SRK SVS StructuralCourse ProExplo May2015 CN Jps 20150512

IX Congreso Internacional de
Prospectores y Exploradores
Applied Structural Geology in
Exploration and Mining
May 16-17, 2015
ProExplo 2015 Lima
Course Presenters
Dr. James Siddorn, PGeo, is a Practice Leader (Structural Geology) with SRK
Consulting (Canada) and based in the Toronto office. He has 20 years of
experience in the structural analysis of mineral deposits. James is an expert in
deciphering deposit-scale controls on ore plunge in precious and base metal
deposits, the district-scale interpretation of geophysics for exploration targeting,
and applied three-dimensional geological modelling. He also assists clients with
strategy and technical reviews for exploration and mining projects worldwide and
has undertaken projects in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North, South, and Central
America.
James has taught more than 30 applied structural geology courses to over 1000
exploration and mining geologists and engineers. In May 2013, he was
recognized by the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum with
the Past Presidents Memorial Medal for leadership and excellence in the field of
Structural Geology.
jsiddorn@srk.com
Isobel Gilbertson, MSc, joined SRK Consulting in 2007. She is now a geologist
with a focus on structural geology based in Lima, Peru with SVS Ingenieros.
Isobel has previously spent seven months working with structural geology
experts in SRK NA.
Isobel has over eight years experience including planning and implementing
geochemical surveys on surface and underground, RC and diamond drilling
programmes, geological and structural mapping, interpretation of geophysical
surveys, target generation, desk-based prospectivity reviews and 3D modelling of
structures for geological and geotechnical models. This experience has included
a variety of commodities including gold, base-metals, diamonds and oil shale in
Africa, Europe, Asia, North and South America, from remote regional exploration
through to resource definition work.
igilbertson@svs.com.pe
SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.
ProExplo 2015 Lima
Course Schedule
DAY ONE
0830-0900
Welcome and Introduction.
0900-0945
General concepts of structural geology and their

application to mineral systems.
0945-1030
Structural mapping techniques for exploration and

mining geologists.
1030-1045
Coffee Break
1045-1230
3D visualization and interpretation of geology and

mineralization.
1200-1330
Lunch Break
1330-1530
Analysis of structure in drillcore: A practical

introduction.
1530-1545
Coffee Break
1545-1730
Structural analysis of faults and fault systems Part 1
DAY TWO
0830-0915
0915-1030
Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part 1
1030-1045
Coffee Break
1045-1230
1230-1330
Lunch Break
1330-1530
Structural analysis of veins and vein systems
1530-1545
Coffee Break
1545-1700
Tectonic regimes and their control on structural

architecture
ProExplo 2015 Lima
Applied Structural Geology

in Exploration and Mining
CM1 General concepts of
structural geology and their
application to mineral systems
ProExplo 2015 Lima

Welcome and Introduction

ProExplo, May 16-17, 2015
Housekeeping Notes
Emergency Exits;
Bathrooms;

Aims of Course
Demonstrate why so many ore deposits are

strongly structurally controlled;
Define the simple principles of structural

control;
Give you the tools you require to do

structural geology in the mining and
exploration environment; and
Give you the confidence to apply these tools,

and therefore to make a real difference!
ProExplo 2015 Lima
Course Presenters
Dr. James Siddorn
Principal Consultant
SRK Canada (Toronto)
Specializes in:
Deciphering the structural control on ore plunge and the distribution of

mineralization at deposit scales;
3D applied geological modelling; and
Applied structural geological interpretation of aeromagnetic data, focused on
the controls on the distribution of mineralization.
Ms. Isobel Gilbertson
Consultant
SVS Ingenieros (Lima, Peru)
Specializes in:
Deciphering structural controls on the distribution of mineralization for a

variety of commodities; and
Geochemical surveys, drilling programs, geological and structural mapping,
interpretation of geophysical surveys, target generation, desk-based
prospectivity reviews and 3D modelling of structures for geological and
geotechnical models.

Course Schedule: Day 1

0830-0900
Welcome and Introduction.
0900-0945
General concepts of structural geology and their

application to mineral systems.
Structural mapping techniques for exploration and
mining geologists.
Coffee Break
3D visualization and interpretation of geology and
mineralization.
Almuerzo
Analysis of structure in drillcore: A practical
introduction.
Coffee Break
0945-1030
1030-1045
1045-1230
1230-1330
1330-1530
1530-1545
1545-1730

Course Schedule: Day 2

0830-0915
0915-1030
Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part I
1030-1045
Coffee Break
1045-1230
1230-1330
Almuerzo
1330-1530
Structural analysis of veins and vein systems
1530-1545
Coffee Break
1545-1700
Tectonic regimes and their control on structural

architecture
ProExplo 2015 Lima

CM1 - General concepts of structural
geology and their application to
mineral systems
Structural geology - why bother?

A Risky Situation?
A man floating along in a hot air balloon began
to realise he was lost. He reduced his altitude
and spotted a person below. He descended
a little more and shouted:
"Excuse me, can you help me? I promised a
friend I would meet him an hour ago, but I don't
know where I am".
The stranger replied,
"You are in a hot air balloon hovering
approximately 10 metres above the
Chuquicamata mine close to Calama.
A Risky Situation?
"You must be a geologist", said the balloonist.
"I am" replied the stranger, "How did you know?"
"Well", answered the balloonist, "everything you
told me is technically correct, but I have no idea
what to make of your information, and the fact is I
am still lost. Frankly, you've not been much help
so far".
The stranger below responded,
"You must be a engineer".
"I am," replied the balloonist, "but how did you
know?"
ProExplo 2015 Lima
A Risky Situation?
Well," said the geologist,
you don't know where you are or where you are
going.
You have risen to where you are through a large
quantity of hot air.
You made a promise to someone that you have no
idea how to keep, and you expect me to solve your
problem, but you really aren't interested in the
information I'm providing.
The fact is you are in exactly the same situation you
were before we met, but now, somehow, it's my fault.
Geology Input to the Mining Process

Most operations do
not maximize the
value of continued
geological input.
Many mining companies have not effectively

implemented information visibility inside or
outside their organizations, limiting the amount
and quality of information required to evaluate
risks and make decisions on appropriate
mitigation strategies.

Geology
underpins
every aspect
of the mining
process

ProExplo 2015 Lima
Geology vs. Risk

Geology
input lowers
RISK!!!!

How Does Structural Geology Make a

Difference?
Direct input on the limits, size and shape of ore

bodies;
Elevates confidence in predictability of ore

behavior:
Geometrical grade control, dilution, targeting;
Geochemical grade control, ore
quality/metallurgy; and
Geotechnical ground control, dilution.
Definition of hydrogeological pathways,

geotechnical domains, etc.
ProExplo 2015 Lima
The Conceptual Basis of Structural

Control in Mineral Deposits
All hydrothermal ore deposits require

transport of large quantities of relatively
insoluble metals in solution from some
source region to the site of deposition;
Metal transport takes place principally by

percolation of the fluid through the rock, and
the low solubility of the metals means that
very large fluid fluxes are required.
Hydrothermal and sulphide

depositional model

Metals Abundance in Various Rock Types

Element
Ultramafic
Ultramafic
Mafic
Mafic
Felsic
Cu ppm
Zn ppm
Pb ppm
Au ppm
Ag ppm
10
50
1
0.0008
0.06
87
105
6
0.0017
0.11
30
60
15
0.002
0.051
Greywacke
Cont. Crust
Crust
0.002
0.08
75
80
8
0.003
0.08
Solubility of Metals
Cu, Zn = not constrained by solubility in saline
solutions, therefore approximate abundance in rocks.
Au = not constrained by solubility in hydrothermal
solutions, especially those containing S, therefore
approximate abundance in rocks.
Exercise 1:
Fluids and Plumbing

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Exercise on Fluids and Plumbing
Assume:
Solubility of Au in hydrothermal solution = 0.03 ppm;
1 oz = 31g; and
1 litre of hydrothermal fluid = 1 kg.
How much fluid required for a 5 Moz Au deposit?

Exercise on Fluids and Plumbing

Fluid Required
Au (Moz)
Deposit
Size
Grams
Solubility
(ppm)
155,000,000
0.03
Fluid
(tonnes)
5,166,666,667
Fluid (L)
5,166,666,666,667
Remember, these calculations assume 100%

efficiency in depositing the metal
at the deposit site!
5E+12 litres = 5
km3

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Fluid Required
Estadio Monumental :
Volume:
1,800,000 m3
1.8 x 109 litres
1m3 = 1000 litres
5Moz Au deposit:
Minimum fluids:
5.0 x 1012 litres
2,778 Estadio Monumentals
Another way of looking at this

problem is that 1oz of gold
will saturate an Olympic
swimming pool full of a
typical hydrothermal fluid!

Basis for Structural Control
Getting the metal to the deposit is first and

foremost a severe hydrodynamic problem;
A simple analysis of this hydrodynamic

problem provides the foundation for the
principles of structural control; and
It also leads to a set of simple, practical

structural geological tools for aiding the
discovery, delineation and efficient
exploitation of mineral deposits.
Brothers Black Smoker

The Basic Hydrodynamic Problem
So how does the earth manage to channel several millions of

Olympic swimming pools of fluid through the relatively small
rock volume that is to be the mineral deposit?
El Romeral Fe deposit: >600,000,000 mt @ 28.4 % Fe

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A Simple Hydrodynamic Analysis
The migration of fluid through a porous and

permeable rock mass is described
macroscopically by Darcys Law;
Fluid flux = Pressure head x Rock permeability

Fluid viscosity
Pressure heads have a limited range in the

earth - eg, Plith Phyd;
Hydrothermal aqueous fluids have approx

constant viscosities at upper to mid-crustal
conditions.
Old Faithful, Yellowstone

Driving Forces for Fluid Flow
Pressure gradients factor of ~3 (lithostatic versus
Topography;
Seismic pumping;
Metamorphic dehydration;
Magmas emplaced in fluid-saturated rocks;
Fluids expelled from crystallising magmas;
Buoyancy:
Temperature (thermal expansion);
Salinity;
Viscosity - range of 1 order of magnitude:
Mt St Helens Phreatic
Eruption
40-400 Pa*s at T = 100-800C and 50-300
Mpa.
hydrostatic):

Driving Forces for Fluid Flow

Permeability:
Porous sandstone (>15%) = 1 darcy (10-12 m2);
Crystalline granite = 10-10 darcies (10-22 m2);
Fault at mid-crustal depth = 1 darcy (10-12 m2);
10 orders of magnitude!
Therefore only permeability can vary sufficiently to
permit the large fluid fluxes required to form ore
deposits.

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The Principles of Structural Control
Only abnormally permeable

rocks will permit the fluid fluxes
necessary to form ore deposits;
Fractured rocks (i.e. fault

zones) are the most likely
conduits for transport of large
fluid volumes;
But there is a built-in negative

feedback in the system which
will reduce the effectiveness of
the fault zone to pass the fluid
(and metal) volumes required.
The evidence for this is ubiquitous in paleo-fault zones fractures are vein-filled, wall rocks are often highly
altered, gouge zones are tight and cemented - all of
which dramatically reduce the hydrodynamic efficiency of
the zone.

Therefore, in order to transport the required

metal volumes, the permeability of the fault
zone must be continuously regenerated
(permeability of an active fault at mid crustal
depth ~4 darcies, or 10-8 m2);
This leads to the important conclusion that

hydrothermal ore deposits are localised on
faults that were (repeatedly / continuously)
active at the same time the hydrothermal
system was active and metal-pregnant;
Therefore, the concept of structural

preparation, whereby the fault sits around
waiting for the mineralising fluid to come by
is flawed.
San Andreas Fault

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Structure active during

mineralization

The Importance of Getting Timing Right
Application of structural control principles requires that the

timing of mineralisation must be carefully matched with
the history of activity on a fault system.
Regional cleavage cuts high-grade mineralization

Most (all?) hydrothermal ore deposits form

on or adjacent to active faults/shear zones;
Especially in gold deposits, economic grade

is broadly correlated with vein/fracture
concentration, which in turn is a measure of
dilatancy in the controlling structure; and
A key component of mineral exploration is

identifying and locating sites of dilation in
structures that were active at the time of ore
formation.
Sulphide filled dilational
jog, Sudbury, Ontario
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Permeability is unlikely to be the same everywhere on an

active fault zone;
Permeability will generally be highest where damage
within and around the fault zone is highest;
This will depend to some extent on host rock type, but will
principally be localised by irregularities (e.g. bends,
branches, steps, jogs) along the fault.
Damage zones around irregularities along fault zone

are zones of enhanced permeability
Fluid flow is therefore maximized, and

ore deposits are generally localized on
irregularities (i.e., bends, bumps,
branches and jogs) in fault zones;
Irregularities commonly extend beyond

or sit off the main fault strand, which
explains why deposits commonly occur
on second- or third-order structures
rather than on the main fault;
Aside from fluid flow, this concept applies to magma

as well. Therefore, intrusions and breccia pipes and
associated mineral deposits also commonly occur
along irregularities.
Zones of local damage and permeability enhancement in

active fault zones have another key influence on fluid flow
and deposit localization;
The damage zone undergoes (fracture) porosity
enhancement during each episode of fault movement.
This increase in local porosity causes a transient
reduction in local pore fluid pressure, which will suck fluid
towards the damaged zone.

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Dilation
sucks!!
There are two other important consequences of this local

pressure drop:
It encourages mixing of fluids sucked from the
surrounding wall rock and along the fault zone;
It can drastically alter the solubility of metals in the fluid;
Both of these processes can lead directly to metal
precipitation in the zone of maximum fluid flux.

In summary, irregularities on active fault
zones:
Provide the very high-permeability fluid

pathways that have the capacity to
transport large volumes of metal to a local
site of deposition;
Are fluid pumps which suck fluids into the

zones of enhanced permeability; and
Encourage mixing of locally derived and

equilibrated fluids with (hotter and metalsaturated) fluids travelling along the fault
zone.
Applied Structural Control Principles

There are three basic steps to applying these
principles at regional to local scales:
1. Determine the timing of mineralization
relative to structural events, and identifying
the event(s) that produced the
mineralization;
2. Mapping/logging/interpreting in 3
dimensions, to determine the structural
setting and pattern of active structures
during mineralization; and
3. Determine the likely shapes, orientations,
and locations of dilational sites on the
active structures.
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So how does this apply to your area?

