreases.
Therefore undervoltage relay at the neutral could be used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.
Set to overlap with 59G settings.

Sometimes, it is supervised with OC relay, real or reactive

power and breaker contact.

44

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Overvoltage

45

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Overvoltage
Since for a fault near the neutral, the level of thirdharmonic voltage at the terminal increases.
Therefore overvoltage relay (59T) at the terminal could be
used.
It is tuned at 180Hertz to measure third harmonic.

Set to overlap with 59G settings.

46

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Third-Harmonic Comparator Technique

47

100% Stator Ground Fault Protection

Subharmonic Injection Schemes

48

Field Fault Protection

49

Field Fault Protection

Field circuit is an isolated DC system.
Insulation failure at a single point:
No fault current, therefore no danger
Increase chance of second fault occurring
Insulation failure at a second point:
Shorts out part of field winding

Heating
Flux distortion causing violent vibration of rotor
Desirable to detect presence of first earth fault and give
an alarm.
50

Field Fault Protection

51

Field Fault Protection

52

System Backup Protection

53

System Backup Protection

Backup protection is divided into:
Phase-fault protection
(21) Distance relays
(51V) Voltage controlled/restraint overcurrent
relays
Earth fault protection

(51G) Ground OC Relays

Sometimes (46) is also used as backup which provides unbalanced fault

protection backup.
54

System Backup Protection

55

System Backup Protection

51V
Use of simple OC relay is not recommended.
Voltage Restrained
Operating characteristics is continuously varied.
depending on measured volts.
Voltage Controlled
Relay switches between fault characteristic and load
characteristic depending on measured volts.

56

System Backup Protection

Distance Phase Backup Protection
Most common type of phase system backup protection.
Two zones are applied with mho characteristic.
If the generator is connected where there is no phase
shift ( wye-wye transformer or directly connected), the
relay will accurately measure the impedance
If the generator is connected to delta-wye transformer,
where there is phase shift, auxiliary PT is required to
compensate the phase shift.
If no aux. PT, use compensator distance relay.
57

System Backup Protection

Distance Phase Backup Protection Setting Guidelines
Set the impedance relay to the smallest of the three following
criteria:
120 percent of longest line (with infeed). If the unit is
connected to a breaker-and-a-half bus, this percent is
calculated using the length of the adjacent line.
50 to 66.7 percent of load impedance (200 to 150 percent
of the generator capability curve) at the machine-rated
power factor.
80 to 90 percent of load impedance (125 to 111 percent of
the generator capability curve) at the relay maximum
torque angle (MTA).

58

System Backup Protection

59

System Backup Protection

Backup Ground Protection
Backup ground protection is set to pickup for ground
faults at the end of all lines out of the station
Set to coordinate with the slowest ground fault protection
on the system.

60

Abnormal Frequency
Protection (81)

61

Abnormal Frequency Protection

Stable system is when Power Input = Power of all loads
+ Losses in the system
When there is a change between the this relationship,
abnormal system frequency arises.
Underfrequency condition occurs as a result of sudden
reduction in input power
Overfrequency condition occurs as a results sudden loss
of load or key interties exporting power.

62

Abnormal Frequency Protection

Major considerations associated with operating a generating

plant at an abnormal frequency:
Protection of equipment from damage that could result
from operation at an abnormal frequency.
Prevention of inadvertent tripping of the generating unit
for a recoverable abnormal frequency condition that does
not exceed the plant equipment design limits.

63

Abnormal Frequency Protection

Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
Some turbine generators are designed to accommodate
frequency voltage characteristics from IEC 600343:2007, Rotating Electrical Machines-Part 3.
This standard requires generators to deliver continuously
rated output at the rated power factor over the range of
5% in voltage and 2% in frequency. (61.2 Hz and
58.8Hz)

64

Abnormal Frequency Protection

Conformance to IEC 60034:2007

65

Abnormal Frequency Protection

Conformance to IEC 60034:2007
The standard recommends that operation outside the
shaded are be limited in extent, duration and frequency
of occurrence.
The manufacturer could therefore impose time
restrictions for example below 95% or above 103% of
rated frequency.
Goal of frequency protection scheme is to return the
frequency to the continuous IEC operating frequency
range (98% to 102%).
66

Abnormal Frequency Protection

67

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

Protection (24 / 59)

68

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

Overexcitation occurs whenever the ratio of the voltage
to frequency (V/Hz) applied to the terminal exceeds
design limits. IEEE standards have established the ff.
limits:
Generators, 1.05pu at the output terminals (generator
base)
Transformers, 1.05pu at the terminals at rated load or
1.1pu at no load
These limits apply unless manufacturers state otherwise.

