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TURKISH
GRAMMAR
ENGLISH
TURKISH
GRAMMAR
FOREWORD
The Turkish Grammar book that you have just started reading is quite different from
the grammar books that you read in schools. This kind of Grammar is known as traditional
grammar. The main difference of a traditional grammar and that of a trans-formational one
is that the first one describes a natural language as a static object, but the second one
describes both the parts of the language engine and how it runs. Learning a traditional
grammar is like learning about a motionless car. There is some-thing lacking in this
description. It is the dynamics of the parts of a car that runs a hundred and twenty
kilometers an hour.
Traditional grammars describe only the physical appearance of a language; they do
not mind what goes on behind the curtain. The mind of a human being works like the
engine of a sports car. It arranges and chooses words matching one another, transforms
simple sentence units to use in different parts of sentences, and recollects morphemes
and phonemes to be produced by the human speech organs. All these activities are
simultaneously carried out by the human mind.
Another point that the traditional grammarians generally miss is that they write the
grammar of a certain language to teach it to those who have been learning it from the time
when they were born up to the time when they discover something called grammar. This
is like teaching a language to professional speakers.
Then, what is the use of a grammar? I believe most people were acquainted with it
when they started learning a foreign language. Therefore, a grammar written for those
who are trying to learn a second language is very useful both in teaching and learning a
second language.
I started teaching English as a second language in 1952, a long time ago. Years
passed and one day I found myself as a postgraduate Fulbright student at the University
of Texas at Austin in 1960. Although I studied there for only a short period, I learnt enough
from Prof. Archibald A. Hill and Dr. De Camp to stimulate me to learn more about
Linguistics.
After I came back to Turkey, it was difficult to find books on linguistics in booksellers in
Istanbul. Thanks to the American Library in Istanbul, I was able to borrow the books that
attracted my attention.
In those books, I discovered Noam Chomsky, whose name I had not heard during my stay
in the U.S.A.
I must confess that I am indebted to the scholars and the library above in writing this
Turkish Grammar.
I am also grateful to my son Dr. zgr Gknel who encouraged me to write this book
and to Vivatinell U.K., which sponsored to publish it.
YKSEL GKNEL
COMPLETALY REVISED
COLORED ADITION
2016
YKSEL GKNEL
Vivatinell Bilim-Kltr Yaynlar
2015
Grafik Tasarm Uygulamalar
Vivatinell Press
letiim:
Vivatinell Cosmopharmaceutics
Fetih Mah. Tunca Sk. No:2 34704
Ataehir / stanbul / TRKYE
Tel: +90 216 470 09 44
Faks: +90 216 470 09 48
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Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
Positive or Negative Equality
Parallel Proportion (Kout Uyum)
Wish
wish + would
wish + past subjunctive
wish + past perfect or perfect modal
Conditional Sentences
Present Real Supposition
Present Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition
Past Real Supposition
Past Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition
Orders and Requests
Plain Orders and Requests
Polite Requests
Polite Refusals
Offers
{ verb- [P] }
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Note: The aim of this colored revised version of this book is not to make the
pages look colorful, but to show the functional parts of the words in different
colors. The following colored lines and words indicate them. For instance:
verb
gerund
infinitive
infinitive verb
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verb
object
predicate
sleeps.
subject
verb
predicate
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is
brave.
verb
subj complement
predicate
am coming.
subject
predicate
um (ge*li*yo*rum)
subject allomorph
We
are picking
subj (pron)
Turkish 1: (Biz)
subj (pron)
Turkish 2: iek
object
verb
iek
object
flowers.
object
The reason why there may be two identical alternative sentences in Turkish
is that one should compulsorily use a subject allomorph attached to the
verb in a sentence. However, if he wants to emphasize the subject, he could
also use a pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a subject
allomorph representing the pronoun used in the beginning of the sentence.
If we use a sentence without a subject allomorph attached to the main
verb, the sentence becomes ungrammatical although it is understandable:
*Ben yarn Ankara'/y/a git-iyor. (Ungrammatical)
(Ben) yarn Ankara'/y/a git-iyor-um. (Grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.)
*Ben sen-i sev-iyor. (Ungrammatical)
(Ben) sen-i sev-iyor-um. (Grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.)
As a general syllabication rule in Turkish, the single underlined consonants
of the words or allomorphs detach from their syllables, and attach to the first
vowels of the following morphemes as in the examples above. This opera-
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what?
what?
The boy who was walking along the street found a watch.
who?
what?
The boy who was walking along the street found the watch that I lost.
who?
what?
what?
where?
when?
how?
when?
what?
when?
what?
how?
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why?
whom?
where?
what?
for whom?
from where?
The parts that are not underlined in the sentences above are verbs. If
someone wants to ask about these verbs he says, What did Jack do?, and
for the underlined green parts he says, From where was Jack coming?,
Where was Jack coming from?, Whom did Jack see?, etc.
Consequently, it is possible to say that a person fills the subject and predicate logical storages using interrogative instruments in all languages.
As in all natural languages, the Turkish language production system governs
three groups of sequences. The first sequence is the logical sequence
which governs the basic network of a sentence in which all sentences take
form.
The second sequence is the morphemic sequence which arranges the
sequence of the morphemes and allomorphs in Turkish sentences.
The third sequence is the oral or phonological sequence, which arranges
the syllables and the overall harmony of the words in a sentence.
TURKISH GRAMMAR
After the above short survey of the universal Transformational Generative
Grammar (with some interpretations of my own), we can begin with the
sound system of The Turkish language.
Turkish has 29 letters representing phonemes in its alphabet. Some of these
letters / o, u, a, / and / , , e, i / are vowels (nller), and the others / b, c,
, d, f, g, , h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, , t, v, y, z / are consonants (nszler).
All the letters above represent phonemes, that is why they are shown between / / signs. Phonemics is not interested in detailed phonetic differences. Some of the vowels / , , / do not exist in English. They are pronounced: // as in English again; // as in German schn; and // as in
German htte respectively.
Among the consonants, there are the / , , / phonemes, which are pronounced as ch as in church, sh as in fish; and to produce the //
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e i
In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and // never repeat themselves. The
other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow ( )
points to the vowel that should follow the previous one. The arrows (),
pointing to both directions, show that /i/ may follow /e/, or /e/ may follow /i/.
In the hard vowel harmony chain, /a/ and // do the same. Furthermore,
besides the arrows, the letters r are put under repeatable vowels to
complete our diagrams:
ur ar r
r er ir
As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the
words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony
sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these
sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the
vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build
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(a*ra*ba*nn)
(tes*ti*nin)
(or*du*nun)
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makara-/n/n
mart-/n/n
(y*k*nn)
(ser*gi*nin)
(ka*fa*nn)
(ma*ka*ra*nn)
(mar*t*nn)
However, when pronouns are used in the possessive position, they are suffixed by the possessive [im, in, un, im, in, n] allomorphs:
ben-im (be*nim), sen-in (se*nin), o/n/-un (o*/n/un), biz-im (bi*zim), sizin (si*zin), o/n/-lar-n (o/n/*la*rn)
Note: The single underlined consonants in the examples above show the
consonants that detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of
the following allomorphs to change the morphemes into syllables.
Exception: su (su*/y/un). Example: (a*ra*ba*/n/n / h*z), (su*/y/un / h*z)
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ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutucuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck
(little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby).
[CE.IZ] allomorphs: [ce.iz, ca.z, e.iz, a.z] (innocence)
kedi-ce.iz (innocent cat), kz-ca.z (innocent girl), hayvan-ca.z (innocent animal), kpek-e.iz (innocent dog), ku-a.z (innocent bird).
[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a]
ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Russian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese),
Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES
[CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul]
ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)
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[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk] (iyi-lik = iyilik), (scak-lk= scaklk)
iyi-lik (favor), scak-lk (temperature), zgr-lk (freedom), uzun-luk
(length), geni-lik (width), gzel-lik (beauty), irkin-lik (ugliness), drstlk (honesty), aptal-lk (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage),
baya-lk (meanness), iyimser-lik (optimism), ktmser-lik (pessimism),
uak-lk (servitude), yalnz-lk (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality),
kahraman-lk (heroism), vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lk (rudeness),
duygusal-lk (sensitivity), dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), retken-lik (productivity), kresel-lik (globalism), aalk kompleksi (inferiority
complex), arsz-lk (impudence), geveze-lik (chattering), dncesiz-lik
(inconsiderateness), mutsuz-luk (unhappiness), a-lk (hunger, starvation),
g-lk (difficulty), saydam-lk (transparency), utanga-lk (shyness),
uzak-lk (distance), yakn-lk (closeness, sympathy), kstah-lk (insolence),
kurak-lk (drought), rkek-lik (shyness), sersem-lik (dizziness), hovardalk (debauchery), alkan-lk (addiction), yksek-lik (height), derin-lik
(depth), krmz-lk (redness), kt-lk (wickedness, evil), kurnaz-lk
(craftiness), drst-lk (honesty), karamsar-lk (moodiness), kolay-lk
(ease, facility), tembel-lik (lazyness), kira-lk (ki*ra:*lk) (to let, for
hire) zel-lik (speciality), zgn-lk (originality, genuineness), kararsz-lk
(hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance),
srekli-lik (continuity), kararl-lk (determination), avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik)
(idleness), yzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kt-lk (famine), sarknt-lk (molestation), kibar-lk (kindness, politeness), dayankl-lk (durability),
bo-luk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence), yal-lk
(agedness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk (irresponsibility),
gayretke-lik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lk (callousness), tutarsz-lk (inconsistency), deli-lik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik) (ignorance), benzer-lik
(resemblance), karamsar-lk (moodiness), gzel-lik (beauty), kzgn-lk
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[KN] allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]
se-kin (se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn (astonished),
ili-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), pi-kin (well done, impudent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce), dz-gn (smooth),
ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin (discouraged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack
(noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stagnant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original), say-gn (honorable), yay-gn
(common, widespread), kz-gn (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suitable, convenient), z-gn (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kn (inclined to do).