Antamina
Chucapaca
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CM2 Structural mapping
techniques for mine and
exploration geologists
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ProExplo 2015 Lima

CM2 Structural mapping techniques for
mine and exploration geologists

Structural Mapping: Some Basic Principles

Structural mapping
SHOULD be part of
everyday geological
mapping practice, but
this is not always the
case.
This session deals with
basic structural mapping
principles:
Where do I start?
What do I map?
What tools do I have?
Why should I bother?

Ore Body Plunge

So you can decipher ore
body plunge!
?
?
Laconia Resources Rasuhuilca

Project Mine Plan illustrating
steeply plunging ore shoot
Buenaventura Tambomayo Mirtha

Vein Long Section.

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Typical Mine Structural Mapping
Lines on a map;
No cross-cutting
relationships;
No kinematics;
No indication of
relative timing;
No fault zones
or damage
zones.
No Success!
Key to Successful Geological Mapping
Collect the data you need, not data for datas

sake;
Maintain context of what you are trying to achieve;
Work in plan and section at the same time;

Work in 4D;
Follow geometrical principles - geology is
fractal in nature, pattern recognition is key;
Start interpreting right from the start; and
Mapping is iterative, and geological maps should constantly evolve
Stretch the data and make decisions about

relationships.

Geological vs. Structural Mapping

Geological mapping
Structural mapping
90% of effort goes to

primary rock
identification;
Outcrop map produced
at end of the mapping
campaign; and
Systematic data
gathering for later
interpretation.
Strong emphasis on
structure, alteration etc;
Faults, shear zones as
rock bodies;
Integrated geological map
that works in 3D; and
Data interpreted during
mapping and used to
produce working map
during the mapping
campaign.

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Structural Mapping
Structural mapping is basically good geological

mapping focusing on what the geology looks like now,
and, most importantly, how it got that way;
Structural mapping does not just focus on primary rock

types, but places a strong emphasis on alteration and
structures;
Structural mapping results in integrated and fully

interpreted geological maps, not isolated points; and
Structural mapping depicts faults and shear zones as

rock bodies.
Structural Mapping
Structural mapping includes:
Determining the geometry (i.e.

orientation + shape) of rock units,
fabrics, discontinuities;
Mapping contacts is the key;
Determining movement sense and

displacement on structures using
available kinematic indicators;
Determining the history of

(structural) events;
Mapping in 4D!
Then place mineralization within this context
What Tools Do We Have?
Stratigraphy:
Was originally horizontal and laid down in a particular
order;
Younging, or way-up indicators;
Structural fabrics and deformation:
Know how to recognize them;
Know what processes they represent;
Geochronology:
Cross cutting relationships, structural overprinting,
radiometric dating;
Geometrical principles;
Map making and pattern recognition; and
Structural balancing.
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Map Patterns
Santos et al., 2011
Au-Cu-Ag Canahuire Epithermal Deposit, Southern Peru

Magnetic Patterns

Map Patterns and Relationships

Drill planning stage:
Good structural mapping allows to prioritize targets and to
determine optimal drill azimuth.
Example: Company X drills
geochemical anomalies prior to
mapping and defines drill azimuth
based on the apparent geochemical
trend.
Proposed drill holes
500 m
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Use Map Patterns and Relationships

Drill planning stage:
Good structural mapping allows to prioritize targets and to
determine optimal drill azimuth.
Proposed drill holes
100 m
500 m
The relative size and importance of features

should be reflected in your map;
Dont just map data, map and interpret
relationships.
EXAMPLE
In the map opposite from an underground
crosscut (Hillside gold deposit, Australia),
mineralised veins are red and faults are
blue.
Which faults are likely to be the main
controls on grade distribution?
Gold is dominantly vein-hosted and grade

correlates closely with vein density;
Fault-bounded zones of different vein

density are mapped in the cross-cut;
Domain boundaries can be identified as

mappable faults along the boundary
between high-grade and medium-grade ore;
Defining and mapping the domain

boundaries enables geostatistics, resource
estimation and mine planning to be carried
out with greater confidence.
HG
MG

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Geometrical Principles
Rocks must occupy 100% of their space at all

times during their deformation history =
structural balancing;
Thus, reconstruction of non-deformed state of

rock package should be possible by inverting
movement along faults;
Most cross-sections on published 1:100,000

and 1:250,000 maps are markedly
unbalanced and therefore are likely incorrect.

Exercise 2:
Mary Kathleen Exercise

Mary Kathleen Map Exercise

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Structural Balancing
Faults 1-4 are all
shown as vertical
on cross-section
and at consistently
low angle to steeply Edipping stratigraphy
Interpretation can
be checked by
reconstruction

Structural Balancing
Total throw (vertical
displacement) across this
group of 4 closely spaced,
parallel faults is approximately
20 km - about half of the
thickness of a normal crust!
Therefore, faults are probably
not vertical (especially as
formed)

Structural Balancing (continued)

An interpretation involving listric faults would be preferred,
as it avoids the excessively large fault offset.

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Work in 4D
Traditional maps show all faults / shear
zones as black lines - no discrimination
according to age;
Our map and sectional interpretations must
capture the timing of structures;
This allows for differentiation of structural
features that are associated with
mineralization or post-date mineralization;
It is necessary to interpret age and
kinematics of structures in order to
effectively use structure as a targeting tool.
Image courtesy: 4D Geo

Work in Plan and Section

24
30
Two shallow east-dipping

limestone units exposed at
surface;
Only one limestone horizon
identified in stratigraphic
column;
No evidence of folding;
Multiple fault generations in
area.
somewhere in Chile
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Simple sectional interpretation suggests the occurrence of a
fault with significant vertical offset;
Inspection in field reveals steeply-dipping normal fault along
small quebrada.
A
A
24
30

It's a fact!
There is no such thing as a fact map!!

Exercise 3:
Flatland 3D Exercise

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Level 2 Answer

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It's a Fact!
There is no such thing as a fact map!!

Level 3 Answer

Level 4 Answer

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CM3 3D Visualization and
interpretation of geology and
mineralization
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CM3 3D Visualization and interpretation of
geology and mineralization

Where did mapping and 3D Geology begin?
William Smiths 1815 Geological Map
Emile Argands 1922 Geology of the Alps

Why do geologists need to think and

visualize in 3D?
Primarily because geology is a 3D science;
Its has been treated in a 2D manner until recently

because of lack of tools to adequately deal with
the 3rd dimension;
Many of the surficial deposits have now been
found and the future of exploration lies in new
discoveries beneath cover or buried at depth;
To make these discoveries it will be necessary to
start considering targeting in 3D;
Most structural interpretations require a good
understanding of what is happening in all 3D; and
New 3D techniques and software now make this
task practical for most mining and exploration
companies;
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Importance of 3rd Dimension to Exploration
Geological interpretation is still the basic skill underlying the

mining and exploration industries;
Historically exploration activities have tended to be

dominated by geochemical prospecting methods;
Frequently it is becoming more commonplace that

meaningful interpretation of geochemical results require a
much broader geological understanding of the mineralization
process than geochemistry alone;
The key driver for the exploration industry is the discovery of

mineral deposits under cover or at depth;
This cannot be achieved using traditional 2D methods alone;

and
Therefore 3D techniques are becoming essential as an

integrated part of sub surface exploration in greenfields,
brownfields and mine situations.
Developing A 3D Structural Model The

Basics
Be able to visualize in 3D and accurately outline

shapes in 2D;
Use all tools to analyze data and define structural
domain geometries:
Apparent True orientation corrections

Data bias corrections
Data spatial queries, selection and analysis
Maps, cross-sections, long-Sections, 3D computer visuals!
All maps are interpretations.

Understanding geology comes from the process of trying to
interpret observations, not the gathering of facts alone.
SINK or SWIM?
Visualization Techniques
Geological maps;
Cross-section construction & apparent
dips;
Structure contour analysis;
Orthographic projection;
Stereographic projection;
Computer software;
Gemcom, Vulcan, Surpac, Datamine,
Gocad, Leapfrog etc.
Automated interpretation techniques.

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Importance of Fundamental Geological Skills
New 3D software and computing power enhance the ability to interpret

data, however, they remain an extension of the visualization
capabilities of the structural geologist, who must make sensible
conclusions about subsurface geology through extrapolation from
incomplete data;
3D visualization:
Better visualization leads to better 3D computer based models;

Feedback between geologists interpretation and the modeling
software;
How to think in 3D:
Create a mental image of an object;

Rotate the object mentally until a comparison can be made;
Make the comparison;
Decide if the objects are the same or not;
Report the decision.

3D Rotation - Visualization
Shepard and Metzler (1971) mental rotation test:
Which two are the same?
Shepard, R and Metzler. J. "Mental rotation of three dimensional objects." Science 1971. 171(972):701-3
Mental Rotation Test

1.
2.
3.
4.

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3D Visualization
Ability to visualize in 3D related to right side of the
brain;
For interpretation of visualized data - Avoid visual
representations that require large mental rotations;
the more an object has been rotated from the original,
the longer it takes an individual to determine if the 2
images are of the same object Shepard and Metzler
(1971);
New advances in computing power allow on-screen
representation of large datasets;
Allows user to rotate data into an orientation that
enables easier 3D visualization; and
However, view data on a 2D screen, so user still relies
upon mental visualization, interpretation, and depth
perception skills.
Apparent Dips and Cross Sections

IMPORTANT!!!! For correct illustration of
geological features in 3D, where strike is at
oblique angle to the section line the dip of unit
along line of section is an APPARENT DIP.
tan (APPARENT DIP) = tan (TRUE DIP) * cos
Plane 030/40E
Where = angle between true dip

direction and the apparent dip
direction, i.e. angle between the line
of section and the true dip direction;
and
Apparent Dip should always be
lower than the True Dip.
Structure Contour Analysis
Concept of structure contours same as topographic

contours;
Structure contours define the

surface of a geological feature, for example:
Fault;
Shear zone;
Surface of stratigraphic unit;
Contact of intrusion.

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Structure contours are lines that connect points of equal height
above a datum level that are contained within a structure
(bedding, unconformity, fold, fault etc.)
Image courtesy of Fault Analysis Group, UCD, Ireland)
Structure contours of a planar dipping surface (blue) form straight,

parallel, equally spaced lines
Image courtesy of Fault Analysis Group, UCD, Ireland)
Structure contours of a simply folded dipping surface (blue) form

straight, parallel lines. Their spacing and their elevation changes
with the shape and elevation of the surface.
Widely spaced structure contours indicate shallow dip

of unit or contact;
(= shallow surface slope of topographic contours)
Close structure contours indicate steep dip of unit or

contact;
Curved contours indicate rounding in surface (e.g.

complex folds, intrusions).

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Structure Contour Analysis - Exercise
EXAMPLE of an application of structure contour analysis
Granny Smith Mineralization Exercise
Western Australia Gold Deposit;

Laverton District;
Associated with Granite-Greenstone contact.

Exercise 4:
Granny Smith Exercise

Granny Smith Exercise

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Granny Smith Grade Map

N

Granny Smith Structure Contours

N

Granny Smith Combined Data

N

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N


N

New Age of Structure Contours - gOcad

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Fundamental Geometrical Projections
Compass bearing (trend) of a line can only be measured in

plan view;
True length of the line can only be measured in a view parallel
to the line;
True slope (plunge) of a line can only be measured in a
vertical view parallel to the line;
The point of intersection of a line and a plane (piercing point)
can only be determined in a view perpendicular to the plane;
The angle between a line and a plane can only be measured
in a view parallel to the line and perpendicular to the plane;
The angle of pitch of a line on a plane can only be measured
in a view parallel to the plane; and
The angle between two planes can only be measured in a
view perpendicular to the line of intersection between the two
planes.
Stereographic Projection
Stereographic projections are commonly used to present

& analyze structural data;
It is especially useful for solving geological problems

requiring the determination of angular relationships that
would otherwise have to be solved by tedious
orthographic construction;
It is important to remember that stereographic projection

cannot be used to determine the spatial relationships of
different structures, such as the amount of offset across a
fault.

Stereographic Projection

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
New Age of Stereographic Analysis - gOcad
Vein orientations
Foliation orientations
3D Modelling Historical Perspective

In the recent past 3D modelling was rarely considered as a routine
part of mineral or deposit evaluation because of:
High costs associated with 3D software;

Building such models was time consuming and expensive;
Inability to rapidly update the models produced;
Lack of suitably trained personnel to drive the software;
Complexity of software made it beyond the use of the average
geologist;
Software not designed to utilise structural data.
What has changed ?

Software costs have reduced dramatically;
More software now available to tackle different types of problem;
New mathematical approaches to 3D modelling are starting to
appear and replace the older style CAD systems resulting in faster
model making capabilities and models that can be rapidly updated;
New generation of younger geologists familiar with computer aided
techniques;
Need to look deeper and under cover to find new deposits; and
New software that can utilise structural measurements directly to
build 3D surfaces.
New Computer Aided Exploration Techniques
As geologists we need to embrace these new

approaches to exploration in order to better understand
mineralizing systems and ultimately make new mineral
discoveries, however:
Good fundamental geological skills are still required;
The importance of good field geology is still
important;
The new additional skills required by geologists now and
in the near future will be:
Good 3D modeling skills using a variety of software
platforms appropriate to the task;
Good data mining skills and the ability to integrate
and interpret many different datasets from disparate
sources.
Whilst 2D computer techniques will still play an important
role for many years in exploration these will be
surpassed by an emphasis on 3D techniques.
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
What Do the Majors Use?