69

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

When V/Hz ratios are exceeded, saturation of the
magnetic core of the generator or connected
transformers can occur, and stray flux will be induced into
non laminated components.
Note that overexcitation protection on a generator or its
connected transformer is different from field
overexcitation.
Excessive overvoltage of a generator will occur when the
level of dielectric field stress exceeds the insulation
capability.
70

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

Not all overvoltage condition will be detected by V/Hz
relay.
It is general practice to provide overvoltage relaying to
alarm, or in some cases, trip the generators from these
high dielectric stress levels.

71

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

72

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

73

Overexcitation and Overvoltage

74

Loss-of-Excitation
Protection (40)

75

Loss-of-Field Protection
Causes of loss-of-field:
Accidental trip of field breaker
Field open circuit
Field short circuit
Voltage regulator system failure
Loss of supply to excitation system

For most generators, the unit will overspeed and

operate as an induction generator. It will supply power
but takes reactive power from the system.
76

Loss-of-Field Protection
On loss-of-field, apparent impedance of fully loaded machine
travels from loaded value in the 1st quadrant to the 4th quadrant
close to X axis at value just above the direct axis transient
reactance (about 2-7 seconds).

Final impedance point depends on initial load, varies between

Xd/2 at full load to direct-axis synchronous reactance Xd at no
load.
Locus of impedance trajectory depends on system impedance

77

Loss-of-Field Protection

78

Loss-of-Field Protection
For small and less important machines, a single-zone
offset mho is used to detect this condition. For larger
machines, two-zone offset mho is used.
Smaller Circle (#1)
Diameter of 1.0 pu impedance on machine base
Small almost instantaneous time delay
Offset equal to Xd/2
Larger Circle (#2)
Diamter of Xd
Time delay of 30-60 cycles

Offset equal of Xd/2

79

Loss-of-Field Protection
Two-zone Offset Mho characteristic

80

Negative-Sequence
Current(46)

81

Negative-Sequence Protection
In the real world, IA does not necessarily equal to IB and IC
Unbalances are caused by:
System asymmetries
Unbalanced loads
Unbalanced system faults
Open phases
Produce negative-sequence currents-induce a double frequency
current

82

Negative-Sequence Protection
I2 crosses the air gap, appears in rotor as double-frequency
current
Flows in rotor surface, non magnetic wedges
Severe overheating, melting of wedges into air gap
Standards permits 5-10% of I2
Short-time limits expressed as 22 = , where K is a design
constant

83

Negative-Sequence Protection

84

Negative-Sequence Protection

Short-time
values apply for
120 seconds or
less. Beyond
120 seconds,
the continuous
capability
should be used.

85

Negative-Sequence Protection

86

Anti-motoring or Reverse
Power (32R)

87

Generator Motoring
Occurs when the energy supply to the prime mover is cut
off while the generator is still on the line. A primary
indication of motoring is the flow of real power into the
generator.
Estimated power required to motor the idling prime mover
is:

88

Out-of-Step Protection (78)

89

Out-of-Step Protection
When a fault occurs on the power system, the generator can

begin to accelerate due to differences in the mechanical power

into the generator and the electrical power at the generator
terminals.
If the fault is not cleared quickly, this acceleration will result in
the generator rotor voltage advancing beyond 90 degrees with
respect to the generator terminal voltage.
At this point, power flow into the generator and the rotor angle
will continue to advance until is aligned with the next pole. This
is known as slipping a pole or loss of synchronism.
90

Out-of-Step Protection

91

Out-of-Step Protection
Adverse Effects

High peak currents and off-frequency operation (slipping)