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def obj
def obj
def obj
def obj
In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them.
obj
obj
obj
obj
obj
Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i",
"sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" detach from their syllables and attach to the
first vowels of the following morphemes in speech, such as (be*ni), (se*ni),
(bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*r). The /n/ consonant in (o*/n/u) is a glide produced by
the oral system of the Turkish language to maintain the harmonic balance
between the o-u vowels. They do not carry meaning.
The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by
one of the "i, , , u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowel
harmony rules when they are used as objects:
Ahmet Aye-/y/i gr-d. Fatma Hasan- bul-du. retmen Ahmet-i yakala-d.
def object
def object
def object
In English: Ahmet saw Aye. Fatma found Hasan. The teacher caught Ahmet.
def object
def object
def onject
Note: The /y/ meaningless glide, which is a product of the Turkish sound
system, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious linkage.
As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is
used in the object position in a sentence, one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs is
compulsorily attached to them. If the common nouns are not definite, they
may be preceded by some indefinite articles as the ones in English:
Ahmet Hasan- grd. Ahmet ben-i grd. Ahmet tavan- grd.
definite obj
definite obj
definite obj
Ahmet (bir) araba ald. Ahmet kitap okuyor. Ahmet is reading a book.
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
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indefinite obj
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
any books
indefinite obj
prepositional phrase
adverbial
adverbial
adverbial
subj complement
subj complement
subj complement
adverbial
subj complement
subj complement
subj complement
Kitap-n ben-de. Your book is with me. Onun ba- dert-te. He is in trouble.
subj comlement
subj complement
When the [de, da, te, ta] suffixes attach to nouns, they function as adverbials or subject complements.
[DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan]
When one of the allomorphs of the [DEN] morpheme attach to a noun, a
pronoun or a nominal phrases, it signifies the starting point of an action, and
changes the function of the nominal into an adverbial:
Aye okul-dan geliyor. Aye is coming from school.
adverbial
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adverbial
adverbial
postp
adverbial
adverbial
NOMINAL PHRASES
It is considered that the mind has a inborn system which manages three rational storages to fill to produce a sentence. These storeges are out of order
before someone is born. When he begins learning his native language,
these orderless storages are arranged in a sequence according to one's
native language. For an English speaking person, his logical sequence is
"subject + verb + object", but for a Turkish spaking person, this sequence is
"(subject) + object + verb-subject allomorph". For instance:
English sequence:
love
you.
subj verb
object
sen-i
seviyor-um.
def obj
verb
subj
In Turkish, using "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "onlar" pronouns used in the
beginning of a sentence is optional. These pronouns are only used when
they are stressed. However, using the subject allomorphs at the ends of
the sentences representing these pronouns is a grammatical necessity.
Therefore, all Turkish (optional pronouns) are showed in parentheses.
However, although the third person singular has the pronoun "o", which
means "he", "she", or "it", the sentences containing these pronouns do not
need subject allomorphs representing "o" pronoun. A sentence without a
subject allomorph at the end of a sentence means that the sentence is the
third person singular. For instance the followig two Turkish sentences are
identical:
(O) sen-i sev-iyor. He, she, or it loves you.
Sen-i sev-iyor. He, she, or it loves you.
Although the sentenes given above are all simple sentences, the human
mind uses the same flexible subject, verb, object storages to produce all
the sentences in a language whether they are long or short.
1a: All subject pronouns are nominal phrases that can be used as
subjects such as: "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "o/n/-lar". (I, you, he,
she, it, we, you, they).
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predicate
def object
verb
predicate
Ahmet's com-ing to school late made the teacher angry. (Angry is adj.)
4bb: The [me, me] infinitives can be used in noun compounds as objects:
(Ben-im) baba-am (ben-im) futbol oyna-ma-am- iste-me-iyor.
noun compound
subject
nound compound-
definite object
predicate
|
verb
noun compound
definite object
predicate
|
verb
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verb
subj
subject complement
predicate
verb
subject
verb
The players waited for the final whistle of the match. (Wait is intransitive.)
4da: The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] infinitives can be used in
noun compounds in Turkish:
"(ben-im) git-tik-im" (be*nim / git*ti*im), "(sen-in) git-tik-in" (se*nin / git*ti*in), "(o-/n/un) git-tik-i" (o*nun / git*ti*i), "(biz-im) git-tik-im.iz" (bi*zim / git*ti*i*miz), "(siz-in) git-tik-iniz" (si*zin / git*ti*i*niz), "o/n/-lar-n git-tik-i" (on*la*rn / git*ti*i)
The noun compounds above can be used as objects:
(O-/n/un) iit-tik-i-/n/i san-ma-yor-um. I don't think that he heard.
noun compound-/n/i
definite object
predicate
|
verb
|
subj
|
|
noun
modifier
noun
|
subject
subj complement
predicate
subj complement
predicate
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adverbial
subject adverb
Kzlar snf-a nee-/y/le gir-di. The girls entered the class cheerfully.
subject
Fatma
adverbial
adverbial
predicate
kap-/y/
verb
a-nca
subject
bir iskelet
verb
object
adverbial
predicate
gr-d.
|
verb
verb
indef object
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predicate
predicate
predicate
predicate
predicate
6. Roses are beautiful. the roses that are beautiful the beautiful roses
subject
predicate
nominal phrase
predicate
The human mind can insert the nominalized phrases above into the "subject"
or the object segment of the phrase structure rules. The "predicate" segment contains either an intransitive verb, which does not need an object, or
a transitive verb which needs an "object". Therefore, a "subject + predicate"
base sentence producing innate pattern may be rewritten either as "subject
+ intransitive verb" or "subject + transitive verb + object" for an English
speaking person. However, a person speaking Turkish uses a different sequence, such as "subject + object + transitive verb" or "subject + intransitive
verb in the basic sentence-producing pattern. Moreover, adverbs and adverbials should also be included in the predicate segment because their
function is to add some significant information to main verbs.
The following example sentences show how transformed nominalized sentences above are used as nominal phrases in the "subject + predicate"
logical pattern:
1. I
subj verb
adverbial
verb
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adverbial
predicate
verb
predicate
predicate
predicate
verb
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In Turkish, the [E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] morphemes (in fact their allomorphs
[e, a], [de, da, te, ta], [den, dan, ten, tan], [le, la]) are attached to nouns,
pronouns or infinitives. When these nouns, pronouns, or infinitives are used
without these allomorphs, they may be used as subjects, or objects in sentences. These nouns are structurally and syntactically nouns. However,
when these nouns, pronouns or infinitives are attached to the allomorphs
above, they are structurally noun-e, noun-de, noun-den and noun-le
units (In Turkish, ismin e, de and den hali), which syntactically function
as adverbs and called adverbials in sentences:
Bir kitap al-d-m.
I bought a book
det + noun
|
| subj
indef object verb subj
predicate
|
verb
det + noun
indef object
predicate
In the sentence above, Ben and kitap are structurally and syntactically
nouns. In the following sentences, however, the noun roots attached to [E],
[DE], [DEN], or [LE] morphemes undertake the role of adverbs in sentences.
Adverbial means a word or words that function as an adverb.
Jack
okul-a gitti.
noun
subj
noun-a
adverbial
verb
noun
verb
prep + noun
prep phrase
adverbial
is
at school.
Jack
okul-da.
Jack
noun
subj
noun-da
subj complement
predicate
noun
subj
Jack okul-dan
noun
subj
noun-dan
adverbial
ev-e
|
prep + noun
verb subj complement
predicate
otobs-le gel-di.
noun-e
noun-le
adverbial adverbial
predicate
|
verb
verb
noun
adverb
prep + noun
prep phrase
adverbial
prep noun
prep phrase
adverbial
The other transformed nouns and adverbs could be found in the transformation section.
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biz
siz
onlar
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verb subj
The following interrogative adverbs, which ask for the adverbials and the
adverbials themselves, are some of the fundamental language concepts in
all natural languages:
Nere-/y/e? (nere*ye) (Where?); Nere-/y/e gitti? (nere*ye / git*ti)
(Where did he go?); Okul-a (To school.); Nere-de? (Where?); O nere-de?
(Where is he?); Okul-da. (In school.); Nere-den? (From where?); O nereden geli-yor? (Where is he comimg from?); Okul-dan. (From school.); Neden bk-t-n? (What are you tired of?) (I am tired of wait-ing.); Kim-le?
(kimle) (with whom?) Sinema-/y/a kim-le git-ti-in? (With whom did you
go to the cinema?; Ne/y/-le? (neyle) (How?) Ankara-/y/a ne/y/-le git-tiin? (How did you go to Ankara?) (By train.)
As it is seen in the examples above, the [E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] morphemes follow nouns contrary to English prepositions. Therefore, they are
called postpositional allomorphs as all the suffixes of the Turkish language.
Some language learners might not know the difference between form and
function in a grammar. For instance, to school, until Sunday, at night,
at the table expressions are structurally prepositional phrases in English.
In other words, their forms are prepositional. However, when we consider
what role they play in a sentence, we can see that their function in a sentence is either adverbial or modifying nouns:
They are playing in the garden. The boys in the garden.
adverbial
modifier (adjective)
57
adverbial
adverbial
58
def object
adverbial
verb
def object
noun comp-/n/e
adverbial phrase
verb
verb
adverbial
verb
subj
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60
61
62
63
Note: The /n/, and /y/ phonemes used in the examples above are glides.
The noun compounds in the sentences above are underlined black. When
the nouns, pronouns and infinitives above are attached to [e, a] allomorphs,
they form adverbials that generally show or imply the direction of a verb.
Note: The glides "/s/, /n/, /y/, and //" are the produce of the sound system
of the Turkish language. They do not carry meaning. Therefore, in this book,
they are showed between slash signs "/ /", which are not used in normal
writing.
64
Kalem-ler kutu-da.
(ka*lem*ler / ku*tu*da )
The pencils are in the box.
Papaan kafes-te.
(pa*pa*an / ka*fes*te )
The parrot is in the cage.
O hapis-te.
(o / ha*pis*te )
He is in jail. (The brown underlined words above are subject complements.)
Fiyat-ta uzla-t-k. (anlatk).
(fi*yat*ta / uz*la*tk )
We agreed on the price.