Rio Tinto, Vale, BHP Billiton, XStrata, Barrick, AnglogoldAshanti, Newmont, Freeport-McMoran, De Beers, Gold
Fields, Goldcorp, Kinross, Cameco, Areva.
6%
4% 2%2%
19%
9%
11%
19%
11%
17%

APPLIED
MODELLING!
Workflow Part a
3D model is not just a pretty picture
ROCK
MECHANICS
QUESTION?
HYDROGEOLOGY
RESOURCE
DEFINITION
APPLICATION
ENVIRONMENT
SCALE
EXPLORATION
METALLURGY
DATA
DRILLHOLE
DATA
STRUCTURAL
MEASUREMENTS
MAPPING
GEOPHYSICS
GEOCHEMISTRY
DATA
MANAGEMENT
PRE-MODEL
VALIDATION
GEOLOGICAL
CONSTRAINTS
IMPLICIT
Understand
your genetic
model!
FUZZY
CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION
NO GLOBAL
PANACEA
GOCAD
INTERPRETATION/
VISUALIZATION
SOFTWARE
LEAPFROG
GEOMODELLER
FRACSIS
GMP
EXPLICIT
MODELLING
Use conventional
2D geological tools
to help
GMP
Workflow Part b
Youngest
first?
PHOTOGRAM.
MODELLING
RESULTANT
MODEL
Use flexible approach,

no point in creating a 3D
model if it cannot be
easily updated.
IMPLICIT
GEOLOGY
MODELLING
METHOD
SYN-MODEL
VALIDATION
IMPLICIT
GRADE
MODELLING
GEOPHYSICAL
INVERSION
DYNAMIC!
MODEL
APPLICATION
EXPLORATION
RESOURCE
DEFINITION
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
METALLURGY
HYDROGEOLOGY
ENVIRO/CIVIL
TARGET
RANKING
GEOSTATS &
VOLUMETRICS
GEOTECH
DOMAINING
DELETERIOUS
ELEMENTS
WATER
BALANCE
PLANT/TAILINGS
LOCATION
MINE
DESIGN
RISK
ANALYSIS
RECOVERY
MINE
DESIGN
MINE
DESIGN
MILL
TESTING

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Implicit Modelling Revolution

In the past 10 years there has been a radical change in the
approach used in the construction of 3D geological models.
Early 3D models of the earth relied on CAD based explicit
modeling systems found in most of the general mining
packages.
Grade iso-surface
generated in
Leapfrog
New and emerging software uses an implicit mathematical

approach to the construction of geological models. This
mathematical new approach has the advantage of:
1.
2.
3.
Speeding up the process of modeling by a significant

degree;
Giving the user the ability to rapidly update their models
as new data becomes available;
Enabling the geologist to use all the available geological
data (including structural measurements) to make an
interpretation in true 3D;
Three examples of this new mathematical implicit approach

which represent a paradigm shift in 3D geological modeling
are: Geomodeller, GOCAD and Leapfrog.
Geomodeller screenshot

Explicit vs. Implicit Geological Modelling
vs.
Mathematical
Manual
Courtesy of P. Gleeson, SRK Consulting, Perth, Australia
* Slide courtesy of Mira Geoscience

3D Modelling & Visualization Tools
CAE Sirovision / 3DM Analyst /

Photoscan. Photogrammetric
structural mapping tools.
This software is used to accurately

map structural features from outcrop
or mine excavations.
Ideal for use in structural mapping

exercises where access can be
difficult (i.e. pit faces).

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Data Analysis Through Integration

3D Geophysical Inversion:
Most gridded potential field data sets
(magnetics, density or EM) can be directly
used to constrain 3D geological models.
(3D Geomodeller & GOCAD).
3D GIS:
Spatial data analysis,
domaining and
querying.
Structural Data:
Wireframes created
from planar
measurements.
Stereonets!
field
drill hole
GoCad
Unconstrained inversions
from UBC software

Gocad and 3DGIS Do we still need Stereonets ?

The use of 3D GIS and 3D geological models to solve complex
structural problems is a relatively new approach.
The question is Do we still need traditional stereo nets to solve
structural problems now we have 3D models and 3-D GIS?
The advantage of the 3D approach along with 3D GIS is that
unlike stereonets alone, this new approach can spatially show us
where the structures (folds faults etc) are located in space.
Example a stereo net can tell us the dip and dip direction of the
intersection of a set of faults, but it cannot show us spatially where
they exist in a pit or tell us where such an intersection may cause
wedge failures because they occur facing out (dipping easterly) on
say the west wall of the pit.
3D models of the faults in combination with 3D GIS can:
Give the location of the faults and their intersection
directions; and
Show where all east dipping intersections occur on the west
wall of the pit to potential predict failures.
Gocad and 3DGIS Do we still need Stereonets ?

Traditional Stereonet
showing planes of
faults and
intersections
3D model + 3D
GIS. Area of all
west dipping
plunging
intersections of
major faults on
west wall of pit
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
The Software
Maxwell: http://www.max-geoservices.com.au
acQuire: http://www.acquire.com.au
Voxler: http://www.goldensoftware.com
Discover 3D: http://www.encom.com.au
Geosoft Target: http://www.geosoft.com
MOVE: http://www.mve.com
GMPs (Vulcan, Datamine, Gemcom, Surpac, Minesight);
SiroVision: http://www.sirovision.com
FracSIS: http://www.runge.com
Geomodeller: http://www.intrepid-geophysics.com
Leapfrog: http://www.leapfrogmining.com
Gocad: http://www.mirageoscience.com
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CM4 Analysis of structures
in drill core:
A practical introduction
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ProExplo 2015 Lima

CM4 Analysis of structures in drill core:
A practical introduction

Introduction and Scope

Introduction to modern approaches and techniques to
record and understand structures in drillcore.
Emphasis is on collection and interpretation of good
geological data, rather than mechanical aspects of drillcore
logging.
Focus on oriented core uses, because:
Oriented core is extremely useful;
Currently very much under-used.

Structural Core Logging
Qualitative:
Core photography;
Logging system to encourage freehand comments, sketches and
digital photos;
Scan logging of 10-20m lengths laid out in angle-iron frame;
More emphasis on knowledge rather than data; and
Core axis / structure angles should be regularly measured, but
emphasis should be on mapping variations.
Quantitative:
Requires oriented drill core and / or down-hole optical or acoustic
images;
Simplest method for retrieving structural data from oriented core is by
measuring , and angles directly from core;
Alternative is to physically re-orient core in rocket launcher.
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Aims of Structural Analysis
Determine orientation of mineralized vein sets, i.e. whether all veins of

the set are mineralized or not;
Detect other structures that may be controlling structures or parallel to

controlling structures, e.g. faults, folds and foliations;
Determine local strain axes;
Predict preferred orientations of veins and mineralization, based on

geometry of products of deformation; and
THESE REQUIRE ORIENTED DRILL CORE.

Unoriented Drillcore: the Norm
Planes in unoriented core define cones in 3D;

Extraction of meaningful orientation data is very difficult; and
Of limited use for correlations in highly deformed areas.
Unoriented Drillcore Uses

Unoriented core is good for descriptive purposes (description
of lithologies, fabrics, fracture conditions etc.) where
orientation is not necessary;
If the orientation of a structure is well-constrained (e.g. major
fault), with care, it is possible to extract some kinematic data;
Unoriented core can be oriented if it contains a planar
element (foliation, bedding) whose orientation is known to be
consistent over the region of interest (e.g. from field
mapping):
- Use this as a reference frame to extract other data.
- Need to be certain that orientation is consistent.

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Using Just Alpha Angles

Low alpha angle means the structure /
layering is nearly parallel to the drill hole;
High alpha angles means the structure /
layering is nearly perpendicular to the
drill hole;
In between angles eliminate the above
two possibilities;
This can be very useful information
during modelling!!!
Measure and take note of changes in the
alpha angle of layering while logging and
look out for fold axes!
Using Just Alpha Angles - Example

DDH SRK-01
Azi: 270
Dip: -60
Specularite veins in altered andesite with alpha angle of

~90;
What is the orientation of these veins?
Routinely Orient Core

We strongly recommend that acquisition of oriented core be
the standard in any program, at least over critical intervals.
A decision NOT to orient any core in a hole should be
carefully justified, rather than the current situation in most
companies / projects whereby oriented core is an exception
and requires special justification;
The cost of orienting core is now less than 10% and as little
as 5% of total drilling cost, and adds less than 10% to
handling and logging costs;
In our opinion, the value of orienting core is generally many
times the cost, and NOT orienting core can cost money in
the long run.
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Unoriented vs. Oriented Drillcore

Oriented core enables greater confidence in the:
Correlation of faults and veins
Distinction between different structural elements
Cost difference usually amounts to additional:
5-20% drilling costs
10% logging and handling costs
Principal objections to oriented core are human factors,
not financial:
Lack of experience in using orientation tools
Reluctance to change
A decision not to orient any core in a hole should be
carefully justified.
How Can Oriented Data Help Us?
Holes are inclined, but not oriented


Without oriented data, many possible geometries
If we know orientation and shear sense, we have a chance!

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We can determine form-lines of complex

geometries and use geometrical
relationships to assist with the
interpretation;
Reduce many possibilities to few or even
one;
Apply proper structural analysis.
North
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
Num to
Equal area projection, lower hemisph

Oriented Core = More for Less

Oriented core allows:
Reduce 3 intersections to one;
Start using statistical distribution
of orientations for geotechnical
design;
Interpolation away from
intersection;
Increase confidence.

Data From Oriented Core?

Orientation of planar features
(e.g. contacts, bedding, cleavage & veins).
Orientation of linear features
(e.g. stretching lineations & striations).
Kinematic data
(e.g. minor folds, asymmetric fabrics, shear sense
criteria).
Timing relationships
(e.g. cross-cutting veins and fabrics).

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Drill Core Orientation Techniques

Most common technique: inclined diamond drilling
with an orientation tool:
Van Ruth device;

Asymmetrically weighted spear;
Ballmark ;
EZYmark; and
ACT.
Involves marking the orientation of the sample prior to

removal from the core barrel; and
Measuring structures relative to this reference frame.

Ezy-Mark Orientation Tool
Tool goes into the core barrel;

Takes the shape of bottom of the hole at the start of the run
using pin impression and/or pencil zero-point;
Three different gravity and non-magnetic measurements
taken to get down direction;
Remove the run when drilled and align the tool impression
with core and draw orientation line;
Quality control system.

Ace Core Orientation Tool (ACT)

3 accelerometers measure the
gravitational direction of the
core tube at any time.
The user enters the time at
which the core was broken.
The instrument guides the user
to rotate the tube to the position
it was in at the given time.
The base of the core can then
be marked.
Easy to Use
No consumables
Black Box
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Orienting Core Before Splitting

Initial orienting is the
main source of error.
Should be marked-up
at drill rig by someone
diligent and competent.
Reference line should
be checked against
adjacent runs by laying
core out in angled-iron
and checking for major
changes.
Note: changes could be
real however!
Drawing the Orientation Line
Note the change in angle from run to run;

Decide which runs are most consistent;
Get a feeling for the variance from run to run;
Note runs that have varied in value more than usual;
Look at geology to decide whether it is a natural geological
variation or a problem line;
Correct a problem line if confident, or leave and tag
measurements that are suspicious;
Draw lines up the core from the next run when broken core
prevents drawing the line down-core;
Use geological layering to fit the core between runs or across
broken core;
Note and comment on the reasons for changes in the orientation
line from run to run.
Convention and Consistency are Key!

Various conventions for core orientation exist.
(e.g. whether reference line goes on top or bottom of core).
On any one project we must:
1. Agree on a convention.
2. Document the convention (in long-hand and on logs).
3. Stick to convention!
BE CONSISTENT!

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Measuring Orientation: -- Method
Angle of planar feature relative to core

axis measured along longest axis of
ellipse.
Circumferential angle between

orientation reference line and the long
axis of the ellipse.
SRK Convention:
Looking downhole;
Upper surface of core;
Measured to bottom of ellipse;
and
Measured clockwise
Angle between a lineation on the
plane and the long axis of the ellipse.
SRK Convention:
Measured clockwise;
From bottom of ellipse.
Lineation
Reference
line
Line through bottom

of ellipse
Core Axis

-- Method
Step 1
Beta angle is measured

clockwise (in the downhole
direction) around core from
the orientation line
Orientation line
(marked previously)
Alpha = 42
Downhole direction
Downhole direction
Maximum dip
(alpha) angle
measured
Step 2
Beta = 134

Measuring Orientations
A goniometer is a tool for
measuring angles

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ProExplo 2015 Lima
-- Method
Data is recorded into a spreadsheet as --.
Calculate real world orientations using -- values and

drillhole survey data (built into spreadsheet).
Advantage: quick and systematic (hence, used commonly in
geotechnical programs).
Disadvantage: true values are often obtained after logging
has finished or at the end of the day.
Measuring Orientation: Rocket Launcher

Measuring
Nonmagnetic
table
Adjustable Core Frame

Support rods
(graduated in degrees)
Tightening
screws
Frame to
hold core
Reference
line at base
of core is
aligned with
V.
Hinge
Moveable
compass
Ho rizontally
rotating arm
Co re
Protr actor
Hinge
Allows measurement of true orientations of

structural features.
No post-measurement corrections to be
made.
Allows recognition of structural changes
(e.g. fabric deflections) in the core on the
fly.
Important for core mapping.
Core in Sand Box
Ensure sand is non-magnetic

Cheap, but slow (sand needs to be cleaned from core,
compass etc.)
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Problems with Handling Drill Core Data

Problems can arise with:
(1) collecting data;
(2) interpretation of errors introduced by drilling techniques;
and
(3) bias due to sampling.
Errors and omissions in the data are the main causes of such
serious mistakes as drilling in the wrong direction!
In addition, geological errors and omissions can cause
problems with the interpretation of structures;
For example, if only one vein set is mineralized, and two are
measured and not distinguished when measuring and
logging, aggregation of the data on stereo nets, particularly if
contoured, can lead to incorrect conclusions.
Data Checks
Comparison with orientation data from surface.
Warning signs are:
Large amount of scatter in core data relative to surface data;

Little similarity between orientations of features; and
Distribution of data on small circles around the drillhole orientation
on stereographic plots.
Bias Due to Orientation

Features oriented at a low-angle to the
drillhole are sampled less frequently than
those cutting at high-angles.
Spatial bias must be taken into consideration
when analysing the data, especially when
trying to extract quantitative data (e.g. fracture
spacing).
Can correct using Terzaghi Weighting:
w = 1/sin()
where is the angle between the drillhole

and the normal to the fracture.

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Splitting Core
DO NOT CUT ALONG ORIENTATION REFERENCE LINE

Recording Data from Oriented Core

Two approaches:
systematic and data-driven
Vs
Structural Core Mapping
less systematic and interpretation-driven
Both approaches are complimentary.


