Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1.1 Mice
The obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For
comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is
shown on the right.
Anatomical features
layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a frosting of white adipose tissue; sometimes
these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose the inguinal group
of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial,
which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each
containing one large lymph node.[5] Of all the depots in
the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most
easily dissected,[6] comprising about 30% of dissectible
fat.[7]
1.2
Obesity
ANATOMICAL FEATURES
In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from the abdomen is referred to as a panniculus 1.4 Subcutaneous fat
(or pannus). A panniculus complicates surgery of the
morbidly obese individual. It may remain as a literal See also: Body fat percentage
apron of skin if a severely obese person quickly loses Most of the remaining nonvisceral fat is found just belarge amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass
surgery). This condition cannot be eectively corrected
through diet and exercise alone, as the panniculus consists
of adipocytes and other supporting cell types shrunken
to their minimum volume and diameter. Reconstructive
surgery is one method of treatment.
See also: Abdominal obesity
Visceral fat or abdominal fat[8] (also known as organ fat
or intra-abdominal fat) is located inside the abdominal
cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is dierent from
subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, and intramuscular
fat interspersed in skeletal muscles. Fat in the lower
body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is
not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen
is mostly visceral and semi-uid.[9] Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric,
epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal
depots.
2.1
Brown fat
3
This suggests a possible cause-and-eect link between the
two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic
changes that contribute to heart disease and other health
problems.[29]
Factors such as sex, age, population size or other variables may make the equations invalid and unusable, and,
as of 2012, Durnin and Wormersleys equations remain
only estimates of a persons true level of fatness. New
formulae are still being created.[26]
Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the
harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patients own
1.5 Ectopic fat
cells. In addition, adipose-derived stem cells from both
human and animals reportedly can be eciently reproEctopic fat is the storage of triglycerides in tissues other grammed into induced pluripotent stem cells without the
than adipose tissue, that are supposed to contain only need for feeder cells.[30] The use of a patients own cells
small amounts of fat, such as the liver, skeletal muscle, reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids ethiheart, and pancreas.[1] This can interfere with cellular cal issues associated with the use of human embryonic
functions and hence organ function and is associated with stem cells.[31] A growing body of evidence also suginsulin resistance in type-2 diabetes.[27] It is stored in rel- gests that dierent fat depots (i.e. abdominal, omenatively high amounts around the organs of the abdominal tal, pericardial) yield adipose-derived stem cells with
cavity, but is not to be confused as visceral fat.
dierent characteristics.[31][32] These depot-dependent
The specic cause for the accumulation of ectopic fat is features include proliferation rate, immunophenotype,
as well as senunknown. The cause is likely a combination of genetic, dierentiation potential, gene expression,
[33]
sitivity
to
hypoxic
culture
conditions.
environmental, and behavioral factors that are involved
in excess energy intake and decreased physical activity. Adipose tissue is the greatest peripheral source of
Substantial weight loss can reduce ectopic fat stores in all aromatase in both males and females, contributing to the
organs and this is associated with an improvement of the production of estradiol.
function of that organ.[27]
Adipose derived hormones include:
Physiology
Adiponectin
Resistin
Leptin
There is a constant ux of FFA (Free Fatty Acids) entering and leaving adipose tissue. The net direction of this
Estradiol (E2)
ux is controlled by insulin and leptinif insulin is elevated, then there is a net inward ux of FFA, and only
when insulin is low can FFA leave adipose tissue. Insulin Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cellsecretion is stimulated by high blood sugar, which results to-cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipocytokines), which play a role in obesity-associated complifrom consuming carbohydrates.
cations. Perivascular adipose tissue releases adipokines
In humans, lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglycerides into free such as adiponectin that aect the contractile function of
fatty acids) is controlled through the balanced control the vessels that they surround.[1][34]
of lipolytic B-adrenergic receptors and a2A-adrenergic
receptor-mediated antilipolysis.
Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance. Abdominal fat has a dierent
metabolic prolebeing more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to a large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an
independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even
in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension).[28]
Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University
(2009) discovered that individuals suering from higher
stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies.
means that when protons transit down the electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane,
the energy from this process is released as heat rather
than being used to generate ATP. This thermogenic process may be vital in neonates exposed to cold, which then
require this thermogenesis to keep warm, as they are unable to shiver, or take other actions to keep themselves
warm.[35]
Gene defects in the leptin gene (ob) are rare in human obesity.[47] As of July, 2010, only 14 individuals
from ve families have been identied worldwide who
carry a mutated ob gene (one of which was the rst
ever identied cause of genetic obesity in humans)
two families of Pakistani origin living in the UK,
one family living in Turkey, one in Egypt, and one
in Austria[48][49][50][51][52] and two other families have
been found that carry a mutated ob receptor.[53][54] Others have been identied as genetically partially decient
in leptin, and, in these individuals, leptin levels on the low
end of the normal range can predict obesity.[55]
2.2
Genetics
The thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations the body would
be more ecient at retaining fat in times of plenty,
thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times
of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in
the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance,
has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with
respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains as viable as when [it was] rst advanced
in other contexts.[40][41]
A body fat meter is a widely available tool used to measure the percentage of fat in the human body. Dierent meters use various methods to determine the body
fat to weight ratio. They tend to under-read body fat
percentage.[62]
5
age of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat
based on this information. The result can uctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten
and how much water has been drunk before the analysis.
Additional images
Diagrammatic sectional view of the skin (magnied).
White adipose tissue in paran section
Electronic instrument of body fat meter
See also
Adipose dierentiation-related protein
Adiposopathy
Apelin
Bioelectrical impedance analysis a method to measure body fat percentage.
Body Volume Index - a method to measure abdominal volume and abdominal fat.
Blubber an extra thick form of adipose tissue
found in some marine mammals.
6 References
[1] Birbrair, Alexander; Zhang, Tan; Wang, Zhong-Min;
Messi, Maria Laura; Enikolopov, Grigori N.; Mintz,
Akiva; Delbono, Osvaldo (2013-03-21). Role of Pericytes in Skeletal Muscle Regeneration and Fat Accumulation. Stem Cells and Development 22 (16): 22982314.
doi:10.1089/scd.2012.0647. ISSN 1547-3287. PMC
3730538. PMID 23517218.
[2] Kershaw EE, Flier JS; Flier (2004). Adipose tissue as
an endocrine organ. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (6):
254856. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0395. PMID 15181022.
[3] Cannon, B; Nedergaard, J (2008). Developmental biology: Neither fat nor esh. Nature 454 (7207): 9478.
Bibcode:2008Natur.454..947C. doi:10.1038/454947a.
PMID 18719573.
[4] Aarsland A, Chinkes D, Wolfe RR; Chinkes; Wolfe (June
1997). Hepatic and whole-body fat synthesis in humans
during carbohydrate overfeeding. The American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition 65 (6): 177482. PMID 9174472.
[5] Pond, Caroline M. (1998). The Fats of Life. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-63577-2.
[6] Cinti, S (July 2005).
The adipose organ.
Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty
acids (Elsevier Science) 73 (9523278):
915.
doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2005.04.010. PMID 15936182.
Lipolysis
[7] Bachmanov, Alexander; D. R. Reed; M. G. Tordo; R. A. Price (March 2001). Nutrient preference
and diet-induced adiposity in C57BL/6ByJ and 129P3/J
mice. Physiology & Behavior 72 (319384): 603613.
doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(01)00412-7. PMC 3341942.
PMID 11282146.
Obesity
Starvation
[9] Abdominal fat and what to do about it, President & Fellows of Harvard College
Steatosis (also called fatty change, fatty degeneration [10] Montague, CT; O'Rahilly, S (2000). The perils of portliness: Causes and consequences of visceral adiposity.
or adipose degeneration)
Stem cells
Subcutaneous fat
Bariatrics
Classication of obesity
Classication of childhood obesity
EPODE International Network, the worlds largest
obesity-prevention network
World Fit A program of the United States
Olympic Committee (USOC), and the United States
Olympians and Paralympians Association (USOP)
Obesity and walking
Social stigma of obesity
JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (1): 769. doi:10.1001/jama.289.1.76. PMID
12503980.