65
66
67
68
common noun
proper noun
infinitive
common noun
infinitive
infinitive
infinitive
verb
O-/n/un al-tk-
irket
noun
det
noun
69
owned
C-[i, , , u]
V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u]
C-[i, , , u]
V-[/s/i, /s/, /s/, /s/u]
example
Jack-in okul-u
Jack-in araba-/s/
perde-/n/in kuma-
Aye-/n/in anne-/s/i
70
71
All the monosyllabic roots and most words ending with /t/ do not change
their last consonants when they are suffixed:
at-m (a*tm) (my horse); st-m (s*tm) (my milk); krk-m (kr*km)
(my fur); ip-im (i*pim) (my rope); sa-m (sa*m) (my hair); hap-m
(ha*pm) (my pill); sepet-im (se*pe*tim) (my basket); saat-im (sa*a*tim)
(my watch); demet-im (de*me*tim) (my bunch); krk-n (kr*kn) (your
fur); at-lar-mz (at*la*r*mz) (our horses).
When sen-in is used in the possessive position, the owned nouns are
suffixed with [in, n, n, un, en, an] possessive personal allomorphs:
defter-in (def*te*rin) (your notebook)
ba-n (ba*n) (your head)
gz-ler-in (gz*le*rin) (your eyes)
tuz-un (tu*zun) (your salt)
baba-an (ba*ban) (your father)
sandalye-en (san*dal*yen) (your chair)
If owned nouns end with wovels or /p, t, k, / unvoiced consonants, they
undergo the same changes as they do in the examples above:
kpek-in (k*pe*in), orap-n (o*ra*bn), gmlek-in (gm*le*in),
bak-n (b*a*n); but st-n (s*tn), sepet-in (se*pe*tin), araba-an
(a*ra*ban)
The third person owned nouns are suffixed with [i, , , u] allomorphs:
ev-i (e*vi), okul-u (o*ku*lu), kalem-i (ka*le*mi), ceket-i (ce*ke*ti), dn-
(d**n), gz- (g*z), ba- (ba*), ka- (ka*), oul-u (o*lu)
When a third person owned noun ends with a vowel, it takes an /s/ glide
when it is attached to a possessive personal suffix:
araba-/s/ (a*ra*ba*s) (his car); bahe-/s/i (bah*e*si) (his garden); tarla/s/ (tar*la*s) (his farm); hal-/s/ (ha*l*s) (his carpet); leke-/s/i (le*ke*si)
72
73
74
75
76
77
predicate
78
79
80
81
82
verb
83
verb
verb
subj subj
verb
verb
subj subj
verb
verb
subj subj
verb
object
The [] and [i] are the allomorphs of the defining morpheme [].
84
85
86
87
88
adverbials: [e, a], [de, da, te, ta] and [den, dan, ten, tan]
Jack okul-da.
Jack is at school.
subj complement
subject complement
adverbial
Top masa-/n/n alt--/n/a gitti. The ball went under the table.
noun compound -/n/a
adverbial
prep phrs
adverbial
Kpek it-in st-/n/-den atlad. The dog jumped over the fence.
noun comp/n/- den
adverbial
prep phrs
adverbial
Jack anahtar delik-i/n/-den bakyor. Jack is looking through the key hole.
noun compound /n/-den
adverbial
prep phrs
adverbial
89
verb
verb
prepositional phrs
adverbial
In the examples above, the underlined English parts of the sentences are
structurally prepositional phrases, but they are functionally adverbials as
they are in the Turkish sentences.
verb
subj
verb
subj
verb
subj
verb
90
subject adverbial
verb
modifier
noun
indef object
verb
adverbial
subj
verb
subj
adverbial
verb
def object
verb subj
verb
subj
|
adverbial
predicate
|
adverbial
|
verb
verb
Go out!
verb
subj
subject
definite obj
verb
dolay (because of): noun or noun comp-[den. dan, ten, tan] + dolay
Youn trafik-ten dolay okul-a ge kald-m.
modifier + noun-den
postp
postp adverbial phrs
adverbial
verb
subj
noun compound-den
postp object
postpositional adverbial phrase of cause
verb
adverbial
verb subj
adverbial
adv
verb
noun posp
modifier
verb
subj
verb
subj
subject
advebial phrs
adv subj complement
adverbial phrs of comparison
ok
iyimser.
noun + postp
modifier
indefinite object
verb
noun (infinitive)
postp def obj
postp adverbial phrase of contrast
verb
93
iin (for, to): ben-im, sen-in, o-/n/un + iin; verb-[mek, mak] + iin (adverbial)
Baba-am ben-im iin bir bilgisayar al-d.
subject
postp phrase
adverbial
indefinite obj
verb
obj of gr
infinitive postp adverbial
adverbial phrs of cause
verb
noun
postp
postp adverbial phrs
predicate
|
verb
noun comp
postp
postp adverbial phrase
verb
verb
subj
adj
subj
|
verb
verb
subj
adverbial
verb
subj
verb
subj
95
subject complement
predicate
96
LINKING VERBS
Present Positive:
The compulsory subject allomorphs used with present be are as follows:
(ben): [im, m, m, um]; (sen): [sin, sn, sn, sun]; (o): []; (biz): [iz, z,
z, uz]; (siz):[siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]; (onlar): [() (ler, lar)]
1. Noun: (Ben) retmen-im (*ret*me*nim) I am a teacher. (Sen)
doktor-sun (dok*tor*sun) You are a doctor. O bir doktor (dok*tor).
She is a doctor. Biz doktor-uz (dok*to*ruz) We are doctors. Siz bir
retmen-siniz (siz / *ret*men*si*niz) You are a teacher.
The words that the linking verbs link to the subjects may be nouns,
adjectives or adverbial prepositional phrases, which are called
subject complements.
2. Adjective: (Ben) tembel-im (tem*be*lim) I am lazy. (Sen) alkansn (a*l*kan*sn) You are hardworking. O mutlu(dur) (o / mut*lu).
She is happy. (Biz) iyi-/y/iz (biz / i*yi*yiz) We are all right. Yorgunsunuz (yor*gun*su*nuz) You are tired. Onlar isteksiz. They are unwilling.
3. Prepositional phrase: The allomorphs [de, da, te, ta] are expressed in
English in the prepositions of in, at, on. For example:
ev-de (at home); okul-da (at school, in school); masa-da (on the
table, at the table); kap-da (at the door); kutu-da (in the box);
bahe-de (in the garden); hastane-de (in hospital, in the hospital);
uak-ta (on the plane), okul-un n--/n/-de (in front of the school).
The other [e, a] and [den, dan, ten, tan] allomorphs are not used with the
linking verbs be; they are used together with action verbs.
97
98
99
100
101
(ne*re*de*yiz)
Where are we? We are in stanbul. (Four words)
Ka ya-n-da-sn?
(ka / ya*n*da*sn)
How old are you?
All the [mi. m, m, mu] allomorphs are adverbial because they change the
sentences into question forms.
Ev-de mi-sin?
(ev*de / mi*sin )
Are you at home?
yi mi-siniz?
(i*yi / mi*si*niz)
Are you all right?
Deli mi-/y/im?
(ben / de*li / mi*yim )
Am I crazy?
Hazr deil mi-/y/iz?
(ha*zr / de*il / mi*yiz )
Arent we ready?
When one of the allomorphs of the [DR] morpheme attaches to the last
words of one of the sentences above, the sentences mean either perhaps" or "I am sure". This difference of meaning can be heard in speech.
When a syllable printed in bold face is stressed, the sentence means, I am
sure, when it is not, it means "perhaps". The allomorphs of this morpheme
are [dir, dr, dr, dur, tir, tr, tr, tur], which are used only for the third peson.
(ka*r*mev*de*dir ) (perhaps); (ka*rm / ev*de*dir ) (I am sure)
102
(o / bu*ra*da)
He is here.
Bura-da-/y/m. (One word)
(bur*da*ym )
I am here. (Three words)
Kedi ura-da.
(ke*di / u*ra*da ) or (ke*di / ur*da )
The cat is there.
Onlar ora-da.
(on*lar / o*ra*da)
They are there.
Bura-dan git-ti-ler, ayrl-d-lar.
(bur*dan / git*ti*ler )
They left here.
Bura-dan ayrl-ma. (Ayrl is intransitive.)
(bur*dan / ay*rl*ma )
Don't leave here. (Leave is transitive.)
Ora-dan ayrl-yor-lar.
(or*dan / ay*r*l*yor*lar )
They are leaving there.
Bura-/y/ hi gr-me-di-im.
(ben / bu*ra*y / hi / gr*me*dim )
I have never seen here.
("Bura-/y/" is the definite object of the verb see.)
Bu-/n/u anla-ma-d-m.
def (obj)
verb
subj
103
[im, m, m, um]
[sin, sn, sn, sun]
[]
[iz, z, z, uz]
[siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]
[] ([ler, lar])
104
105
106
107
108
Past Positive:
In the past positive form the time allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]
and the subject allomorphs: Ben [im, m, m, um], Sen [in, n, n, un], O
(zero), Biz [ik, k, k, uk], Siz [iniz, nz, nz, unuz], Onlar [ler-di, lar-d]:
Hazr-d-m.
(ha*zr*dm)
I was ready.
Mutlu/y/-du-un.
(mut*luy*dun)
You were happy.
zgn-d.
(z*gn*d)
She was sorry.
Ev-de/y/-di-ik.
(ev*dey*dik)
We were at home.
Susuz-du-unuz.
(su*suz*du*nuz)
You were innocent.
Bahe-de-ler-di.
(bah*e*de*ler*di)
They were in the garden.
Past Negative:
109
110
Future Positive:
Dikkatli ol-acak-m.
(dik*kat*li / o*la*ca*m)
I will be careful.
Sabrl ol-acak-sn.
(sa*br*l / o*la*cak*sn)
You will be patient.
Mutlu ol-acak.
(mut*lu / o*la*cak)
She will be happy.
111
112
113
114
115
Simple Present:
(Ben)
(Sen)
(O)
(Biz)
(Siz)
(Onlar)
For instance: Ko-ar m-/y/m? Ko-ar m-sn? Ko-ar m? Ko-ar m/y/z? Ko-ar m-snz? Koar-lar m? Bekle-er mi-/y/im? Bekle-er misin? Ol-ur mu? Yz-er mi-/y/iz? Gel-ir mi-siniz?, Gel-mez mi-siniz?