Typically log into a database form as part of a holistic logging
program (e.g. with lithology, alteration etc.);
Systematic description and measurement of structures over
given intervals, usually a core box;
Structural core logging should systematically record the nature
and orientations of:
Lithological contacts;
Alteration contacts (where possible);
Structural fabrics (foliations, lineations), including
mineralogy;
Veins;
Cross-cutting relationships;
Logging emphasis really depends on the deposit and the
requirement.
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A large amount of data is amassed, useful for:
Modelling geometry and structural correlations;
Analysing orientation of structural populations (e.g. veins);
But, there are some downsides:
A lot of data adds background, but is not critical;
Box-by-box mentality, big picture is obscured;
Mindless box-ticking exercise - devoid of thought.


Philosophy is similar to field geological mapping;
Focus on areas of interest rather than systematically recording
all structures, particularly significant changes or structural
features (e.g., foliation deflections, faults contacts etc.);
Extract the data that is critical to the understanding of the
system;
Interpretational, rather than just data collection;
Allows critical relationships to be identified and (hopefully)
solved;
Particularly useful in exploration environment ore controls;
Note cross-cutting evidence, bedding-cleavage relationships,
kinematic indicators, lineations / striations, fold.

How to do it:
Lay-out several boxes of oriented core in angle irons
(orientation mark should be aligned and checked);
Plot the fence which includes the drillhole of interest on
paper;
Map and sketch directly on to paper noting any critical
structural information:
Cross-cutting evidence;
Bedding-cleavage relationships;
Kinematic indicators etc.

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Analysis of Veins in Drill Core

Following principles apply to collection of data for analysis of
drill core:
(1) Core data must relate to good quality geological map
information;
(2) Timing of foliations, lineations & veins, as well as
determination of primary and secondary mineral
assemblages, must be carefully evaluated.
All veins must be related to controlling structures;
Vein systems develop as a result of fluid flow through rocks
with enhanced permeability, which is generated by
deformation; and
Therefore: veins and mineralization form during rock
deformation.
New Age of Oriented Core Data Analysis - gOcad
Vein orientations
Foliation orientations
Down Hole Geophysics Tools

Acoustic
Televiewer
Optical
Televiewer
Can generate very accurate orientations;

Orientation is affected by changes in the magnetic field;
Picking is complicated by strongly laminated rock;
Powerful supplementary tool particularly when core
orientation fails or is not done.
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ProExplo 2015 Lima
Summary
Oriented core has a wide-range of uses in the structural
analysis of mineral deposits.
Data value of acquiring oriented core outweigh the fiscal
costs in many deposits often priceless.
Although, relatively straightforward, acquisition of oriented
core can be prone to errors.
Oriented core data should be checked internally and
against field data as a quality control.
Data-driven core logging amasses a lot of useful data but
discourages critical thought.
Interpretational core mapping helps to identify critical
relationships and should be supplementary to core logging.

Exercise 5:
Oriented Core Exercise

Oriented Core Exercise

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CM5 Structural analysis of
faults and fault systems
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ProExplo 2015 Lima

CM5 Structural analysis of faults
and fault systems

Analysis of Faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and classification;
Fault growth, dilational jogs and
permeability;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile, alteration,
veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction.

Fault Patterns in 3-D
Faults form 3-D linked arrays that move co-operatively to

accomplish balanced deformation of rock masses;
Too many published interpretations show cross-cutting
lineaments and faults without mutual offset.
Note operation
of 4 faults

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Fault Patterns in Athabasca Basin
What is wrong with this interpretation?

From Jefferson et al. 2007
Fault Networks
Linked arrays of faults:
Basin linkage in the North
Sea, off Norway (top);
Main faults in the
Pannonian Basin,
Hungary (bottom).
200km
NORTH SEA
HUNGARY
100km

Fault Networks
On a global scale,
linked networks of
divergent, convergent
and transform (strikeslip) plate boundaries
form a first-order
fracture system in
Earths lithosphere.

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Fault Networks
Also 2nd order fault system transfer faults.

Fault Networks
Normal-detachment fault array
Strike-slip pull apart basin
Imbricate thrust duplexes

Conjugate Fault Relationships

Important Factors:
Rock type;
Confining pressure;
Pre-existing anisotropy or surfaces;
Subsequent deformation/flattening.
Marli Miller, University of Oregon
Brittle conjugate faults in sedimentary

rocks
30 30
English River Subprovince, Superior Province
Brittle ductile conjugate faults in

migmatitic metasedimentary rocks
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Riedel Fault Relationships

P
R shears small angle to main

shear, synthetic movement
P shears synthetic movement
R shears conjugate antithetic
shears, high angles to main
shear
Identification of different fault
orientations and their
kinematics can aid in
understanding fault systems
as a whole
Sinistral Riedel Fault System
Cerro Bayo Epithermal

Silver Deposit
Sinistral Riedel Fault System

Silver Deposit
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Fault Classification
Faults are classified by their sense of slip;

Specific differences in the nature of the fault types reflect
their orientation and sense of slip relative to geological
layering and the Earths surface.
Analysis of Faults
permeability;
veining;
Timing;
direction.
San Andreas Fault

1300 km length
Fault Displacement
Fault displacements vary over the fault surface;

At a broad-scale, the variations are systematic;
Tip-lines are rarely regularly-shaped;
Usually faults are not isolated, but part of an array.
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Fault Growth
Despite the geometrical differences between fault types, the

growth of all faults are controlled by two basic processes:
Fault propagation and segmentation;
Fault segment linkage.
These processes account for nearly all aspects of fault

geometry and fault rock content.

Fault Propagation and Segmentation

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Courtesy of: Fault Analysis Group,

Tip-line bifurcation:
University College Dublin.
Localized retardation in propagation of the
fracture front results in segmented fault array.

Fault Linkage

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Fault Linkage: Examples

Dilational jog along low-angle reverse fault
Dilational jog along low-angle normal fault

Segmentation and Dilational Jogs
Tendency to think in 2D but, in 3D, similar to other fault systems;

Kinematics are favourable for dilation and fluid flow.
Dilational Jogs
Galena-Sphalerite
veinlet
Colloform
Qtz
Galena-Sphalerite
veinlet
10mm

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Analysis of Faults
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
veining;
Timing;
direction.

Fault Zone Heterogeneity

Fault segmentation and
linkage processes result in
highly-variable width and
content (fault rock types) of
fault zones;
Fault zone thickness can
range over 3 orders of
magnitude for a particular
displacement;
Drillhole intersections of the
same fault will not be the
same;
Consequently, faults are
horrible to correlate from
drillhole information.

Brittle Faults and Ductile Shear Zones
Deformation regime depends upon: temperature, pressure, strain rate, composition

and the presence of pore fluids;
Deformation regime commonly changes during progression of an orogeny.
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Brittle vs. Ductile Faults

Brittle
Discrete discontinuities accommodate displacement;
Commonly faults are segmented on a range of scales;
and
Contain variety of fault rocks (e.g. breccia, gouge)
which partially reflect the strain accommodated by the
fault.
Ductile
Deformation is continuous with wall rocks;
Strongly developed planar and linear preferred
orientation fabrics; and
Strain is reflected in the intensity of the foliation.

Rock-Types in Faults
Incohesive gouge
and breccia
pseudotachylite
Cohesive crush
Breccias and
cataclasites
pseudotachylite
Cohesive foliated
high-strain zones
and mylonites

Rock-Types in Faults
Breccia and pseudotachylite
Gouge
Cohesive crush breccias and cataclasites
Cohesive foliated high-strain zones and mylonites

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Mineralization Types in Faults

Analysis of Faults
permeability;
veining;
Timing;
direction.

The Importance of Getting Timing Right
Application of structural control principles requires that the

timing of mineralisation must be carefully matched with the
history of activity on the fault system.
Folded gold, Rainy River Gold project, Ontario.

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Applied Structural Control Principles
Determine the timing of mineralisation in the event

history and match it to the history of movement on the
fault / shear zones in the region.

Folded Faults
Early faults are susceptible
to later deformation.
Extensional or compressional
faults at low angles to
sub-horizontal
bedding are particularly
susceptible to later folding.

Single Progressive Deformation Event

SINGLE
PROGRESSIVE
DEFORMATION
EVENT
This cross-section is
from a gold deposit in
which folds, foliation,
faults and veins formed
during a single
deformation event
Wattle Gully gold deposit, Victoria, Australia

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Single Progressive Deformation Event

How many
deformation
episodes?

Analysis of Faults
veining;
Timing;
direction.

Kinematic Analysis

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Kinematic Indicators
Courtesy: Fault Analysis Group, University College Dublin
Only way to be sure of the movement on a fault is if we can observe a displaced

marker and a fault lineation.
Together, these yield absolute displacement.
Normally we dont have this information so have to rely on secondary information
kinematic indicators.

Shear Sense
Ground Rules:
Shear sense can be reliably determined only on sections at high angle to
fault / shear zone and parallel to transport / stretching direction (i.e.
lineation);
If possible, determine direction of displacement before looking for shear
sense indicators; and
You must say which way you are facing to be unambiguous.
To correctly observe sense of shear

indicators, look at the plane:
- Perpendicular to foliation; &
- Parallel to lineation .

Lineations
Lineations probably are the most useful of all

structures;
There are 2 basic types of lineations:
Intersection lineations; and

(See CM6: Analysis of Folds);
Stretching, extension or mineral

lineations.

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Stretching, Extension & Mineral Lineations

Lineations in fault rocks are the main indicators
of displacement direction.
The 3 most important lineations include:
(1) Slickenlines (grooves, striations) on fracture
surfaces (slickensides) sub-parallel to fault
zone;
(2) Fibre lineations in vein-fill on fault plane;
usually quartz or calcite;
(3) Stretching / mineral lineations in the foliation
surface in ductile shear / fault zones.

Analysis of Faults
veining;
Timing;
Kinematics Brittle Faults.

Kinematic Analysis

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Lineations on Brittle Fault Surfaces

Lineations are common on fault surfaces,
either:
(1)
Due to grooving parallel to the

movement direction called
slickenlines (on fault surface or
slickenside);
(2)
Mineral fibres that grow on the fault

surface parallel to the movement
direction.

Lineated Brittle Fault Rocks

Striations (slickenlines) on fault
surface (slickenside) dipping
steeply.
Slickenlines on fault surface, Detour Gold project, Ontario.
Slickenlines on fault surface, Seabee Gold

Mine, SK.

Kinematic Indicators: Brittle Faults

Slickenfibres

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Fibre Lineations on Fault Surface

Local separation of fault surfaces filled with vein material,
commonly thin fibres or films of quartz or calcite.
(Gap faces in direction of movement of opposite face)

Mineral Fibre Growth

In quartz, galena and gold
kinematics during ore
formation!
6191M stope sample, Con gold deposit, Yellowknife

Steps on Fault Surfaces
b.
Steps perpendicular to
slickenlines and mineral fibres
are assumed to face in
direction of movement of
opposite side of fault.
lineation
STEP

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Steps on Fault Surfaces (cont.)

Steps show
that this block
(back block)
moved to left
(sinistral movement).
Back block
As fault is vertical, this

is a strike-slip fault.
Front block
West Bay Fault, Yellowknife, Canada

Steps perpendicular to slickenlines & mineral fibres;

Surface dips 70 degrees out of page;
What is the sense and direction of shear?

Steps perpendicular to
slickenlines & mineral fibres;
Surface dips 90 degrees;
What is the sense and
direction of shear?

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Exercise 6:
Fault Problems Part 1

Exercise 6: Fault Problems


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Analysis of Faults
veining;
Timing;
Kinematics Ductile shear zones.

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Tectonite Fabric Elements

Stretching Lineation
Aligned and stretched clasts
and/or minerals.
Schistosity
Planar foliation defined by
alignment of platy minerals.
Depending upon the type of strain, the rock may contain

planar, linear or both fabric elements.
Foliation: a planar fabric that is usually associated with a

deformational origin.
Slaty Cleavage: typical of slates (e.g., weakly
metamorphosed shales) individual aligned mica flakes
(too small to observe by eye).
Schistosity (schistose foliation): typical of moderately to
strongly metamorphosed schists individual mica grains
define foliation (large enough to observe in hand
specimens).
Gneissosity (gneissose foliation): typical of high-grade
metamorphic rocks coarser-grained, non-micaceous
minerals predominate folia tend to anastomose around
pods of minerals more resistant to deformation.
Increasingly coarse
Foliation Definitions

Foliation - Examples
Strong planar (gneissose) foliation
Flattened conglomerate

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Stretching Lineations
Stretching, extension or mineral
lineations form parallel to the
elongation, stretching or tectonic
transport direction in deformed rocks.
They are useful as strain or
movement indicators;
Foliations & stretching lineations are
part of the 3-D rock fabric formed by
deformation, i.e. not separate
structures, and reflect the 3D nature
of the strain.

Stretching Lineations (continued)

Markers (e.g. pebbles, fossils, breccia fragments)
provide clear and direct evidence of rock strain and
define stretching / extension lineations;
Most metamorphic rocks do not contain markers.
However they commonly exhibit elongation of
metamorphic mineral grains that define the rock fabric
(e.g. mica, amphibole). These can be visible with the
eye, but are commonly microscopic and can be used as
a mineral lineation that reflects 3-D strain;
Stretching lineations are very valuable indicators of
movement or tectonic transport direction, especially in
shear zones.

Strong stretching lineation in ductile fault zone
Campbell Shear Zone, Con gold deposit, Yellowknife, Canada
Stretching lineation in quartzite
Indicates vertical (dip-slip) movement

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Strong stretching lineation (quartz and amphibole) in vertical
ductile fault zone
Porphyroblasts of
staurolite not
lineated!!
What does this
indicate about timing
of ductile
deformation vs.
metamorphism?
Obotan gold deposit, Ghana.
Indicates oblique movement

Sense of Shear in Individual Zone

Foliation in ductile shear zones oblique to zone boundaries
Obliquity reflects sense of shear
Plan View
Caledonian Orogeny, Doughruagh, Ireland

Sense of Shear in Individual Zone

Hornblendite dike (black) has been highly deformed & thinned in shear zone
Cross-section View
Kamila shear zone, Kohistan, Pakistan

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S / C Fabrics in Fault / Shear Zone

In ductile shear zones, shear commonly occurs in
mini shear zones heterogeneous strain
Compare to a pack of cards, except that some

deformation occurs between the slip surfaces

S / C Fabrics (continued)
The less deformed layers are equivalent to the margins of
the shear zone proper, and may develop an oblique foliation
related to the sense of shear
C-surface
S-surface
Individual shear zones are C-surfaces (cisaillement

is French for shear), and oblique folia between them are
S-surfaces (schistocit is French for foliation)
S / C Fabrics (continued)
S-C Fabric Campbell Fault Zone

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Cross-section View
Plan View
C
S
Ox Mountains, Ireland
Cape Ray Fault Zone
Dube et al., 1996
What is the sense of shear?