[14] Estrogen causes fat to be stored around the pelvic region,
hips, butt and thighs (pelvic region)
[15] Waistline Worries: Turning Apples Back Into Pears
[16] Researchers think that the lack of estrogen at menopause
plays a role in driving our fat northward. See: Andrews,
Michelle (2006-12-01). A Matter of Fat. Yahoo Health.
Womens Health. Archived from the original on 2007-0315.
[17] Abdominal fat and what to do about it
[18] Irving; Davis, C.; Brock, D.; Weltman, J.; Swift,
D.; Barrett, E.; Gaesser, G.; Weltman, A. (2008).
Eect of exercise training intensity on abdominal visceral fat and body composition. Medicine and science in sports and exercise 40 (11): 18631872.
doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181801d40. PMC 2730190.
PMID 18845966.
[19] Coker; Williams, R.; Kortebein, P.; Sullivan, D.;
Evans, W. (2009). Inuence of Exercise Intensity
on Abdominal Fat and Adiponectin in Elderly Adults.
Metabolic syndrome and related disorders 7 (4): 363368.
doi:10.1089/met.2008.0060. PMC 3135883. PMID
19196080.
[20] Ohkawara, K.; Tanaka, S.; Miyachi, M.; Ishikawa-takata,
K.; Tabata, I. (2007). A dose-response relation between
aerobic exercise and visceral fat reduction: systematic review of clinical trials. International journal of obesity
(2005) 31 (12): 17861797. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803683.
PMID 17637702.
[21] Mazurek T, Zhang L, Zalewski A; et al. (November
2003). Human epicardial adipose tissue is a source of
inammatory mediators. Circulation 108 (20): 2460
6. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000099542.57313.C5. PMID
14581396.
[22] Pezeshkian M, Noori M, Najjarpour-Jabbari H; et al.
(April 2009). Fatty acid composition of epicardial and
subcutaneous human adipose tissue. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 7 (2): 12531. doi:10.1089/met.2008.0056.
PMID 19422139.
[23] E Marieb and K Hoehn. Anatomy and Physiology, 3rd
Edition. Benjamin Cummings 2008. ISBN 0-8053-00945
[24] Porter SA, Massaro JM, Homann U, Vasan RS,
O'Donnel CJ, Fox CS (Jun 2009). Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue: a protective fat depot?". Diabetes
Care 32 (6): 106875. doi:10.2337/dc08-2280.
[25] Belly fat in women: Taking and keeping it o.
MayoClinic.com. 2013-06-08. Retrieved 2013-12-02.
[26] Brodie, D.; Moscrip, V.; Hutcheon, R. (1998). Body
Composition Measurement: A Review of Hydrodensitometry, Anthropometry, and Impedance Methods. Nutrition 14 (3): 296310. doi:10.1016/S08999007(97)00474-7. PMID 9583375.
REFERENCES
[60] Farvid, MS; Ng TW; Chan DC; Barret PH; Watts GF (July
2005). Association of adiponectin and resistin with adipose tissue compartments, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 7 (4): 406
413. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2004.00410.x. PMID
15955127.(registration required)
[61] Urbanchek, MG; Picken EB; Kalliainen LK; Kuzon WM
Jr. (May 2001). Specic force decit in skeletal muscles of old rats is partially explained by the existence of
denervated muscle bers. J Gerontol a Biol Sci Med Sci
56 (5): 191197. doi:10.1093/gerona/56.5.B191. PMID
11320099.
[62] Body fat scales review and compare. 10 January 2010.
Archived from the original on 17 January 2010. Retrieved
11 January 2010.
Further reading
MeSH A10.165.114
Stock, M. J.; Cinti, S. (2003). Adipose Tissue /
Structure and Function of Brown Adipose Tissue.
Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. p.
29. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00008-0. ISBN
9780122270550.
Vernon, R. G.; Flint, D. J. (2003). Adipose Tissue
/ Structure and Function of White Adipose Tissue.
Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. p.
23. doi:10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00007-9. ISBN
9780122270550.
External links
Adipose tissue photomicrographs
EXTERNAL LINKS
9.1
Text
9.2
Images
9.3
Content license