116
Simple Future:
The same [M] adverb is used as in the Simple Present: For instance:
Gel-ecek mi-/y/im? Al-acak m-sn? Sat-acak m? Bekle-/y/ecek mi-/y/iz?
Bitir-ecek mi-siniz? A-acak m-snz? Hatrla-ma-/y/acak-lar m?
Present Continuous:
The same [M] structure is used as in the Simple Present. For instance:
Gl-yor mu-/y/um? Sat-yor mu-sun? Anla-yor mu? Bekle-iyor musunuz? Kal-yor mu-/y/uz? Uyu-uyor-lar m? al-ma-yor mu-/y/uz? Gel-meiyor-lar m?
Past Continuous:
(Ben) [mu/y/-du-um?], (Sen) [mu/y/du-un?], [(O) [mu/y/-du?], (Biz) [mu/y/-du-
Future Continuous:
The same [M] structure is used as in the Simple Present. For instance:
Bekle-iyor ol-acak m-/y/m? al--yor ol-acak m-sn? Yz-yor olacak m? Dengele-iyor ol-acak m-/y/z? Bak-iyor ol-acak m-snz?
Temzle-iyor ol-acak-lar m? (Purple words are subject complements.)
117
118
noun compound
adverbial
verb
119
: [im, m, m, um]
: [in, n, n, un]
: []
: [ik, k, k, uk]
: [iniz, nz, nz, unuz]
: [] [ler, lar]
120
121
(sen)
(o)
(biz)
(siz)
122
123
INTERROGATIVE WORDS
There are two kinds of interrogative words in Turkish: Simple interrogative
words like "kim?" (who?), "ne?" (what?), "nasl?" (how?), "niin?" (why?),
and the simple interrogative words that are followed by some inflectional
morphemes such as "kim-sin?" (who are you?), "kim-im?" (who am I?), "kimiz? (who are we?), "kim-i?" (whom?), "kim-e?" (to whom?), "kim-den?" (from
whom?), "kim-le?" (with whom?), "kim-de?" (?), "kim-in?" (whose?), "ne/y/le?" (how?), (with what instrument?), "neden? (why?), "nere-/y/e?" (where?),
"nere-de? (where?), "nere-den?" (from where?). For instance:
Kim-sin? Who are you? Bu soru-/y/a kim cevap ver-mek iste-iyor? Who
wants to answer this question? O ne de-di? What did he say? Ne grd-n? What did you see? Nasl anla-d-n? How did you understand?
Ora-/y/a nasl git-ti-in? How did you go there? Kim-i gr-d-n? Whom
(who) did you see? Ora-/y/a kim-le git-ti-in? With whom did you go
there? Nere-den gel-iyor-sun? Where are you coming from? Nere-/y/e
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
noun comp
Uak-ta on yolcu var-d. There were ten passengers on the plane. (Exist)
The negative form of var-d is yok-tu: there wasnt, didnt have:
Yirmi sene nce (ben-im) ok para-am yok-tu.
noun compound
131
132
133
134
WISH (stek)
To turn a verb root, stem or frame into the wish mood, [e, a] and the subject allomorphs are added:
Al-a-/y/m. (a*la*ym ) Let me take.
Bak-a-/y/m! (ba*ka*ym ) Let me see! (Let me have a look!)
Git-e-/y/im. (gi*de*yim ) Let me go.
All the verb roots used above end with consonants, but when they end with
vowels, the /y/ glides are inserted between their last vowels and the [e, a]
allomorphs:
Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*ye*yim ) or (bek*li*ye*yim ) Let me wait.
However, in speech, the /y/e syllable attached to bekle drops, and the
word becomes (bek*le*yim ).
Bekle-/y/e-/y/im. (bek*le*yim ) Let me wait.
Ertele-/y/e-/y/im. (er*te*le*yim ) Let me postpone.
Anla-/y/a-/y/m. (an*la*ym ) Let me understand.
135
136
:
:
:
:
:
:
[im, m, m, um]
[sin, sn, sn, sun]
[] morpheme. (No subject allomorphs are attached.)
[iz, z, z, uz]
[siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]
[ler, lar]
When the main verbs ending with vowels attach to The Simple Present
Tense allomorphs [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar], the last vowels of the verbs and the
first vowels of the allomorphs happen to be identical and so they are
shared between the last vowels of the verbs and the first vowels of The
Simple Present Tense allomorphs. Therefore, they combine and articulate
as single vowels. The verbs ending with consonants are single underlined.
They detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs if they start with vowels:
Bekle-er-im (bek*le*rim); bala-ar-m (ba*la*rm); yr-r-m (y*r*rm);
koru-ur-um (ko*ru*rum); bekle-er-sin (bek*ler*sin); bala-ar (ba*lar); ye-er
(yer); bekle-er-iz (bek*le*riz); bala-ar-snz (ba*lar*s*nz); yr-r-ler
(y*rr*ler); u-ar (u*ar); gez-er (ge*zer); gel-ir (ge*lir); sat-ar (sa*tar)
The coinciding vowels above written in bold face combine. The transplaced
consonants are single underlined. This verb composition is formed as follows:
Yz-er-im. (y*ze*rim ) I swim.
Bekle-er-im. (bek*le*rim ) I wait.
Anla-ar-m. (an*la*rm ) I understand.
137
138
adverbial
adverbial
intr verb
adverbial
adverbial
intr verb
adverbial
139
like
apples
subj
verb
indef obj
predicate
read
subj
verb
Kitap oku-ur-um.
indef obj verb
preficate
subj
books.
indef obj
predicate
140
ET
O ben-im-le
subj
adverbial
alay
etti.
ben-i affetti. O
141
verb
biz-i
deli
etti
142
YAP
alveri yap (do shopping), arama yap (carry out a search), by yap
(cast a spell on someone), ay yap, kahve yap (make tea or coffee), cmle
yap (make a sentence), elinden geleni yap (do your best), ev ii yap (do
housework), giri yap (enter), hazrlk yap (get ready), hesap yap (calculate), i yap (do work, do business with), ibirlii yap (work together), iyilik
yap (do a favour), kaza: yap (have an accident), konuma yap (make a
speech), makyaj yap (do ones make up), dev yap (do homework), rejim
yap (go on a diet), aka yap (make a joke), tatil yap (have a holiday, vacation), tica:ret yap (trade), toplant yap (hold a meeting), yanllk yap
(make a mistake), yata yap (make the bed), yemek yap (cook, do the
cooking), yorum yap (comment on something).
The other verbs that are used together with nouns are ol, ile, and
kaydet. Their examples are as follows:
OL
abone ol (a*bo*ne / ol) (subscribe to), destek ol (des*te*kol) (support, back
up), gerek ol (ger*e*kol) (come true) kayt ol (kay*dol) (enroll), raz ol
(ra:*z / ol) (be willing to, consent to), sahip ol (sa:*hi*bol) (possess), ahit
143
In the second person singular, one of the [mez] or [maz] negation allomorphs is used after the verb, which is followed by one of the subject allomorphs [sin, sn, sn, sun]:
Gel-mez-sin.
(gel*mez*sin ) You do not come.
al-maz-sn. (a*l*maz*sn ) You do not work.
Oku-maz-sn. (o*ku*maz*sn ) You dont read.
Konu-maz-sn. (ko*nu*maz*sn ) You dont speak.
Atla-maz-sn. (at*la*maz*sn ) You dont jump.
Ka-n-maz-sn. (ka*n*maz*sn ) You dont avoid. (Reflexive)
As the third person singular takes a [] zero subject morpheme, only the
negation allomorphs [mez, maz] are used:
144
The negative form of the first person plural biz takes [me, ma] negation
allomorphs followed by [/y/iz, /y/z] subject allomorphs:
Ta-ma-/y/z. (ta**ma*yz ) We do not carry.
A-ma-/y/z.
(a*ma*yz ) We do not open.
Ala-ma-/y/z. (a*la*ma*yz ) We dont cry.
Dzenle-me-/y/iz. (d*zen*le*me*yiz ) We dont arrange.
Ka-ma-/y/z. (ka*ma*yz ) We dont escape.
Kan-ma-/y/z. (ka*n*ma*yz ) We dont avoid. (Reflexive)
Ertele-me-/y/iz. (er*te*le*me*yiz ) We dont postpone.
-me-/y/iz.
(i*me*yiz ) We dont drink.
vn-me-/y/iz. (*vn*me*yiz ) We dont boast. (Reflexive)
The negative form of the second person plural siz takes [mez, maz]
allomorphs according to the vowel harmony rules:
Gel-mez-siniz. (gel*mez*si*niz ) You do not come.
Oku-maz-snz. (o*ku*maz*s*nz ) You do not read.
al-maz-snz. (a*l*maz*s*nz ) You dont work.
Ta-maz-snz. (ta**maz*s*nz ) You dont carry.
Seyret-mez-siniz. (sey*ret*mez*si*niz ) You dont watch.
Ara-maz-snz.
(a*ra*maz*s*nz ) You dont search.
The third person plural form onlar takes [mez, maz] negation allomorphs
followed by the [ler, lar] subject allomorphs:
Gel-mez-ler.
Kal-maz-lar.
Dinle-mez-ler.
Konu-maz-lar.
U-u-maz-lar.
Yr-mez-ler.
145
:
:
:
:
:
:
The /y/ phonemes above are all glides. Although these interrogative words
follow the vowel harmony rules, they are considered words, and therefore,
they are separately written:
Bekle-er mi-/y/im? (bek*ler / mi*yim ) Do I wait?
ksr-r m-/y/m? (k*s*rr / m*ym ) Do I cough?
Bekle-er mi-sin?
(bek*ler / mi*sin ) Do you wait?
Gel-ir mi?
(ge*lir / mi ) Does he come?
Git-er mi-/y/iz?
(gi*der / mi*yiz ) Do we go?
Yz-er mi-siniz?
(y*zer / mi*si*niz ) Do you swim?
Anla-ar-lar m?
(an*lar*lar / m ) Do they understand?
Ta-r-lar m?
(ta*r*lar* / m ) Do they carry?
Ye-er-ler mi?
(yer*ler / mi ) Do they eat?