Plan View
Cerro de Maimon,
Dominican Republic

Minimizing Risk from Exploration to Mining
PDAC
March 1 - 2, 2013
Asymmetrical Rigid Objects

Clasts of relatively rigid (competent) material like boudins or
large crystals (porphyroclasts or porphyroblasts)
Plan View
Pine Lake Volcanics,

Seabee district,
Saskatchewan

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Strain Markers
This is a reverse fault
because the sense of
shear markers (tails on
deformed quartz veins)
indicate right-up sense
of movement
Campbell shear zone, Con gold deposit, Yellowknife, Canada

Strain Markers
Cross-section View
Cross-section View
Guyana Goldfields Aurora Gold Project

Campbell shear zone, Con gold deposit,
Yellowknife, Canada

Asymmetrical Strain (Pressure) Shadows

3 possibilities:
(1) Asymmetrical elongation of
deformed, recrystallized tails of
porphyroclasts;
(2) Asymmetrical fibre overgrowths in
pressure shadows;
(3) Asymmetrical lenses of residual,
less deformed matrix, protected by
the porphyroclast.
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Strain (Pressure) Shadows

Shear Bands
Shear bands may develop in homogeneous, strongly foliated
rocks especially in the most intensely deformed parts of
shear zones
Sense of shear in the band is the same as

the overall sense of shear in shear zone
Analysis of Faults
veining;
Timing;
Kinematics Ductile shear zones;
Displacement calculation.

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Amount of Displacement
The 2 principal means of determining /
estimating the amount of displacement
on a fault / shear zone are:
(1) from the measured offset of
markers / rock units across the fault,
i.e. fault reconstruction;
(2) from the degree of deformation in
the fault / shear zone and the width of
the zone.

Fault Reconstruction
Best way to determine displacement
Restore to pre-fault configuration > >

Fault Reconstruction (continued)

Pre-fault reconstruction:

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Piercing Point Solutions
Intersection of two planes

to create a common point
in the hanging wall and
footwall of the fault
Amount of Offset on Shear Zone

Difficult to determine, but
can be roughly estimated
from intensity of foliation
1. If rocks moderately foliated

and original structures and textures
are preserved: displacement = 0.5
to 2 X width of zone
2. If rocks intensely foliated
and mylonitic in entire zone:
displacement = 5 to 10 X width of
zone

Exercise 6:
Fault Problems Part 2

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1

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folds and fold systems
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CM6 Structural analysis of folds and
fold systems

Folds and Faults are Related

Mapping Techniques
Orientations of bedding & axial plane

foliation;
Fold vergence;
Lineations as indicators of fold axes;
Younging and structural facing;
Form line mapping;
Fold sequencing and fold patterns;
Recognizing transposition.
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Folds
Basic geometry
Orientations of bedding and axial
planar foliation
Fold vergence
Intersection lineations as indicators of
fold axes
Younging and structural facing
Polyphase folding

Fold Geometry
Symmetrical Fold
Interlimb angle
Asymmetrical Fold
Fold axial plane
Fold axial plane
For each fold we can measure:

Limb orientations
Fold axis (hinge line)
Fold axial plane
Interlimb angle
Fold Type Based on Interlimb Angle

Isoclinal
Tight

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Fold Type Based on Interlimb Angle

Open
Close

Fold Geometry
Cylindrical folds:
Rectilinear hinge line;
Constant limb orientations;
Planar axial surfaces.
Non-cylindrical folds:
Curvilinear hinge lines;
Variable, but usually systematic,
limb orientations;
Planar or curviplanar axial
surfaces.

Fold Geometry
Doubly-plunging Folds
Zagros Mountains, Iran (Google Earth)
Folds are rarely cylindrical;

Like displacements on faults, fold amplitudes may
vary along strike.
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Why do we need to know about folds?
Many ore deposits occur in orogenic belts and

are geometrically related to the structural
architecture.
Pre-deformation mineralization: will be folded
along with the host sequence;
Syn-deformation mineralization: location and/or
plunge or ore shoots commonly related to fold
structure; and
Post-deformation mineralization: along inherited
structure e.g. faults along fold limbs.
It is essential to understand the timing
relationship between the deformation events
and mineralization in order to interpret the
structural controls correctly.

Folded Sulphide Ore Zone Pre-Folding
Stratiform sulphide
thickened in fold closure
into an accumulation of
sufficient size to form
orebody;
Plunge of ore is plunge
of folds; and
Structural analysis can
predict location of fold
hinges and thus aid
exploration targeting.

Folding Makes Space for Fluid Flow

Subhorizontal
extension veins
Fault breaching fold hinge

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Fold Geometry Control on Veins
Tangier anticline, Meguma district, Nova Scotia

Schematic model of vein formation
Caribou deposit, Nova Scotia
Goldenville district, Nova Scotia


Flexural slip
Folded vein, Deborah deposit,

Bendigo
Schematic model of vein

formation
Flexural flow
Tangential longitudinal strain
Vein variation, Sheepshead anticline, Bendigo

from Cox (2005)
Laminated and extensional veins,

Swan decline, Bendigo

Post-Folding Skarn Mineralization: Antamina, Peru

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Folds and Mineralization

In folded terranes, hinge zones are good targets for a
variety of mineralization styles. Ore plunge is commonly
(but not always) parallel to fold plunge
Where are the fold hinge zones? What is their plunge?

How do we identify folds?

Bedding orientation
changes across a fold
hinge;
Younging direction
changes across a fold
hinge:
Gross stratigraphy;
Younging indicators.
Older rocks in core =
anticline; and
Younger rocks in core =
syncline.
Foliations and Folds

Folds are often intimately related to foliation (cleavage or
schistosity).
Axial planar foliation generally parallels fold axial plane

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Axial Planar Foliations and Folds
Axial planar foliation is often constant, therefore a range in

the intersection angle between bedding and foliation
occurs.
Bedding and Axial Planar Cleavage

Cleavage at high-angle
to bedding in hinge.
Cleavage at low-angle
to bedding in limbs.
Bedding steeper than

cleavage in overturned
limb.
Bedding shallower
than cleavage in
upright limb.
Using bedding-cleavage relationships we can start to

determine the geometry of a fold.
Which way is the antiformal hinge?

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Crenulation Cleavage
Outcrop showing bedding
crenulated by small folds
Alignment of fold limbs
forms a crenulation cleavage
Is this outcrop in the

hinge or the limb of a
larger fold?

Foliation Development and Lithology

Development of a foliation
(cleavage or schistosity)
depends on presence of
platy minerals (e.g. clays,
micas, amphiboles etc.);
and
Foliation can appear very
different in rocks with
more / less abundant
platy minerals.

Fold Vergence - Parasitic Folds

The two limbs of an ideal fold are
mirror images;
This symmetry relationship is a
powerful tool for determining the
position of an outcrop-scale fold on
a large structure;
Small folds on limbs of larger
structure are generally
asymmetrical; and
This sense of asymmetry is used
to locate fold hinges.

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Fold Vergence - Parasitic Folds
S folds - limbs
M or W folds hinge
Z folds - limbs
Parasitic Folds
S Folds in Sand/Silts
Parasitic Folds in Psammites
Z
S
M?
Fold axial planar cleavage

Parasitic Folds (continued)

Additional examples:
domainal development of
parasitic folds
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Vergence in the Field
S folds
Z folds
Parasitic folds are

especially useful to
locate the position
of axial traces of
major folds in areas
of poorly exposed,
tight isoclinal folding

Vergence Reality
Variable plunge
causes apparent
changes in
vergence
Compare outcrops A
&B
Always determine
vergence when
looking DOWNPLUNGE

View Folds Down-Plunge

This vertical section is upplunge (so vergence is
opposite to map view) and
fold profile is stretched
Down-plunge section gives

true view of fold geometry
and same sense of fold
vergence as map

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Orientations of Major Folds

How do we determine the orientations of major folds?
The following data is available from most folds:
Axial planar foliation;
Bedding or earlier foliation that defines the fold; and
Parasitic folds.
The intersection of these planes yields an intersection
lineation that is parallel to the fold axis.

Intersection Lineation
Because bedding and
cleavage are at
high angles in fold
hinge, and both are
planes of weakness,
some rocks break
into pencils in the
hinge area forming
PENCIL LINEATION
Cleavage surface
Observe structures
on cleavage surface

The intersection of
bedding and cleavage
form an intersection
lineation, which
is parallel to the
fold axis.
On fold limbs, the
lineation is best
observed on
cleavage surfaces

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Intersection lineations can be
used to estimate trend and
plunge of axes of major
folds

(from http://nvcc.edu/home/cbentley/geoblog/labels/virginia.html)

Common Intersection Lineations

Bedding/cleavage intersection.
Crenulations of an earlier foliation.

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Bedding-Cleavage Relationship (vergence)

Bedding-cleavage relationships can be used to
determine the position of an outcrop-scale fold in a
larger structure.
LEFT
RIGHT
Is the nearest antiform located to the left or right of this

outcrop? (or: what is the vergence?)
Bedding-Cleavage Relationship (vergence)
Using only bedding-cleavage relationship, the antiform is

inferred to be to the right of the outcrop i.e. vergence is to
the right
Bedding and cleavage
at smaller angle in fold
limb
LEFT
RIGHT
Bedding & cleavage at
high angle in fold hinge
Structural Facing
Structural Facing is rather complexly defined as: the
direction of younging resolved in the foliation at right angles
to the fold axis;
Facing: the direction in which the axial plane of a fold passes
through younger layers. This term applies to the whole fold.
Younging: the direction towards which a rock unit or layer
decreases in age. This direction changes around a fold.

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Facing
Direction of younging in the cleavage plane is the
structural facing (direction);
Facing provides information on structural history.
The following slides examine each of these outcrops

Facing Outcrop A
Is the facing direction upwards or downwards?
Graded
bedding

Facing Outcrop A
The graded bedding youngs upwards, but faces

downwards on the cleavage surface.

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Facing Outcrop B
Is the facing direction upwards or downwards?
Cross-bedding

Facing Outcrop B
The cross-bedding youngs and faces

downwards on the cleavage surface.

Fold Geometry at Depth

A
Change in younging direction suggests that outcrops are on opposite limbs of a

fold;
In outcrop A, bedding is steeper than cleavage;
In outcrop B, bedding is shallower than cleavage.
Fold is synformal but

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Fold Geometry at Depth

.. the fold is also an anticline!
Fold is a synformal anticline.

Why facing is important?
Downward facing implies earlier inversion

Exercise 7:
Fold Problems Part 1

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Exercise 7: Fold Problems

Fold Sequencing
What structures would you

select as being potentially
critical in this outcrop?

Fold Sequencing (continued)

S2
Compositional layering/
bedding (S0);
Foliation (S1) at low angle/
subparallel to bedding,
shown by minor veins; and
Isoclinal folding of
composite foliation S0/S1,
development of new axial
plane cleavage/ foliation
(S2).
?
S0
S0/S1

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Fold Sequencing (continued)
Upright fold F3 refolding

isoclinal fold F2, together
with bedding S0, and
foliations S1, S2.
S2 &
F2ap
F3
Earlier fold possibly parasitic

on the limb of a larger F2 fold.
S0/S1
Polyphase Folding
Structural sucession
Primary compositional
layering (S0);
Early penetrative foliation
parallel to layering (S1),
shown by minor veins;
Isoclinal folding of S0 and S1
around F2 and development of
new axial planar foliation S2;
Folding of S0, S1 and S2
around F3. No axial planar
foliation is observed.
S2 &
F2ap
?
F3
S0/S1

Fold Interference
Fold interference patterns

are a function of the relative
orientations of the different
fold phases
Only 2
fold phases!
BUT ALSO:
On the outcrop, the pattern will
depend on the orientation of
the exposed surface
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Overprinting Deformation Events: Fold Interference
After Ramsay, 1976
TYPE 1 or Dome-and-Basin
Fold Pattern is produced
where fold axial traces are at
high angle and both fold
generations are upright or
inclined
After Ramsay, 1976
TYPE 2 or Arrowhead /
Mushroom Pattern is
produced where fold axial
traces are at high angle, but
one fold generation is upright
to inclined and the other is
recumbent or reclined

TYPE 2 or Arrowhead /
Mushroom Pattern

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After Ramsay, 1976
TYPE 3 or Wavy Tail Pattern

(coaxial) is produced where the
fold axes are parallel or subparallel, and one generation of
fold is upright to inclined and
the other is recumbent or
reclined
Fold Interference
What type of
interference pattern is
defined here?
Refolded folds in gneiss, Ruby Mountains, Elko

County, Nevada
(From NBMG Photograph Archive)
Fold Interference
Shallow-plunging F2
syncline
Contains re-folded F1
folds in the heart of the
deposit

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Fold Geometry Remobilization and Refolding
Thompson Ni Belt, Manitoba

Analysis of Multiply- Folded Areas
Start with the last fold

event fold axes will be
linear, fold axial planes
will be planar; both will
have consistent
orientation over
reasonable area
Use regional data
patterns may be more
obvious on large scale
than on pit/mine or
outcrop
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Once you have an
understanding of the
geometry of the last
fold phase, work
backwards to unfold
previous deformation
phases (e.g. by looking
at bedding/cleavage
asymmetry etc.)