Winding stresses
Pulsating Torques
Mechanical resonances
Standard generator protection will not detect loss-of-sychronism
Standard transmission line protection will not detect loss-ofsynchronism
If electrical center is between the GSU into the generator, out-ofstep protection should be applied at the machine terminals
92

Out-of-Step Protection
Determination of Electrical Center

Electrical center is the point in the system where the impedance

between the sources is equal.
Electrical center = (Xd + Xt + Xs) / 2

93

Out-of-Step Protection

94

Out-of-Step Protection

95

Out-of-Step Protection

96

Inadvertent Energization

97

Inadvertent Energization
When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning gear
or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an induction motor
and can be damaged within a few seconds

Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions

98

Inadvertent Energization
When an offline generator is energized (w/o field) on turning gear
or coasting to a stop, the generator behaves as an induction motor
and can be damaged within a few seconds

Causes:
Operating Errors
Open Breaker Flashovers
Control Circuit Malfunctions

99

Inadvertent Energization
The following protection elements may detect or can be set to
detect inadvertent energizing:
Loss of Field Protection
Reverse Power
Negative-sequence overcurrent
Breaker Failure
System backup

100

Inadvertent Energization
Inadvertent energization protection needs to be in service when the
generator is out of service.

Dedicated protection:
Directional Overcurrent
Frequency Supervised Overcurrent
Distance Relay
Voltage Supervised Overcurrent
Auxilliary Contact-Enabled Overcurrent
Overcurrent Supervised by Multiple Elements
101

Loss-of-Potential (60)

102

Loss-of-Potential
Loss of the voltage transformer (VT) signal can occur because
of a number of cases, most commonly fuse failure.
It could be VT or wiring failure, an open circuit in the draw-out
assembly, an open contact due to corrosion or blown fuse
Such loss can cause protective relay misoperation or failure or
generator voltage regulator runaway, which can lead to
generator overexcitation
It is important to detect loss-of-potential condition, sometimes
called, fuse loss (60FL)

103

Loss-of-Potential

104

Synchronism Check and

Auto Synchronizing (25)

105

Synchronism Check and Auto

Synchronizing
Synchronism Check
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
Typical parameters call for no more than 6RPM error, 2%
voltage magnitude difference, and no more than 10 deg
phase angle error before closing the breaker

106

Synchronism Check and Auto

Synchronizing
Auto Synchronizing (25A)
Checks the generator system frequency, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle be in alignment
It involves sending voltage and speed raise and lower
commands to the voltage regulator and prime governor.
When the system is in synchronism, the autosync relay is
sometimes designed to send a close command in
advance of the zero phase angle error to compensate for
breaker close
107

Synchronism Check and Auto

Synchronizing

108

Tripping Modes

109

Tripping Modes
Simultaneous Tripping

Provides the fastest means of isolating the generator

Used for all internal generator faults and severe
abnormalities in the generator protection zone.
Generator Tripping
Does not shutdown the prime mover and is used where it
may be possible to correct the abnormality quickly,
permitting a rapid reconnection of the machine to the
system.

110

Tripping Modes
Unit Separation

Initiates only the opening of generator breakers

Recommended when maintaining the unit auxiliary loads
connected to the generator is desirable.
Sequential Tripping
Used for prime mover problems where high-speed tripping is
not a requirement.
1. turbine valves, 2. generator breakers 3. field breaker and
load transfer of loads.

111

Tripping Modes
These tripping scheme must be review and applied according to
the present generator application
Selection would depend on the ff:
Type of prime mover
Impact of the sudden loss of output power on the electrical
system and prime mover
Safety to personnel
Operating experience
Management of unit auxiliary loads during emergency
shutdown.
112

Tripping Modes

113

Sample Tripping Modes

114

Sample Logic

115

Sample Logic

116

Sample Logic

117

Sample Logic

118

References:
Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications by Blackburn
IEEE Tutorial on Synchronous Generators
Basler BE1-11g manual
IEEE Seminar on Protective Relaying by Russ Patterson
C37.101-2006
C37.102-2006

119