146
147
148
149
To shorten these syllable structures, the first letters of them can be used as
v, c.v, v.c, v.c.c, c.v.c or c.v.c.c. The only exception to this rule
is the [T] morpheme used in the causative verb frames as in (ge*tirt), (al*drt). All Turkish morphemes and syllables are formed of one of these six
syllable types. In short, there are no morphemes in Turkish without vowells, but the phonological system drops or combines some of them while
rearranging the syllables of the morphemes to maintain the Turkish syllabication sequence.
One important rule to add to the explanations above is that the morphemes
and syllables in Turkish do not follow a parallel pattern. While the words
are divided into syllables, the morphemes comply with the syllable rules of
the Turkish language. For instance, the last consonants of some words or
morphemes detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the
following morphemes, such as:
ku-u (ku*u), ben-i (be*ni), defter-im (def*te*rim), gr-l-mek (g*rl*mek), kes-i-mek (ke*si*mek), etc.
Furthermore, The Simple Present Tense allomorphs are [ir, r, r, ur, er,
ar] such as in: gel-ir (ge*lir), al-r (a*lr), gr-r (g*rr), otur-ur
(o*tu*rur) a-ar (a*ar), ek-er (e*ker), yak-ar (ya*kar), bil-ir (bi*lir).
The Simple Present Tense allomorphs above attach to the verbs ending with
consonants. However, if the verbs end with vowels, the first vowels of the
Simple Present Tense allomorphs coincide with the last vowels of the verbs.
These coinciding vowels combine, and verbalize as single vowels:
Bekle-er (bek*ler), incele-er (in*ce*ler), hazrla-ar (ha*zr*lar), yakala-ar
(ya*ka*lar), yr-r (y*rr), uyu-ur (u*yur), yakala-ar-m (ya*ka*la*rm)
150
151
152
153
154
155
Hepiniz-e gven-iyor-um.
Bana gven-me-iyor mu-sun?
(he*pi*ni*ze / g*ve*ni*yo*rum ) (ba*na / g*ven*mi*yor / mu*sun )
I trust all of you.
Do you not trust me?
Siz-i anla-yor-um.
(si*zi / an*l*yo*rum )
I understand you.
Siz-i anla-ma-yor-um.
(si*zi / an*la*m*yo*rum )
I do not understand you.
156
157
adverbial
adverbial phrs
indefinite object
tran verb
subject
adverbial
definite obj
tran verb
tran verb
indefinite obj
object
adverbial phrs
subj
adverb
adverbial
intr verb
subj
adverb
swim
in the river.
intr verb
adverbial
Oul-um gn-de sekiz saat uyu-ur. My son sleeps eight hours a day.
subject
adverbial
adverbial
intr verb
subj
intr verb
adverbial
adverbial
adverbial
adverbial
intr verb
intr verb
adverbial
adverbial
adverbial
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
[im, m, m, um]
[in, n, n, un]
[]
[ik, k, k, uk]
[iniz, nz, nz, unuz]
[] or [ler, lar]
Positive:
Naturally, as all the allomorphs of the [D] morpheme [di, d, d, du, ti, t,
t, tu] end with vowels, and the subject allomorphs [im, m, m, um;
in, n, n, un; ik, k, k, uk; iniz, nz, nz, unuz] start with vowels,
the first vowels of the subject allomorphs coincide with the allomorphs of the
morpheme [D] and combine, such as in di-im (dim), d-m" (dm), d-m"
(dm), du-um" (dum), ti-im (tim), "t-m" (tm), "t-m" (tm), "tu-um"
(tum); "di-in" (din), "ti-in" (tin), "ti-ik" (tik), "di-iniz" (di*niz), "ti-iniz" (ti*niz).
ki saat nce i-im-i bitir-di-im.
(i*ki / sa*at / n*ce / i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim )
I finished my work two hours ago.
-im-i bitir-di-im.
(i*i*mi / bi*tir*dim )
I have finished my work. (My work is ready now.)
Onlar geen hafta sinema-/y/a git-ti.
(on*lar / ge*en / haf*ta / si*ne*ma*ya / git*ti )
They went to the cinema last week.
170
Negative:
The negative making allomorphs [me, ma] are put after verb roots, stems
or verb frames, and then they are followed by the [di, d] time allomorphs,
which are followed by the subject allomorphs respectively. The other time
allomorphs, such as [d, du, ti, t, t, tu] are used in positive forms. They
are not used here as a result of the [me, ma] negative making allomorphs:
Fatma-/y/ pazar-dan beri gr-me-di-im.
(fat*ma*y / pa*zar*dan / be*ri / gr*me*dim )
I have not seen Fatma since Sunday.
Fatma-/y/ bir hafta-dr gr-me-di-im.
(fat*ma*y / bir / haf*ta*dr / gr*me*dim )
I havent seen Fatma for a week.
Fatma-/y/ geen hafta gr-me-di-im.
(fat*ma*y / ge*en / haf*ta / gr*me*dim )
I didnt see Fatma last week.
Daha ev dev-im-i yap-ma-d-m.
(da*ha / e*v*de*vi*mi / yap*ma*dm ) (Liaison)
I havent done my homework yet.
171
Positive question:
The question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], which are separately written,
are used either after the verbs, or they may be used after the stressed
words in sentences. They are interrogative adverbs that add interrogatve
information to verbs and nouns.
Ahmet mi okul-a otobs-le git-ti?
(ah*met / mi / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*ti )
Has Ahmet gone to school by bus?
Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-ti?
(ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bsle / mi / git*ti )
Has Ahmet gone to school by bus?
Ahmet otobs-le okul-a m git-ti?
(ah*met / o*to*bs*le /o*ku*la / m / git*ti )
Has Ahmet gone to school by bus?
Ahmet okul-a git-ti mi?
(ah*met / o*ku*la / git*ti / mi )
Has Ahmet gone to school? (All the sentences are yes-no questions.)
If the last syllable in a sentence is used with a rising intonation (), the sentence means, I am surprised to hear it, or I could not hear you well. If it is
used with a falling intonation (), the question is a yes-no question.
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
Negative:
After the verb roots, stems or frames, one of the [me, ma] negation allomorphs is used; and then only the [mi, m] allomorphs follow them
according to the vowel harmony rules, and finally the subject allomorphs are
added:
179
Positive question:
In positive questions, [mi-/y/im, m-/y/m, m-/y/m, mu-/y/um]; [mi-sin,
m-sn, m-sn, mu-sun]; [mi, m, m, mu]; [mi-/y/iz, m-/y/z, m-/y/z,
mu-/y/uz]; [mi-siniz, m-snz, m-snz, mu-sunuz] and [ler mi, lar m]
words are separately used in accordance with the harmony rules:
Oul-un dn ma-a git-mi mi?
(o*lun / dn / ma*a / git*mi / mi )
Tell me whether your son went to the football match yesterday.
Kap-/y/ kilitle-mi mi-/y/im?
(ka*p*y / ki*lit*le*mi / mi*yim )
Tell me whether I have locked the door.
(The /y/ glides are inserted between the successive vowels.)
Yen-il-mi-ler mi!
(ye*nil*mi*ler / mi)
Have they been beaten! (Astonishment)
180
Negative question:
In negative questions, the [me, ma] negation allomorphs are attached to
verb roots, stems or frames:
Kap-/y/ kilitle-me-mi-ler mi?!
(ka*p*y / ki*lit*le*me*mi*ler / mi)
Do they say that they didn't lock the door? (Im shocked to hear that.)
Ben-i gr-me-mi mi?
(be*ni / gr*me*mi / mi)
Does he say that he didn't see me? (I can't believe!) (Incredible!)
Ev dev-i-/n/i yap-ma-m m?
(ev / *de*vi*ni~ / yap*ma*m / m)
Does he say that he hasn't done his homework? (Anger and astonishment)
Daha kalk-ma-m m?
(da*ha / kalk*ma*m / m) (Surprise)
Do you say that he hasnt got up yet? (How lazy he is!)
Oul-un Trke bil-me-iyor mu/y/-mu?
(o*lun / trk*e / bil*mi*yor / muy*mu)
Do you say that your son doesnt know Turkish?
Ben-i tan-ma-yor mu/y/-mu? Hayret bir ey!
(be*ni / ta*n*m*yor / muy*mu) (Hay*ret / bi*ey~)
Does he say that he doesnt know me? Unbelievable! Ridiculous!
181
182
Positive question:
In positive questions, mi-/y/im?, mi-sin?, mi?, mi-/y/iz?, misiniz?, (ler) mi? or their allomorphs are separately used:
Bu mektup-lar- daktilo et-ecek mi-sin?
(bu / mek*tup*la*r / dak*ti*lo / e*de*cek / mi*sin )
Are you going to type these letters?
Yarn git-ecek mi-sin?, or Yarn git-iyor mu-sun?
(ya*rn / gi*de*cek / mi*sin ) (ya*rn / gi*di*yor / mu*sun )
Are you leaving tomorrow? (The /t/ changes into /d/.)
Biz-i ziyaret et-ecek-ler mi? (ziyaret et = visit)
(on*lar / bi*zi / zi*ya:*ret / e*de*cek*ler / mi )
Are they going to visit us?
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Negative question:
In the negative question form, [me] or [ma] negation allomorphs follow the
verb roots, stems or frames:
Biz-im-le gel-me-/y/ecek mi-sin?
(bi*zim*le / gel*me*ye*cek / mi*sin )
Wont you come with us?
(The /y/ glide links the successive /e/ vowels.)
When the question words are involved, mi-/y/im, mi-sin, etc. are not
used:
Saat ka-ta ev-e dn-ecek-sin?
(sa*at / ka*ta / e*ve / d*ne*cek*sin )
What time will you come back home?
Yarn nere-/y/e git-iyor-sun?
(ya*rn / ne re*ye / gi*di*yor*sun )
Where are you going tomorrow? (The /t/ changes into /d/.)
Yarn hava nasl ol-acak?
(ya*rn / ha*va / na * sl / o*la*cak )
What is the weather going to be like tomorrow?
Soru-um-a kim cevap ver-ecek?
(so*ru*ma / kim / ce*vap / ve*re*cek )
Who is going to answer my question?