Even the most complex areas
can be puzzled out with a bit
of time and patience

Transposition: Folding and High Strain
When the %$#&*# really hits the fan
layers locally appear to join

up across stratigraphy rather
than along it
Sub-parallel sand lenses in silty shale form depositional(?) texture
with enigmatic origin
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Vancouver Art Gallery
Georgia Street
entrance
Transposed folds are

often more easily
defined by their
enveloping surface


Transposition
Implications for exploration
Mapped distribution of high grade

appears to join up across strike
Enveloping surface defines folded layer

Sheath Folds: Folding and High Strain

Sheath folds have curvilinear fold traces, and the
fold axes reverse their
plunges around a point;
Sheath folds initiate as
cylindrical folds with axes
perpendicular to the
transport direction and
stretching lineation;
With progressive shear, the
axes rotate to become
parallel to the stretching
lineation.
(Twiss and Moores, 1992)
(Hanmer and Passchier, 1991)
Grenville Orogen, Ontario
(http://ic.ucsc.edu/~casey/eart150/Lectures/ShearZones/15shearZns.htm)

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Things to Remember
Fold symmetry
Parasitic folds
Vergence (careful of plunge!)
Foldfabric relationships
Axial planar foliation
Folded?
Mineralization?
Structural facing
Need way-up indicators
Important for identifying overturned beds, especially where wayup, alone, doesnt work
Fold sequencing
Dont be intimidated by crazy patterns
Be mindful of the orientation of the exposed surface
Folding and High Strain Transposition and Sheath Folds

Enveloping surface
Competence contrasts
Rotation of fold axes
REMEMBER:
Folds are fractal. Small scale mimics larger scales. Relationships identified on the
outcrop scale can be applied to the deposit scale and larger.
Exercise 7:
Fold Problems Part 2

Exercise 7: Fold Problem

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veins and vein systems
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CM7 Structural analysis of veins and
vein systems

Veins in fault / shear zones
Veins form in or adjacent to both

brittle and ductile zones, and they
are the most useful indicators of
direction and sense of
displacement.
Mineralized veins are especially
useful - WHY???
Veins generally form oblique to
their related fault, and the sense
of obliquity is related to fault
movement direction / sense.

Veins exploit pre-existing fabric
Folded bedding parallel quartz

vein, Goldenville, Nova Scotia
Bedding parallel vein, Hill End Mine,
NSW, Australia
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Veins Form During Folding
Tangier anticline, Meguma district, Nova Scotia


Flexural slip
Folded vein, Deborah deposit, Bendigo

Flexural flow
Tangential longitudinal strain
Laminated and extensional veins, Swan

decline, Bendigo
Vein variation, Sheepshead anticline, Bendigo

from Cox (2005)
bedding-parallel
fault-fill vein
Vein variation, Sheepshead anticline,

Bendigo from Cox (2005)
Extensional veins are generated

due to slip along bedding planes.
Laminated and extensional veins,
Swan decline, Bendigo
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Such slip can also generate
dilation in hinge zones and
form saddle reefs;
Saddle reefs are
fold axis-parallel
linear shoots.


Extensional veins also
form in outer arcs
of fold hinges;
Such extensional veins
may form hinge lineparallel networks
(i.e. fold axis-parallel
shoots).


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Veins are Preserved in Fold Hinges
From Kisters, 2005

Competence contrasts in ductile fault zones

Formation of a quartz-carbonate
vein in a schistose fault zone
(e.g. biotite, chlorite, sericite)
creates a large competence
contrast between the strong vein
and the surrounding weak schist;
This creates a positive feedback
mechanism where during
subsequent deformation the vein
will fold/boudinage/fracture
creating low stress sites that will
focus the deposition of
subsequent hydrothermal fluids.
Quartz vein in graphitic schist, Obuasi,

Ghana
Pyrrhotite infilling boudin necks in a

quartz vein, Detour Lake, Ontario
Veins exploit pre-existing veins
Quartz tourmaline vein xc boudinaged

ankerite vein, Red Lake
Quartz tourmaline vein xc boudinaged

ankerite vein, Dome deposit, Timmins
Quartz vein xc quartz vein, Con deposit,

Yellowknife
Quartz vein xc quartz vein, Con deposit,

Yellowknife
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Positive feedback
Deform ductile
shear zone
Deposit vein
system (barren
or auriferous)
Deposit veins
localized on
1st/2nd/3rd vein
system
Deform vein
system
Timing and gold endowment

It is important to understand
the timing relative to
deformation of the vein
generations, and the
controlling kinematics of the
deformation at that time.
It is also important to
understand the relative gold
endowment of the different
vein generations; e.g.
barren-auriferous,
auriferous-auriferous.
Folded gold with axial planar cleavage,

Rainy River gold deposit, Ontario
Gold in cross-cutting fracture, Rainy River

gold deposit, Ontario
Vein styles
Vein
Type
Fault-fill veins
Internal
Features
Structural
Site
laminated structure;
foliated wallrock slivers;
slip surfaces;
fibres at low angles to vein walls;
filli
shear zone or fault;

fold limbs
Geometry
parallel to host structure
shear fracturing;
extensional opening of
existing fractures
planar veins at moderate angle

to shear zone;
perpendicular to fold hinge
extensional fracturing;
extensional-shear fracturing
mineral fibres at high

angle to vein walls
outside shear zones;

AC joints in folds
Extensional
vein arrays
internal layering: multiple openings
within shear zones
Stockworks
2 or more oblique to
orthogonal vein sets
non specific
tabular to cigar shaped zones
Jigsaw Puzzle
angular clasts, no rotation
along faults
Fault breccias
vein and wallrock clasts;

rotation and abrasion
fault or shear zone
Extensional veins
Formation
Mechanism
Breccia Veins
fault slip
Adapted from Robert et al. 1994

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Vein styles
From Robert and Poulsen, 2001

Vein styles: laminated fault-fill veins
Schematic representation of
lateral zoning in vein to
wallrock ratio
Sketch of individual veinlets

amalgamating to form larger
laminated quartz lenses.
Sigma deposit, Val dOr
Robert et al. (1994)

Vein styles: laminated fault-fill veins
Fault-fill veins with carbonate alteration.

Motherlode, California
Fault-fill veins with carbonate alteration.

Pamour deposit, Timmins
Fault-fill vein.
Hoyle Pond deposit, Timmins
Fault-fill veins with sericite alteration.

Con deposit, Yellowknife
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Vein styles: extensional veins
Robert et al. (1994).
Planar extensional vein x-cutting shear zone;

Arrays of sigmoidal extensional veins (tension gashes) in shear zone;
Planar extensional veins within shear zone.
Vein styles: extensional veins
Extensional quartz-tourmaline vein.

Red Lake.
Extensional calcite vein array. Giant

deposit, Yellowknife.
Quartz tourmaline vein, Buffalo deposit,

Red Lake
Extensional quartz vein array, Black Fox

deposit, Timmins

Vein Styles: Extensional Veins
Colloform quartz vein, Cerro Bayo, Chile.
Bladed quartz, Yukon, Canada.
Colloform quartz vein, Fresnillo, Mexico.
Late-stage extensional veins in ankerite vein, Red Lake, Canada.

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Vein styles: stockwork and breccia veins

Stockwork and breccia veins can be regarded as composite
structures resulting from a combination of multiple sets of veins
and fractures
Quartz-breccia vein, Kirkland Lake
Vein stockwork, Black Fox deposit,

TImmins

Vein styles: stockwork and breccia veins
Specularite copper breccia veins with associated specularite

stockwork veins, IOCG deposit near Diego de Almagro.
Veins as Kinematic Indicators

Where high pore fluid
pressures dominate (many
hydrothermal environments),
vein orientations can help
determine the kinematics.
Sub-horizontal veins:
Contractional
Sub-vertical veins:
Parallel to faults:
extensional
Or:
Oblique to faults:
transcurrent
After Sibson (1990)
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Cross-section View
Vein system, Obotan deposit, Ghana

Bogoso Au Deposit, Ghana, West Africa


The Bogoso Mine
occurs 60km to the SW
of Ashanti along the
same regional strikeslip fault system;
Gold mineralization
occurs at bends along
the strike-slip system;
Note vein geometries
associated with
opposing bends!

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Veins in fault / shear zones

Vein
(tension gash)



S-shaped en echelon
tension veins
indicate a sinistral
movement
Z-shaped veins
indicate dextral
movement

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Plan View

compressive stress direction
Dextral movement

Plan View Back of drift looking up
Obuasi gold deposit, Ghana

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Vein networks
Relationship between
reverse (compressional)
fault, dilation and veining.

Vein networks
normal (extensional)
fault, dilation and veining.
fluid expands rapidly in dilating

part of the fault allowing for phase
separation and mineralisation
"choke" on tight section of fault
fluid pathway
magma/fluid source

Vein networks
N
strike-slip (wrench)
fault, dilation and
veining.

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Vein networks
veins
ve ns
NORMAL FAULT
veins
vei ns
Normal Fau t
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
veins
vei ns
Patterns of faulting and

associated veining
Reverse Fault
Indicates
two different
episodes of
faulting
Strike Slip
Fault
REVERSE
FAULT
vei ns
Veins characteristic of dextral strike-slip

movement overprinting horizontal veins
typical of compressional or reverse faulting.
This type of relationship indicates two
episodes of faulting.

Dilational Jogs
Patterns of faulting and

associated veining

Obuasi Au Deposit, Ghana, West Africa

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Plunge of Ore Shoots - Obuasi
10 km
1.6
km



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Plunge of Ore Shoots - Obuasi

Exercise 8:
Epithermal Vein Exercise

Epithermal Vein Exercise

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CM8 Regional tectonic
environments and their
influence on structural control
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CM8 Regional tectonic environments
and their influence on structural control

Why Do I Need to Know?

Tectonic environments have a
relatively limited range of
characteristic structural patterns &
styles;
Recognition & application of these
structural patterns is the single most
important factor in the interpretation
of spatial geological data;
Appreciation of the regional tectonic
environment in which an ore deposit
occurs, aids in understanding the
local structural controls, which in turn
allow better drill targeting.

Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits

Regional tectonic environments are almost invariably
controlled by large-scale plate tectonic movements;
Three tectonic environments can be distinguished in which
specific ore deposits form (and may be deformed).
Earthquake locations highlighting plate boundaries; from Schellart and Rawlinson, 2009
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Regional Tectonic Environments

Extensional Settings:
o Fault Architecture;
o Ore Deposits;
Compressional Settings:
o Ore Deposits;
Strike-slip Settings:
o Ore Deposits;
Fault Reactivation and Basin Inversion.

Extensional Settings

Extensional Settings
Extensional settings occur where continental plates
move away from each other:
Mid-ocean ridges;
Subduction zones (slab rollback).
Ocean floor age isochrons (USGS)

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Extensional Settings: Fault Architecture

Crustal thinning results in complex fault architectures,
commonly characterized by the presence of shallow-dipping
normal faults linking into subhorizontal ductile detachment
faults at depth.
Twiss & Moores, 1992.

Extensional Settings: Fault Architecture

Extension is commonly accommodated
by interaction between 3 main types of
faults:
(1) Detachment faults;
(2) Normal faults; and
(3) Transfer faults.
They move in co-operation
forming fault arrays that
maintain structural balance.

Detachment Fault Characteristics

Accommodate large, up to tens of kilometres (horizontal)
displacement;
Separate medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks of the
lower plate from low-grade metamorphic rocks of the upper
plate resulting in sharp metamorphic break and / or
metamorphic core complexes;
Commonly progressively
intruded by magmas during
extension.

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Normal Fault Characteristics

Commonly listric faults linking into detachment fault;
Secondary, antithetic faults are common;
Cause block tilting and the formation of basins and ranges
juxtaposing older (basement) rocks against younger basin
sequences; and
Basin sequences commonly dip in opposite direction to fault.
Basins and Ranges (half-graben)
Detachment fault

Transfer Faults
Transfer faults are accommodation structures, not strike-slip
faults;
Commonly steep to vertical geometries;
Separate and offset
extensional blocks that
can operate relatively
independently.
Africa
South
America
Google Earth view of Mid-Atlantic Spreading
Ridge showing numerous transfer faults

Extensional Settings: Basin Formation

Extensional basins form
in 2 stages:
1. Rift stage: active during
extensional faulting
associated with heating;
2. Post-rift ("sag") stage: after
extension associated with
thermal relaxation and
contraction.

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Rift Stage Characteristics
Active faulting;
Half-graben depocentres;
Wedges of coarse clastic sediments;
Rapid lateral facies changes away from fault scarps;
May have volcanism.

Sag Stage Characteristics

Sedimentary sequences generally fine upwards as
topography reduces and subsidence slows down;
Gradual sedimentary facies changes;
Continuous units with little thickness variation across the
basin;
Crustal cooling; little or no volcanism.

Extensional Structures in Map View

Parallel ridges and valleys bound by normal faults
(perpendicular to extension direction);
Normal faults are commonly discontinuous or stepped along
transfer faults (parallel to extension direction).
Google Earth (oblique) view of Basin and Range Province, Nevada, USA
Normal faults in red

dash, transfer faults
in yellow dash. Also
note development
of alluvial fans into
basins

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Extensional Structures in Archean

Gold deposits
restricted between
Golden Pike and
Adelaide Fault
Dramatic change in
stratigraphy across
Adelaide Fault
Hannan Lake Serpentinite missing

between these faults
Geology of the Archean Kalgoorlie
Gold Camp, Yilgarn Province,
Australia (after Bateman et al., 2001)
Extensional Settings & Ore Deposits

Crustal thinning is associated with the formation of
sedimentary basins, high heat flow and magmatism, LPHT
metamorphism, and deformation (even mountain building);
High heat flow, magmatism and metamorphism may drive
hydrothermal activity and the formation of ore deposits.

Extensional Settings & Ore Deposits

The location of ore deposits in extensional basins is
controlled by normal faults that act as pathways for metalbearing fluids to favourable stratigraphic horizons;
Reactivation of normal faults during subsequent inversion
commonly introduces
another phase of
hydrothermal activity.
Goodfellow and Lydon, Mineral Deposits of Canada, 2007

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Ore Deposit Types in Extensional Basins

VMS deposits:
o Commonly developed during active rifting (e.g. mid-ocean
ridges and back-arc basins);
o Precipitate from hydrothermal fluids
on or below the seafloor.
Spectrum of sediment-hosted
base metal deposits:
o Commonly developed during rifting
and / or sag stage during circulation
of hydrothermal fluids in sedimentary
basin sequences.