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185
186
Positive question:
The question allomorphs of this tense are [mi, m, m, mu]. Each one of
these allomorphs may be separately used after any stressed word in a sentence:
Ahmet okul-a otobs-le mi git-iyor-du?
(ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bsle*mi / gi*di*yor*du )
Was Ahmet going to school by bus?
Ahmet otobs-le okul-a m git-iyor-du?
(ah*met / o*to*bs*le / o*ku*la m / gi*di*yor*du )
Was Ahmet going to school by bus?
Ahmet okul-a otobs-le git-iyor mu/y/-du?
(ah*met / o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / gi*di*yor / mu/y/-du )
Was Ahmet going to school by bus?
Uyu-uyor mu/y/-du-unuz? (The [mi, m ,m, mu] are queston allomorphs.)
(u*yu*yor / muy*du*nuz )
Were you sleeping?
187
Negative question :
The [me, ma] negation allomorphs are used in negative questions as usual:
Otobs-le git-me-iyor-lar m/y/-d?
(on*lar / o*to*bs*le / git*mi*yor*lar / my*d )
Were they not going by bus?
The double underlined /e/ drops, the /m/ attaches to /i/ and the /y/ glide is
inserted between [mu] and [du]. Instead of Gitmiyor-lar myd?, Gitmiyor
mu/y/du-lar? is often heard.
When the question words are involved, the [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs are
not used, and the verbs are in positive form:
Ne yap-yor-du-un?
(ne / ya*p*yor*dun)
What were you doing?
Sana kim yardm et-iyor-du? (Yardm etmek is intransitive in Turkish.)
(sa*na / kim / yar*dm / e*di*yor*du)
Who was helping you? (Help is transitive, and you is its object.)
Nere-/y/e git-iyor-du-un?
(nere*ye / gi*di*yor*dun)
Where were you going?
The /t/ changes into the voiced /d/, and the /u-u/ vowels combine.
Cadde-de bir kadn niin ko-uyor-du?
(cad*de*de / bir / ka*dn / niin / ko*u*yor*du)
Why was a woman running along the street?
188
Snav son-a er-dik-i/n/-de iki saat-tir soru-lar-a cevap ver-me-/y/e alyor-du-um. I had been trying to answer the questions for two hours
when the exam ended. (er-dik and ver-me are infinitives.)
Iklar sn-dk-/n/-de iki saat-tir ev dev-im-i yap-yor-du-um.
(*k*lar / sn*d*n*de / i*ki / sa*at*tir / ev / *de*vi*mi / ya*p*yor*dum)
When the lights went off, I had been doing my homework for two hours.
Otobs durak-/n/-da bekle-iyor-du-um.
(o*to*bs / du*ra*n*da / bek*li*yor*dum )
I was waiting at the bus stop. (Past Continuous)
Otobs durak-/n/-da iki saat-tir bekle-iyor-du-um.
(o*to*bs / du*ra*n*da / i*ki / sa*at*tir / bek*li*yor*dum )
I had been waiting at the bus stop for two hours. (Past Perfect Continuous)
Sabah-leyin kalk-tk-m-da saat-ler-dir yamur ya-yor-du.
(sa*bah*le*yin / kalk*t*m*da / sa*at*ler*dir / ya*mur / ya**yor*du )
It had been raining for hours when I got up in the morning.
As it is seen in the examples above, only The Past Continuous Tense is
used in Turkish to express both The Past Continuous and The Past Perfect continuous Tenses of the English language.
189
USED TO
Geni Zamann Hikyesi
The equivalent of the expression of used to is used in Turkish as it is used
in English. To form this expression, the simple present tense allomorphs of
[R] [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar], are used followed by [di, d, d, du] past allo-
190
Negative:
The negation allomorph, which is used without the /z/ consonant for the first
person in The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) negative, is used with
the phoneme /z/ in negative used to tenses, such as git-mez, okumaz. After this, the allomorphs of the morpheme [D] and the subject allomorphs follow.
Gen-ken basketbol oyna-maz-d-m.
(gen*ken / bas*ket*bol / oy*na*maz*dm )
I didnt use(d) to play basketball when I was young.
Okul-a otobs-le git-mez-di-ik.
(o*ku*la / o*to*bs*le / git*mez*dik )
We didnt use(d) to go to school by bus.
Baba-am gzlk-ler-i-/n/i tak-ma-am-a izin ver-mez-di.
(ba*bam / gz*lk*le*ri*ni / tak*ma*ma / i*zin / ver*mez*di )
My father didnt use(d) to let me wear his eyeglasses.
Positive question:
To produce a positive question, one of the Simple Present Tense allomorphs is attached to a verb root, stem or frame, and then, as a separate
word, one of the question allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu], and one of the
Simple Past Tense allomorphs [di, d, d, du] is linked to the question
allomorphs by the /y/ glides, and finally a suitable subject allomorph follows
them:
Siz her gn ngilizce al-r m/y/-d-nz?, or (alyor muydunuz?)
(siz / her*gn / in*gi*liz*ce / a*l*r / my*d*nz )
Did you use(d) to study English every day?
(The /y/ glide is inserted between [m] and [d].)
191
192
In all [mi, m, m, mu] sentences, the origin and the time of the
rumor are either unknown or unimportant.
Bekle-meli/y/-mi-im. (bek*le*me*liy*mi*im) They say that I must wait.
Bekle-me-meli/y/-mi-im. (bek*le*me*me*liy*mi*im) They say that I mustn't wait.
Bekle-meli mi/y/-mi-im? (bek*le*me*li / miy*mi*im) Do they say that I must wait?
Bekle-me-meli mi/y/-mi-im? (bek*le*me*me*li / miy*mi*im) Do they say I mustn't
Bitir-ebil-ir-mi-im. (bi*ti*re*bi*lir*mi*im) They say that I can finish.
Bitir-emez-mi-sin. (bi*ti*re*mez*mi*sin) They say that you can't finish.
Bitir-emez mi/y/-mi-im? (bi*ti*re*mez / miy*mi*im) Do they say I can't finish?
al-amaz-lar m/y/-m? (a*l*a*maz*lar / my*m) ... that they can't work?
Jack bir Rus kz--/n/ m sev-iyor-mu?
(jack~ / bir / rus / k*z*n / m /se*vi*yor* mu ) (Surprise)
Do they say that Jack is (was) in love with a Russian girl?
Btn kzlar Jack'e ak-m-m.
(b*tn / kz*lar / ja*ke / a:*k*m*m )
Jack says (or I have heard) that all girls are in love with him, which is
unbelievable.
"Mi mi", "m m", "m m", "mu mu" express unbelievable rumor.
Ben-i tan-ma-yor mu/y/-mu? Daha neler!
(be*ni / ta*n*m*yor / muy*mu) (da*ha / ne*ler)
Does he (she) say that he (she) doesn't know me? Ridiculous!
Jack bekr deil mi/y/-mi?
(jack / be*kr / de*il / mi/y/*mi)
Have you heard that Jack isn't a bachelor?
Patron bugn ok megul-mu.
(pat*ron / bu*gn / ok / me*gul*mu)
They say that the boss is very busy today.
193
subject
verb
adverb
When I arrived at the airport, the plane had already taken off.
(O) (ben-im) hangi lke-ler-e git-tik-im-i
ren-mek
iste-di.
subj
object of iste
verb
194
My wife will have been cook-ing in the kitchen for three hours by the
time the visitors arrive.
195
INFINITIVES (MASTARLAR)
In Turkish, the grammar term infinitive (mastar) covers both the gerunds
and the infinitives of the English language. Therefore, we will talk about
only infinitives. When you see a verb-mek, mak, a verb-me, ma, a
verb-i, , , u or a verb-dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk inflectional allomorphs attached to verbs, they turn them into infinitives. All Turkish infinitives are nouns, and they are timeless.
There are four kinds of infinitives in Turkish:
1. The [mek, mak] allomorphs attached to verb roots, stems or frames:
oku-mak (reding, to read); yz-mek (swimming, to swim); yardm et-mek
(helping, to help); konu-mak (talking, to talk); temizle-mek (cleaning, to
clean); oyna-mak (playing, to play); tart-mak; tartl-mak (tar*tl*mak);
tart-mak (tar*t*mak); ka-mak; kan-mak (ka*n*mak); ka-mak
(ka*-*mak); srt-mek; srtl-mek (sr*tl*mek); srtn-mek (sr*tn*mek); srt-mek (sr*t*mek); dv-mek; dvl-mek (d*vl*mek); dvn-mek (d*vn*mek); dv-mek; ek-mek; ekil-mek; ekin-mek;
196
197
198
1 (b).The same [mek, mak] infinitives are used before yerine and
iin postpositions:
al-mak yerine Bahe-de tenis oyna-d-k
infinitive
postp.
postp phrs (adverbial)
The functions of English infinitives are of three kinds; some of them are
adverbal, some others are nominal, and some others are adjectival.
Yepyeni bir araba al-mak iin para biriktir-iyor-uz. (Almak iin is adverbial)
(yep*ye*ni / bir / a*ra*ba / al*mak / i*in / pa*ra / bi*rik*ti*ri*yo*ruz )
We are saving money to buy a brand new car. (To buy is an adverbial)
199
1 (c). The infinitives with [mek, mak] are used as objects of the
verb iste" and "zorunda" ("want, wish" and "have to")
Trke ren-mek iste-iyor-um. (The underlined infinitives are all nominal.)
(trk*e / *ren*mek / is*ti*yo*rum )
I want to learn Turkish. (Nominal)
Trke ren-mek zorunda-/y/m. (Nominal)
(trk*e / *ren*mek / zo*run*da*ym )
I have to learn Turkish. (Nominal)
200
201
202
All the shared identical e-e, a-a vowels combine, and the single underlined syllables detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of
the following allomorphs.
Note: All the owned personal allomorphs written in purple above mean
the possessive pronouns in brackets. Therefore, only the possessive
allomorphs written in purple can be used in all Turkish sentences. For instance, all the possessive allomorphs written in purple can be used instead of the possessive pronouns that they represent.
In other words, as the owned personal allomorphs used in the owned
parts of a compound are enough to express the possessive pronouns
(ben-im, sen-in, etc.), these possessive pronouns may be ignored unless
they are thought to be very necessary to attract the listeners attention.
Since the compounds like ben-im syle-me-em are noun compouns, they
are nominal phrases, and so the [i, ], [e, a], [de, da], [den, dan] and [le, la]
suffixes can be attached to the infinitive (owned) parts of the compounds:
203
verb
(biz-im)
zaman-n-da
The rain
prevented
us
from go-ing
to the theatre
in time.
subject
verb
object
prep phrs
adverbial
prep phrs
adverbial
prep phrs
adverbial
(Ben)
subj
(sen-in)
byle
davran-ma-an-
anla-ma-yor-um.
verb
subj
adverbial possessive
owned-u
possessive
owned
indef obj verb
definite noun comp (obj of tle) def noun comp (obj of rica et)
definite object
definite object
(chain noun compound) definite object
The mental development of this last sentence contains two simple sentences:
1 . O ben-im siyah pantolon-um-u tle-sin. 2. Ben ondan bu-/n/u rica ettim.
The first simple sentence is transformed and nominalized as o/n/un ben-im
siyah pantolon-um-u tle-me-/s/i, and then it is embedded and used in
place of the object bu-/n/u in the second sentence:
204
possessive noun
owned
(noun compound) definite object
predicate
|
verb
subj
verb
predicate
subj
I am waiting for your com-ing back home. (The underlined part is the object of for)
onun-la
evlen-me-em
possessive
adverbial
owned
(noun compound) subject
subject complement
verb
subj
205
206
207
verb
possessive noun
adv
adv
adverbial
owned-/n/e
(noun + infinitive compound + [e]) adverbial phrase
verb
My father got angry about my sisters go-ing to the cinema alone at night.
Baba-am, araba-/s/-/n/ (ben-im) kullan-ma-am-a hi izin ver-me-iyor.
(ba*bam / a*ra*ba*s*n / kul*lan*ma*ma / hi / i*zin / ver*mi*yor )
My father never allows me to drive his car.
Baba-am (ben-im) balk tut-ma-/y/a git-me-em-e itiraz et-ti.
(ba*bam / ba*lk / tut*ma*ya / git*me*me / i:*ti*ra:z / et*ti )
My father objected to my go-ing fish-ing.
verb
208
her ey-i
anla-ma-/s//n/-dan
owned-dan
kork-uyor-um.
verb
subj
subj complement
3 (a). The third kind of noun + infinitive compounds are made by adding
[i, , , u] allomorphs to verb roots, stems or frames such as: ben-im
gl--m, sen-in bak--n, which means my way of smiling, your way
of looking, etc. When these compounds take [E], [DE] or [DEN] morphemes,
they become adverbials:
Gl--m-e (g*l**me) hayran-dr.
She adores my way of smil-ing. (Smile-ing is a nominal gerund object of of.)
Bana bak--n- zle-di-im. (ba*k**n)
I missed your way of look-ing at me.
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4 (a). The following noun + infinitive compound is widely used in transforming simple sentences into syntactic nominal phrases or "modifiers".
The following example shows how a simple sentence is transformed into a
noun + infinitive compound, and then how it is used as a syntactic nominal phrase in a sentence:
possessive pronoun + verb - [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk][possessive personal allomorph]
(ben-im)
yz-dk-m
possessive
owned
adverbial
definite object
predicate
verb
Note: In the sentence above, the /k/ phoneme changes into the voiced //,
and the last [] is the definer that defines the nominal phrase benim
deniz-de yz-dk-m.
The same noun + infinitive compound can also be used as a modifier:
(Ben) okul-a git-iyor-um. (ben-im) git-tik-im okul
modifier
noun
nominal phrase
noun
modfier
subj complement
subj complement
The owned parts of the noun + infinitive compounds are also used as
objects of postpositions (English prepositions):
(Ben-im) her zaman okul-a ge gel-dik-im iin ngilizce gretmeni-im ben-i azarla-d.
noun infinitive comp (object of iin)
postp
postpositional adverbial phrase of cause
210
subject
object
verb
A final note that should be added to the above explanations is that as the
infinitives are made up of verbs, they can take objects like verbs when they
are transitive, but if they are intransitive, they can take only adverbs or
adverbials. The sentences that contain infinitives are produced as follows:
1. O ben-i bekle-sin. o-/n/un ben-i bekle-me-/s/i
2. Ben bu-/n/u istiyor-um.
If the first nominalized phrase is used in the place of bunu in the second
sentence, we produce the following sentence containing a noun compound:
(Ben) (o-/n/un) ben-i bekle-me-/s/i-/n/i iste-iyor-um.
(be*ni / bek*le*me*si*ni / is*ti*yo*rum )
I want him to wait for me. (to wait is a nominal infinitive.)
211
212
MODALS
PRESENT MODALS
While English modals are made of auxiliary verbs, Turkish modals are made
either of morphemes, or of words, or of both. They convey nearly the same
concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring
explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of
them, which we think, might be more useful. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered more
satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them, which
may lead to misunderstanding:
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
[em, am]
[en, an]
[/s/i, /s/]
[emiz, amz]
[eniz, anz]
[/s/i, /s/] or [leri, lar]
(bekle-me-em) (ko-ma-am)
(bekle-me-en) (ko-ma-an)
(bekle-me-si) (ko-ma-s)
(bekle-me-emiz) (ko-ma-amz)
(bekle-me-eniz) (ko-ma-anz)
(bekle-me-/s/i) (ko-ma-/s//)
221
adverb
predicate
dn-meli-sin
verb
subj
222
PAST MODALS
Could
Could expresses ability in the past. To express the same concept in
Turkish, main verb-[ebil,abil]-[iyor]-[du]-[subject allomorph] verb composition should be used:
Yedi ya-m-da/y/-ken yz-ebil-iyor-du-um. (Ability in the past)
(ye*di / ya*m*day*ken / y*ze*bi*li*yor*dum )
I could swim when I was seven years old.
Ahmet okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-abil-iyor-du.
(ah*met / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du )
Ahmet could read and write before he went to school.
The negative form of this modal verb is verb-[eme, ama]-[.YOR]-[du][subject allomorph], which expresses both the negative of "could" and
"was able to":
Ben okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-ama-iyor-du-um.
(ben / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce / o *ku*yup / ya*za*m*yor*dum )
I couldn't read and write before I went to school.
223
224
225
PERFECT MODALS
must have verb - [mi, m, m, mu] + [ol-mal]-[subj]
This perfect modal verb composition conveys a past concept of certainty.
Consider the following:
Grev-i-/n/i bitir-mi ol-mal. (The brown underlined words are subj complements.)
(g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi / ol*ma*l )
He must have finished his duty. (I am sure he has finished it.)
226
227
cant have
The verb chain above is used to form a verb composition to convey past
impossibility. In doing this, the [ama] negation allomorphs are attached to
the first person singular ben and its plural form biz; but with the other
pronouns and nouns and with the interrogative sentences (amaz) negations are used:
Gr-m ol-ama-am. (gr*m / o*la*mam )
Gr-m ol-amaz-sn. (gr*m / o*la*maz*sn )
228
verb
subj
229
230
231
232
233
234
predicate
You can see the boys (who are) swimming in the lake.
subj
verb
The explanations above are grammatical explanations, but thiking acts more
inclusively while producing a sentence. When somebody has an item of
thought, such as "article" in his mind, he may have had two simple sentence alternatives in store in his mind to convey his thought to his listener or
reader. It may be a sentence that he uttered before, such as "I read an article in a newspaper". If he has uttered this sentence before, he goes on
conveying his thought by saying that "It was interesting". If he did not utter
the same sentence, but he already has it in store in his mind (in his
memory), he transforms the same sentence into a noun + modifier compound, such as "an article, which I read in the newspaper", and completes his sentence saying that "An article, which I read in the newspaper, was interesting.
On the other side, the person who has heard what the speaker said may go
on saying, "Yes, I saw it, or Yes, I saw the article that you read in the
newspaper". This shows us that thinking transforms the simple sentences
into nominal phrases so that they may be used as subjects or objects in
the NP+VP sentence pattern.
235
subj complement
The sentences that contain only one finite verb (simple sentences) can be
transformed into nominal phrases (noun compounds) to be used in the "NP
+ VP" sentence-producing pattern as subjects, objects, and as objects of
prepositions. Consider the following:
Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children last week
who
verb
why (adverbial)
The question words under the lines and the answers to them on the lines
are the basic conceptual elements of thought of simple sentences in languages. Therefore, I avoid using the term kernel sentence in this book. For
instance, when you hear the word went, you want to find answers in your
mind to the questions who? and where? because only the word went
does not convey satisfactory information. If you hear the sentence Jane
went to the supermarket, your mind accepts it as a reasonable and satisfac-
236
know
it.
subj
verb
object
What do I know?
I know that Jane went to the supermarket by bus to buy some toys for her children.
subj verb
237
subj complement
subj complement
subj complement
The same noun clauses can be used as the objects of some prepositions,
as well:
It depends on what Jane says.
object of on
238
Why didnt you come to the party? why I didnt come to the party
Jane wonders why I didnt come to the party.
(noun clause) object
Where am I? where I am
You cant guess where I am.
(noun clause) object
What am I interested in? what I am interested in
You cant guess what I am interested in.
(noun clause) object
noun
noun
239
noun
modifier
(syntactic nominal phrase) subject
The same simple sentence can also be transformed so as the noun flowers could be modified by the rest of the sentence. To carry out this transformation activity, the flowers that (which) is used as the head of the
transformed phrase, and the rest of the sentence is left unchanged.
In this way, the transformed phrase the flowers that the girls were
picking in the garden can be used in "NP+VP" logical sentence pattern
as a NP. Incidentally, it is necessary to say that all the suffxes used in
transforming sentences into nominal phrases in Turkish are inflectional.
The flowers that the girls were picking in the garden were beautiful.
det
noun
(nominal phrase) subject
modifier
verb
subj compl
predicate
saw the flowers that the girls were picking in the fields.
subj verb
The same process above can also be initiated to modify the noun garden:
the garden in which (where) the girls were picking flowers
det
noun
modifier
nominal phrase
The garden in which the girls were picking flowers was not in good condition.