Ore Deposit Types in Extensional Basins
Distribution of various ore

deposit types along
Canadas western
Laurentian margin.
Nelson & Colpron, Mineral Deposits of Canada, 2007
Exploration Targeting in Extensional Settings

In extensional settings:
Expect steeply-dipping vein systems plunging sub-horizontally
associated with fault-fill veins along normal faults;
Expect strata-bound ore lenses spatially associated with
normal faults in extensional basins.
Lydon & Goodfellow, 2007
fluid expands rapidly in dilating
part of the fault allowing for phase
separation and mineralisation
"choke" on tight section of fault
fluid pathway
magma/fluid source

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Compressional Settings

Compressional Settings
Occur where continental plates collide:
Subduction zones;
Associated with mountain building.
Gravity anomalies measured by GRACE satellite highlighting distribution of

mountain ranges across the globe (Flamsteed, 2007)
Compressional Settings: Architecture

The architecture of compressional tectonic regimes can be
characterized by one (or a combination of) structural styles:
1) Fold Belts;
2) Fold / Thrust Belts.

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Fold Belts
Upright to overturned fold trains, with or without moderately to
steeply dipping reverse faults;
Commonly associated with thin-skinned deformation involving
only upper crustal, lithologically uniform terranes at low
metamorphic grades (e.g. foreland setting).
Chevron folding at Loughshinny, Ireland (www.geologyrocks.co.uk)

Relationship Between Folds and Thrusts

Folding is generally accompanied by faulting on the same
and / or broader scale than the folding;
In fact, many folds result from movement along faults,
therefore, continuity of bedding around folds should be
questioned, rather than assumed.
Cross-section of West Nepal (DeCelles et al., 2001)

Fold and Thrust Belts

Dominated by recumbent folding and / or thrusting in areas
with strongly layered rock sequences and / or at higher
metamorphic grade;
Commonly associated with thick-skinned deformation
involving basement rocks;
Fold nappe terranes are dominated by the presence of
shallow-dipping recumbent folds.
Cross-section of the Canadian Rockies (Boyce et al., 2002)

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Compressional Settings: Fault Architecture

Thrust faults may be listric
(curved) from subhorizontal to steep
(commonly inverted
normal faults);
Alternatively, thrusts can
have a "staircase"
geometry made up of
alternating "ramps" and
"flats".

Listric Thrust Geometry

Broad anticlines paired with tight (overturned) synclines are
typically associated with listric thrusts;
These folds develop as a result of drag in both the hanging
wall and the footwall of the thrust fault and are termed
hanging wall (or roll-over) antiform and footwall synform
respectively.

Ramp-Flat Geometry
Most common in thin-skinned deformation propagating along
zones of weakness (flats; e.g. bedding planes) within a rock
package, whereby higher angle faults are called ramps.

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Ramp-Flat Geometry
Ramps which form
perpendicular to the
transport direction are
called frontal ramps;
Ramps that form parallel
to the transport direction
are called lateral ramps;
Those ramps inclined at
other angles are called
oblique ramps.
Van der Pluijm & Marshak, 1997

Imbricate Thrust Stacks

Thrusts typically occur in groups called imbricate thrust
stacks;
Each fault in the array undergoes movement until it "locks"
and a new fault develops in footwall of older thrusts,
producing stacking of older thrust sheets on younger sheets;
Older sheets are carried piggyback on the back of younger
sheets.
1

Thrust Duplex
Series of imbricate thrusts commonly bounded by a (lower)
floor thrust and (upper) roof thrust forming a thrust duplex;
These accomplish shortening and thickening of competent
units with little internal deformation (similar to ramp-flat
geometry).

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Thrust Duplex
Cross-section of the Appalachians, van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997
Note how the earlier formed thrusts are steeper than the younger thrusts, due to
continued deformation as the duplex propagates towards the left.
Complex Thrust Geometries

Geometry of thrust faults is rarely simple;
Most are either folded or breached by new
imbricate faults as shortening progresses.
Backthrusts associated
with a ramp.
Wedge thrust over

a ramp.
Van der Pluijm & Marshak, 1997
Blind Thrusts
Blind thrusts are thrust surfaces that terminate before they
reach the earths surface;
Blind thrusts may host blind ore bodies.
Ductile rock layers fold
Blind Thrust Fault

Image courtesy of Stephen Nelson, Tulane University
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Compressional Structures in Map View

Characteristic elements of fold
and thrust belts include:
Parallel fold and thrust traces
commonly sub-parallel to
stratigraphy;
Hanging wall anticlines (A);
(Overturned) footwall
synclines (D);
Truncated thrusts (C);
Ramp-flat geometry;
Imbricate thrust stacks.

Overprinting Compressional Events

Many multiply deformed terranes are characterized by a
combination of early thrusting and / or recumbent folding,
overprinted by upright folds, followed by strike-slip faulting /
shearing;
Worldwide, there are many examples of economically
mineralized terranes with this structural history, in particular
most Archean terranes.
Rouyn-Noranda
Val dOr
50 km
Cadillac-Larder Lake Deformation Zone on total magnetic intensity (Ford et al., 2007)

Compressional Settings & Ore Deposits
Distribution of Mesozoic and Cenozoic porhyry Cu-Mo-Au deposits along convergent plate margins in
the circum-Pacific region (after Tosdal and Richards, 2001).
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Crustal thickening is associated with high heat flow,
magmatism, metamorphism, and deformation;
High heat flow, magmatism and metamorphism may drive
hydrothermal activity and the formation of ore deposits.
From Lydon, 2007

Compressional Settings and Ore Deposits
Spatial link
between ridge
subduction and
mineral deposit
formation
Large-scale geometry of the Eastern Pacific Ocean and

South American Andes (after Rosenbaum et al., 2005)
Fault intersections
control the location
of magmatism and
mineral deposit
formation
Major porphyry Cu-Au deposits and regional structural

architecture in the Andes of northern Chile (after Richards, 2003)

Structural Trends & Porphyry Distribution

Can be clustered,
including along
linear structures
(e.g., Atacama /
Domeyko Fault
Zones);
Can be isolated
(e.g., Bingham
Canyon, Pebble).
From Gruen et al. (2010)
From Sillitoe (2010)

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In multiply deformed Archean terranes, regional structures control location of gold
camps; individual gold deposits occur along secondary faults.

Exploration Targeting in Compressional Settings

In compressional settings:
Expect shallow-dipping vein systems plunging sub-horizontally
associated with fault-fill veins along reverse faults;
Keep in mind that post-depositional deformation may have
affected the geometry and plunge of an ore deposit.
Long section of Flin Flon-Triple 7-Callinan Cu-Zn-Au orebody: deformed

Paleoproterozoic VMS deposit (Ames & Jonasson, 2007).
Strike-Slip / Wrench Settings

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Strike-Slip Settings
Strike-slip settings occur where continental plates slide
past each other (oblique convergence).
Callais et al., 2002

Strike-Slip Settings: Fault Architecture

Strike-slip faults have the following main
features:
Long, straight segments with purestrike-slip movement (principal
displacement zones - PDZ's);
Consistent sense and amount of
horizontal offset on a variety of
geological (and landscape) features;
Sub-vertical dip, but complex
geometry;
San Andreas Fault, California, USA

Strike-Slip Settings: Fault Architecture

Small departures from linearity lead to severe, localized
structural complexity;
Can form areas of extreme local uplift, or of rapid deep
subsidence;
Individual faults are relatively easy to map, as they
generally have linear traces in plan.
Altyn Tagh Fault, Tibetan Plateau (India-Asia collision zone); Cowgill et al., 2004
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Strike-Slip Settings: Fault Characteristics

Strike-slip systems can
have complex structural
architecture;
Fault sections may be
curved in plan and crosssection;
Expect restraining and
releasing bends; and
Expect stratigraphic
variations across faults.

Strike-Slip Faults: Geometry

Dextral
Sinistral
Anisotropies in the crust

may give rise to jogs,
bends, step-overs and
splays along PDZ;
These areas are important
areas for fluid focusing and
are commonly associated
with mineral deposition.
Twiss & Moores, 1992.

Releasing Bends (Dilational Jogs)

Releasing bends in strike-slip fault systems are characterized
by a mixture of extensional, dilational & strike-slip structures.
Dilation results in addition of material, usually minerals

precipitated in veins & breccia.
Strong potential for formation of ore deposits!
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Restraining Bends (Compressional Jogs)

Reverse or thrust faults are common at restraining bends &
compressional jogs. They accommodate the compression,
generally also causing uplift.
Thrusts may sole out into a low-angle detachment that forms

the floor of the jog.
Potential for formation of ore deposits!
Strike-Slip Fault: Flower Structures

Narrow, sub-vertical PDZ
at depth splays upwards at
shallower depth;
Especially at bends, steps
and jogs fault flower
structures or duplexes
may form.
Positive flower structure
Negative flower structure

Twiss & Moores, 1992
Strike-Slip Fault: Flower Structures

Positive flower structures:
Occur at restraining bends;
Contain oblique, reverse
faults; and
Give rise to uplift (mountain
building).
Negative flower structures:
Occur at releasing bends;
Contain oblique normal
faults; and
Produce local subsidence
(pull-apart basins)
Twiss &
Moores,
1992
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Strike-Slip Settings & Porphyry-Epithermal Systems

PNG highlands Compressional flower
structure at bend along sinistral strike-slip
plate boundary.
Porgera
Grasberg
Porgera

Strike-slip Settings and Epithermal Deposits

Lagunas Norte
related to jogs
with both
sinistral and
dextral strikeslip history.
From Montgomery (2012)


Silver Deposit , Chile
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Lineation, extensional vein

orientation, dilational jog
shape all indicate vein
system formed in a sinistral
strike-slip fault system.
Strike-Slip Settings & Porphyry Deposits

~36 Ma Chuquicamata
deposit in Chile
From Ossandon et al. (2001)

Strike-Slip Settings & Gold Deposits

The Bogoso Mine
occurs 60km to the SW
of Ashanti along the
same regional strikeslip fault system;
Gold mineralization
occurs at bends along
the strike-slip system;
Note vein geometries
associated with
opposing bends!

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Exploration Targeting in Strike-Slip Settings

In strike-slip settings:
Expect steeply dipping vein systems or intrusions (porphyries)
plunging sub-vertically associated with bends along strike-slip
faults;
Where opposing bends occur along a strike-slip fault system
both compressional and extensional vein systems may occur;
Active plate margins are ideal locations for ore deposit
formation in strike-slip settings.

Fault Reactivation and Basin Inversion


Extensional faults formed during basin formation are
commonly reactivated during subsequent compression in a
process called basin inversion;
This is an important process in the modification of the
geometry of existing ore deposits (e.g. VMS) as well as the
genesis of new ore deposits.
Basin inversion in the Archean Eastern

Goldfields Province, Australia
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Listric rotational faults and
detachment faults
reactivate as thrusts;
Basin sediments are
folded and pushed back
up the fault;
Transfer faults reactivate
as strike-slip faults,
accommodating
movement between
individual thrust segments.
Basin Inversion: Zambia Copper Belt

?Mwashia-age, normal reactivation of early Katangan normal faults
Flat lying normal faults
in ore shale
SW
NE
Reactivated normal faults
localise coarser facies
- + volcanics in Mwashia
Copper-bearing unit
LEGEND
Upper Roan/Mwashia
Ore shales
Lower Roan Quartzite Formation

Syn - rift (Muva?)
Pre-Katanga basement
Fluid Flow
Early normal faults linking into permeable basin

lithologies localize stratiform copper mineralization.
Basin Inversion: Zambia Copper Belt

Copper-bearing unit
Basin inversion and

reactivation of normal faults
produces an imbricate
thrust stack;
Stratiform copper
mineralization now occurs
as stacked lenses.
(a) Schematic cross-section showing early extensional

faulting with imbricate normal faults cutting through
Brockman Formation at high angle and smoothing
out in the Wittenoom Dolomite Fault
(b) Schematic cross-section showing asymmetric folding

of this geometry (eg, Whaleback) showing how bedding
may be folded into overturned to recumbent folds, but
imbricate normal faults remain unfolded, and appear
to "cut" and postdate folds.

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Inversion in the Field

Basin Inversion & Ore Deposits

Intersection of
thrusts and
transfer faults
control position of
large gold camps
in Abitibi, Canada.
Extensional structural architecture

influences geometry of subsequent
compressional events.
Red Lake

Exploration Targeting
Combine observations at all scales!
Interpret map patterns, relate these to field observations;
Understand the tectonic history of your area of interest and
determine the tectonic setting at the time of ore deposition;
Know what ore deposit types and / or geometries to expect
in the tectonic setting at the time of ore deposition; and
Use local structural observations to further constrain your
targeting model.

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Exercises
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Geologa Estructural Aplicada a Exploracin y Minera
Ejercicio sobre Fluidos y Actividad Hidrotermal
Ejercicio 1: Fluidos y Actividad Hidrotermal

Calcular cunto fluido hidrotermal es necesario para formar un depsito de oro
de 5 millones de onzas.
Asumir el100% de eficiencia en la depsito del oro desde el fluido hidrotermal
hasta el lugar de depsito;
Asumir que la solubilidad del oro en la solucin hidrotermal es 0.03ppm;
Asumir que 1 ppm = 1 gramo/tonelada;
Asumir que 1 onza es igual a 31 gramos;
Asumir que 1 litro de fluido hidrotermal es igual a 1 kilogramo; y
Asumir que 1000 kilogramos son iguales a 1 tonelada mtrica.
Metodologa:
1. Convertir los 5 millones de onzas a gramos;
2. Calcular cuntas toneladas de fluido hidrotermal se requieren para formar un
depsito de oro basndose en la solubilidad de 0.03 ppm (0.03 g/t); y
3. Calcular a cuntos litros de fluido hidrotermal corresponde.
SVS ingenieros - SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo, 16-17 Mayo, 2015
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Ejercicio mapa Mary Kathleen
Ejercicio 2: Ejercicio en el mapa Mary Kathleen

1:100,000
Interpretacin de fallas
Se le ha entregado a usted el mapa geolgico Mary Kathleen 1:100,000 (centro de Mt
Isa). Basados en las relaciones encontradas en este mapa, se dise un ejercicio
simple sobre interpretacin de fallas con el fin de ilustrar los principios generales de
interpretacin
de
fallas
en
3D,
balanceo
estructural
la
aproximacin
dinmica/movimiento de roca al mapeo estructural. Este ejercicio se fundamenta en las

relaciones en la parte este del mapa y usted debera pasar algunos minutos
familiarizndose con las unidades principales y la secuencia estratigrfica del mismo.
Ejercicio 1 Balanceo de fallas en perfil
Todas las fallas en el perfil A-B-C-D se consideran verticales. Cuatro de estas fallas
son enumeradas del 1 hasta el 4 y son la base para el siguiente ejercicio. Identifique
las fallas del 1 hasta 4 en el mapa. Cul es el rumbo relativo respecto a las unidades
estratigrficas adyacentes?
Se le entreg una hoja de papel calco. Posicione la hoja sobre el perfil y trace el perfil
superficial, las fallas 1 a 4 y el lmite entre la Cuarcita Ballara y la Formacin Argylla en
cada bloque de falla. Ahora extienda cuanto sea necesario las fallas y el limite
Ballara/Argylla hacia arriba o hacia abajo para medir el componente de desplazamiento
vertical en cada falla. Mida el componente de desplazamiento vertical en cada falla y
sume el desplazamiento total a lo largo de las cuatro fallas.
Indique su respuesta. Es esta razonable? Si no, podra sugerir una simple modificacin
a la interpretacin del perfil para as mejorarlo?

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3
1
Exercise 1
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Exercise 1
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Ejercicio Llanura
Ejercicio 3: Ejercicio Llanura
Venas de carbonato con metales base en el rea que se muestra en el mapa y en el

diagrama de bloque muestran una correlacin espacial marcada con la parte ms
estrecha de los pliegues anticlinales en el bloque superior de una falla de
cabalgamiento. El modelo gentico de la mineralizacin sugiere que el flujo hidrotermal
ocurri durante el cabalgamiento y que los fluidos se concentraron en calizas
permeables y reactivas en la cresta del anticlinal, debajo de una arenisca
impermeable.
La tarea es seleccionar reas aptas para realizar una campaa de perforacin y
proveer una gua de los posibles buzamientos de las venas enriquecidas localizadas
en las reas potenciales. Para esto se debe:
1. Construir un mapa de la geologa al nivel 2 en el diagrama de bloque. El mapa
debe mostrar las fallas (con su buzamiento), los pliegues y las unidades
litolgicas.
2. Dibuje un perfil (paralelo a cara frontal del diagrama de bloque) a travs de un
rea que usted considere como un potencial de alta prioridad.
3. Indique en el mapa y el perfil la orientacin probable de las venas que podran
interceptarse durante la campaa de perforacin.
4. Que sugerencias tiene para el planeamiento de la campaa de perforacin?

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Ejercicio Llanura
1
2
3
4
20
Colluvium
10
35
Conglomerate
Sandstone
5
50
Limestone
50
30
Granite
5
5
10
5
3
25
50
A = Cabalgamiento emergente principal

B = Anticlinal en el bloque superior
C = Fallamiento y plegamiento irregular de coluvin incompetente

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Ejercicio Llanura
1
2
3
4
20
Colluvium
10
35
Conglomerate
Sandstone
5
50
Limestone
50
30
Granite
5
5
10
5
3
25
50
A = Anticlinal en el bloque superior

B = Cresta del anticlinal en el bloque superior
C = Cabalgamientos truncados
D = Bloque inferior volcado
E = Plegamiento fallado

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Ejercicio Granny Smith
Ejercicio 4: Contornos estructurales en el depsito

Granny Smith
Se le entregaron dos mapas del deposito de Au-Cu Granny Smith localizado en el

distrito Laverton, Australia. Uno de ellos es un mapa de tenores del depsito. El otro
muestra los contornos estructurales del contacto en Granny Smith entre el granito y la
roca verde. La mineralizacin esta asociada con una zona importante de cizallamiento
dctil que se encuentra en dicho contacto.
1. Construya un perfil que represente un sitio con un alto tenor clave localizado a
lo largo del contacto entre el granito y la roca verde, con esto conteste lo
siguiente:
a. La mineralizacin se encuentra preferentemente en las secciones del
contacto ms superficiales o ms profundas.
b. Qu podra inferir sobre el rgimen estructural durante la depositacin
del mineral

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Ncleo Orientado
Ejercicio 5: Localizacin de potenciales y su evaluacin

utilizando ncleos de perforacin orientados
Ejercicio 5.1
Dibuje un perfil geolgico incorporando los datos encontrados en la Fig 5.1. Una las
intersecciones de 2% Zn en un horizonte paralelo a las tendencias estratigrficas. La
respuesta se encuentra en la Fig. 5.2, por favor no la revise hasta que termine este ejercicio.
Intente dibujar un perfil ms interpretativo en su respuesta. Posteriormente, compare su
respuesta con el perfil mostrado en la Fig 5.3.
Figura 5.1: Ncleos de perforacin para el ejercicio. Las intersecciones con 10% Zn se
encuentran en una zona de cizalla.

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.2: Unin de intersecciones. Note las intersecciones de 10% Zn en la zona de

cizalla.

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.3: Perfil interpretado.

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Ncleo Orientado
Ejercicio 5.2
La figura 5.4 muestra un mapa con el delineamiento estratigrfico de acuerdo con las
intersecciones de los ncleos de perforacin. En la Fig. 5.5 dibuje los contornos estructurales
de la zona de cizalla que contiene Zn y compare sus resultados con la Figura Figure 5.6.
Figura 5.4: Delineamiento estratigrfico de acuerdo con los ncleos de perforacin.

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.5: Mapa en donde se encuentran los ncleos de perforacin que muestra los
puntos que tienen 10% Zn en el horizonte de la zona de cizalla.

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.6: Contornos estructurales de la zona de cizalla enriquecida con Zn

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Ncleo Orientado
Ejercicio 5.3
En la Figura 5.7, construya los contornos estructurales del horizonte que contiene 2% Zn
diseminado teniendo en cuenta que este horizonte es estratiforme. Compare sus resultados
con la Figura 5.8.
Figura 5.7: Mapa en donde se encuentran los ncleos de perforacin que muestra los
puntos en el horizonte que contiene 2% Zn.

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.8: Contornos estructurales del horizonte que contiene 2% Zn diseminado.

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Ncleo Orientado
Ejercicio 5.4
Dibuje la interseccin entre la mena estratiforme (Fig. 5.8) y la mena en la zona de cizalla
(Fig. 5.9). Compare el resultado con la Figura 5.10.
Figura 5.9: Contornos estructurales de la mena en la zona de cizalla

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Ncleo Orientado
Figura 5.10: Interseccion entre las mena estratiforme y la mena en la zona de cizalla.

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Problemas sobre Fallas
Ejercicio 6: Problemas sobre Fallas Parte 1

Problema 1A. Anlisis de Fallas: Ejercicio sobre cartografa e interpretacin de fallas
Examine el mapa de la Fig. 6.1, enfatizando en las fallas. El mapa muestra varias relaciones
que parecen ser contradictorias o geolgicamente irrazonables. Adems, no se presenta
parte de la informacin de algunas de las fallas. Haga una lista de dichas relaciones
contradictorias y mencione cual es la informacin adicional que usted habra obtenido
cuando cartografi las fallas.
Figura 6.1: Mapa esquemtico de las relaciones entre las fallas

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Problema 1B. Anlisis de Fallas
La roca esquematizada en la Fig. 6.2 proviene de:

(a) una falla de rumbo con direccin N-S,
(b) una falla normal con direccin N-S,
(c) una falla inversa con direccin E-W, o
(d) una falla inversa con direccin N-S
Figura 6.2: Esquema del afloramiento de una falla

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Problema 1C. Anlisis de Fallas
Es la falla de la Fig. 6.3 una falla normal, inversa o de rumbo. Por qu?
Figura 6.3: Diagrama de una falla y ncleos de perforacin

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Problema 1D. Anlisis de Fallas
(a) La falla en la Fig. 6.4 tiene un sitio prospectivo? Por qu?
(b) Qu suposiciones lo hicieron llegar hasta esta conclusin?
(c) Qu informacin tratara de encontrar en campo?
Figura 6.4: Usted considera que esta falla tiene un sitio prospectivo?

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Ejercicio 6: Problemas sobre Fallas Parte 2
El mapa de la Fig. 6.5 muestra la ubicacin de los afloramientos esquematizados en las Figs
6.6, 6.7 y 6.8.
(a) Qu puede determinar del afloramiento 1? Qu ms buscara si pudiera ir a dicho

afloramiento?
(b) Qu informacin sobre la falla puede obtener del afloramiento 2? Es consistente con la
informacin del afloramiento 1?
(c) Qu informacin sobre la falla puede obtener del afloramiento 3?
(d) Escriba un prrafo corto sobre la falla e indique cmo su interpretacin influenciara la
ubicacin de perforaciones potenciales en esta.

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Figura 6.5: Mapa esquemtico con los buzamientos de las capas y las
ubicaciones de los afloramientos en Figs 6.6, 6.7 y 6.8.

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Figura 6.6: Mapa esquemtico del afloramiento 1 (Fig. 6.5)
Figura 6.7: S Mapa esquemtico del afloramiento 2 (Fig. 6.5)

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Figura 6.8: Mapa esquemtico del afloramiento 3 (Fig. 6.5)

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Problemas sobre Pliegues
Ejercicio 7: Problemas sobre Pliegues
Ejercicio 1:
En la Fig. 7.1 se presentan varios pliegues. Dibuje la forma del plegamiento en cada
cara del diagrama. Describa y clasifique los pliegues. Indique tambin en donde sea
apropiado la direccin de la estructura en cada cara del diagrama.
Ejercicio 2:
La Figura 7.2 incluye varios datos estructurales de campo de una secuencia plegada
de capas sedimentarias. Los datos incluyen la orientacin de las capas, la foliacin
paralela al eje del pliegue y la vergencia de pliegues parsito. No hay datos
disponibles sobre las edades de los estratos y no se encontraron los planos axiales
principales de los pliegues durante el mapeo.
(a): Analice los datos de campo mostrados en la Fig. 7.2 e indique la posible ubicacin
de las crestas de los pliegues.
(b): Dibuje lneas de contorno que caractericen la orientacin de la foliacin a lo largo

del mapa. Considera usted que dicha orientacin es constante? Recuerde que estas
lneas deben ser equidistantes.
(c): Aada al mapa otro set de lneas de contorno y un perfil que ilustre la forma de las
capas sedimentarias. Describa la geometra de los pliegues.
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a.
87
51
72
03
overturned bedding
bedding with plunge
fold axial plane strike

and dip
bedding / fold axial plane
intersection lineation
vergence of parasitic fold
b.
84
73
Figura 7.1: Diagrama en bloque (contina en la pgina siguiente)
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Figura 7.1 (continuacin): Diagrama en bloque
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Figura 7.2: Mapa con los datos estructurales
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Ejercicio Veta Epitermal
Ejercicio 8: Perforacin de una Veta Epitermal/

Sistema de Falla
El perfil de perforacin incluido resume los resultados de la etapa inicial de perforacin
con cabeza de diamante de una falla mineralizada + veta cuyos afloramientos tambin
se muestran all. Antes de planear perforaciones adicionales, se requiere analizar lo
mejor posible los controles estructurales (entre otros) en el rea mineralizaada.
Entender estos controles le permitir planear la campaa de perforacin ms efectiva y
eficiente que delinear la mineralizacin y definir el recurso. Adems, es tambin
importante planear una campaa que maximice la obtencin de informacin til.
Despus de estudiar el perfil, responda las siguientes preguntas:
1. Cul es su interpretacin inicial de los controles estructurales en la

mineralizacin?
2. Qu informacin estructural tratara de adquirir en el afloramiento y/o ncleo
de perforacin para comparar y/o refinar dicha interpretacin?
3. Una visita al afloramiento donde se descubri la mineralizacin muestra que
los lineamientos de fibras de cuarzo en el plano de falla tienen un pitch muy
pronunciado en la superficie de falla. Las venillas de cuarzo en el afloramiento
son verticales y los ngulos de la veta y del eje del ncleo son consistentes,
alrededor de 30 grados. Construya un perfil que muestre los controles
estructurales posibles.
4. Usted considera que las perforaciones han probado extensivamente el
potencial de esta rea? Justifique su respuesta.


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Ejercicio Veta Epitermal
Discovery outcrop narrow silicified fault zone & veins.

Fault dips 60 degrees East. 35 g/t Au vein sample.
DDH 1
Narrow silicified fault zone
same as outcrop
4m @ 8 g/t Au.
Fault dips 60 degrees East.
35 g/t Au vein sample.
Dilational Qtz-vein
breccia averaging
25 g/t Au over widths
shown.
DDH 2
DDH 3
DDH 4
Narrow quartz
veins with
various Au
grades.
Narrow silicified fault zone

same as outcrop
2m @ 6 g/t Au
50m
Narrow, crustiform quartz vein
Grading 4 g/t Au over 2m.


191

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IX Congreso Internacional de

May 16-17, 2015

ProExplo 2015 Lima

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Welcome and Introduction.

General concepts of structural geology and their

Structural mapping techniques for exploration and

3D visualization and interpretation of geology and

Analysis of structure in drillcore: A practical

Structural analysis of faults and fault systems Part 1

Structural analysis of faults and fault systems Part 2

Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part 1

Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part 2

Structural analysis of veins and vein systems

Tectonic regimes and their control on structural

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Applied Structural Geology

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Applied Structural Geology

Applied Structural Geology in

Applied Structural Geology in

Demonstrate why so many ore deposits are

Define the simple principles of structural

Give you the tools you require to do

Give you the confidence to apply these tools,

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Deciphering the structural control on ore plunge and the distribution of

Ms. Isobel Gilbertson

Deciphering structural controls on the distribution of mineralization for a

Applied Structural Geology in

Course Schedule: Day 1

Welcome and Introduction.

General concepts of structural geology and their

Applied Structural Geology in

Course Schedule: Day 2

Structural analysis of faults and fault systems Part 2

Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part I

Structural analysis of folds and fold systems Part 2

Structural analysis of veins and vein systems

Tectonic regimes and their control on structural

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Applied Structural Geology

Applied Structural Geology in

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Geology Input to the Mining Process

Many mining companies have not effectively

Applied Structural Geology in

Geology Input to the Mining Process

Applied Structural Geology in

SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc.

ProExplo 2015 Lima

Geology vs. Risk

Applied Structural Geology in

Geology Input to the Mining Process

Applied Structural Geology in

How Does Structural Geology Make a

Direct input on the limits, size and shape of ore

Elevates confidence in predictability of ore