(nominal phrase) subject
verb
subject complement
The same transformed phrases can be used in other parts of different sentences, as well:
I
didnt know
subj
verb
A woman was chasing the girls who were picking flowers in the garden.
subject
verb
The simple sentences with verbs be and have (got) are transformed as
follows:
240
nominal phrase
There are some books on the table. the books that are on the table
simple sentence
want
subj
verb
nominal phrase
to borrow
are
mine.
nominal phrase
nominal phrase
The car that I have got is a second-hand car. My car is a second-hand car.
(nominal phrase) subject
subject complement
subject
subject complement
verb complement
4.
241
noun
successive modifiers
(nominal phrase) object
Contrary to the sentence production above, if we start with the first simple
sentence, the complex sentence will become as follows:
Jack caught the fish that Mr. Brown cleaned that Mary fried that Jane ate.
If you try to understand the sentence above, it sounds funny, doesnt it? How
can Jack catch the fish that Jane ate? A fish cannot be caught after it has
been eaten.
This example shows us that while producing complex sentences out of simple sentences, one should be careful about the sequence of the modifiers.
Furthermore, only the words that jack caught that Mr. Brown cleaned
that Mary fried that Jane ate do not make sense without the word the
fish, which completes the chain of modifiers as a NP although the word
the fish is in the beginning of the sentence. Therefore, one can say that all
natural languages may be infinitely long as long as they are approved by the
Phrase Structure rules, and so long as the human short-term memory can
tolerate them.
An example from a Turkish sentence may clarify the explanation above:
Jackin yakalad, Mr. Brownn temizledii, Marynin piirdii (?) sequence of words do not make sense without the word balk, which is the
final word of the nominal phrase in Turkish. Moreover, to complete this
nominal phrase, a person has to add a verbal phrase to produce a grammatically well-formed acceptable sentence:
The fish that Jack caught that Mary fried that Jane ate was delicious.
subject
verb
complemet
To sum up, we can say that whether sentences are infinitely long or short,
they end up in NP + VP inborn logical sentence-producing system.
A final point to add to the explanations above is that the final word in Turkish
is at the end of a NP, but in English, it is in the beginning. The reason
why we begin organizing the logical simple sentences beginning with the last
simple sentence and going on to the first one in English is that the mind organizes the transformed phrases starting with the last one and going to the
242
when, while, before, after, as soon as, until, since, just as,
PLACE
where, wherever
MANNER
as, how
DEGREE
as... as, not so ...as, the ... the, so long as, as long as
COMPARISON
CAUSE
CONTRAST
PURPOSE
RESULT
CONDITION
if, unless
TIME
when:
while:
before:
after:
as soon as:
until:
by the time:
just as:
243
where:
wherever:
as:
as ... as:
so ... as:
than:
because:
as:
since:
for:
although:
even if:
while:
244
so that:
They ran to the bus stop so that they shouldnt miss the bus.
in case:
so... that:
The book was so boring that I was able to read only a few
pages.
Such... that:
leave home.
so:
if :
unless:
kime?
niin?
ne zaman?
nasl?
nereye?
ne yapt?
245
def object
verb
subj
def object
(Ben) Aye/n/in okul-a git-tik-i-/n/i bil-iyor-um. I know that Aye went to school.
subject (noun compound) definite object
predicate
verb
subj verb
passive verb
passive verb
noun
modifier
nominal phrase
246
def obj
verb
In the sentence above, no question words are used, and the noun compound is used as a subject.
Kimin spermaket-e git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendir-mez. (git-tik is an infinitve.)
(The question word kim-in is added.) (*Kimin gitmesi is not used.)
Aye/n/in supermarket-e niin git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendir-mez. (git*ti*i)
(The question word niin is added.)
Aye/n/in kim-e oyuncak al-mak iin spermarkete git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendir-mez.
(The question word kim-e is added.)
Kim-in, niin, ne zaman, ne/y/-le, nere-/y/e, nasl git-tik-i ben-i ilgilendir-mez.
(Successive question words are added.)
When the answers to the above question words are put into the sentences, the [tik, tk, tk, tuk] allomorphs are also used in noun compounds:
(Sen) Aye/n/in her hafta bir futbol ma--/n/a git-tik-i-/n/i bil-iyor mu-sun?
subject
verb
def object
verb
verb
247
object
verb
subj
Onun ben-i sev-dik-i-/n/i tahmin et-iyor-um. I guess that she loves me.
(noun compound) def object indef obj
predicate
verb
subj
When the Turkish simple sentences are nominalized, they are logically
transformed into noun compounds, and used as Nominal Phrases in sentences. Although "(that) Jack likes pop music", and "(that) she loves me"
subordinate English noun clauses do not look like physically transformed
phrases, they can be considered as syntactically and mentally transformed
phrases when they are used as Nominal Phrases.
The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous, The Simple Present,
The Simple Past, The Present Perfect, The Present Perfect Continuous and Used To tenses can all be transformed into noun clauses.
248
249
As a rule, the /n/ glides are used between the vowels used in the possessive parts, and the /s/ glides are used between the vowels in the owned
parts of the noun compounds. The coinciding vowels combine, and the
single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to
the following vowels as usual.
Therefore, al-ma-am means benim al-ma-am (my work-ing), alma-lar- means onlarn al-ma-lar- (their work-ing).
The other noun infinitive compounds are the same as the compounds above:
al-tk-m = ben-im al-tk-m (be*nim / a*l*t*m)
al-tk-n = sen-in al-tk-n (se*nin / a*l*t*n)
gel-i-im = ben-im gel-i-im (be*nim / ge*li*im)
gel-i-in = sen-in gel-i-in (se*nin / ge*li*in)
Consequently, when the simple sentences are transformed into nominal
phrases, they become timeless noun compounds, and lose the time concepts that they had before being transformed. However, the simple sentences with the [ecek, acak] or [mi, m, m, mu] allomorphs keep their time
concepts. Follow the example sentences:
The infinitives with [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]:
(Ben) balk tut-ar-m. (Simple Present) ben-im balk tut-tuk-um
250
verb
subject
predicate
251
predicate
verb
subject
Balk tut-tuk-um-u gr-m-yor mu-sun? Don't you see that I am catching fish?
(noun comp) def obj
predicate
verb
subj
verb
subj
verb
cant guess
subj
verb
verb
is not
kesin
deil.
subj complement
verb
certain.
252
subj
verb
|
verb
subj
Even I don't know when Ill have finished it. (Even" is an intensifier.)
subject
verb
verb
253
subj
verb
owned
owned
sen-in anne-en-in kitap--/n/n kapak--/n/n renk-i = four possessives and one owned
chain possessives
nominal phrase
owned
owned
The last nonsense word ey-i ends the sequence and turns it into a nominal phrase.
The possessive sequences that are not put into Nominal Phrases are incomplete chains of words. For instance, that Jack built that Mary bought
254
verb
subj subj
verb
def object
verb
subj
subj
verb
definite object
verb
subj
subj
verb
verb
subj
subj verb
The black underlined part of the Turkish sentence above is a chain noun
compound that acts as a syntactic nominal phrase in the sentence. In the
Turkish sentence, the /k/ consonant changes into the // voiced consonant,
and the /n/ glide links the last two vowels.
(Sen) doktor-sun. sen-in) doktor ol-duk-un (ol*du*un)
simple sentence
noun compound
Herkes (sen-in) doktor ol-duk-un-u biliyor. Everybody knows that you are a doctor.
subject
verb
subject
verb
The [u] allomorph above is one of the allomorphs of the defining [] morpheme.
Btn kzlar gzel-dir. btn kzlar-n gzel ol-duk-u- (ol*du*u)
simple sentence
noun compound
noun clause
255
verb
subj
noun compound
noun clause
nemli deil.
That you are a wrestler is not important. (It is not important that
(noun clause) subject
noun compound
noun clause
When someone hesitates over whether the verb is positive or negative, olup ol-ma-dk- positive and negative successive infinitives (ol-duk-u-/n/u
or ol-ma-dk--/n/I) are used as whether is used in English:
ocuklar-n hazr olup ol-ma-dk--/n/ bil-me-iyor-um.
(noun compound) definite object
verb
subj
256
indef obj
verb
subj
verb
noun clause
The simple sentences containing verbs other than be are also nominalized
using possessive + owned noun compounds. As there are no clauses in
Turkish, they lose their time concepts as usual when simple sentences are
transformed into noun compounds. However, some others keep them when
they are nominalized. The tenses that result in the same transformed nominal phrases are as follows:
Simple Present or Present Continuous:
(Ben) ev-i temizle-er-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i)
(Ben) ev-i temizle-iyor-um. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i)
Simple Past or Past Continuous:
(Ben) ev-i temizle-di-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i)
(Ben) ev-i temizle-iyor-du-um. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i)
Used to:
(Ben) ev-i temizle-er-di-im. (benim) ev-i temizle-dik-im-(i)
As one could understand, all the five different tenses (simple sentences) are
transformed and nominalized using the same transformational composition:
The verb composition above covers only the morphemes, therefore the allomorphs of these morphemes are given as follows:
257
verb
subj
verb
verb
subj
subj verb
verb
subj
258
nominal phrase
predicate
I will sell my old car tomorrow. that I will sell my old car tomorrow
simple sentence
That I will sell my old car tomorrow is not certain. (It is not certain that
subject (noun clause)
verb subj comp
Yarn eski araba-am- sat-acak-m- bil-me-iyor mu-sun?
(nominal phrase) definite object
verb
subj
259
nominal phrase
verb
subj
verb
subj
verb
subj
verb
subj
I
subj
verb
subj
260
subj complement
subj complemet
261
def obj
verb
verb
object
verb (passive)
(The reason) why the questions were so difficult should have been explained by the teacher.
Dolap-ta gr-dk-n bir iskelet ol-amaz.
(noun compound) subject
subj compl
verb
verb
subj complement
verb (passive)
verb (passive)
adverb
subject complement
adverbial phrase
verb (passive)
verb (passive)
adverbial phrase
262
noun 2
noun 3
1. tarlalar-da iek topla-/y/an kzlar the girls who are picking flowers in the fields
modifier
noun
2. kzlar-n iek topla-dk- tarlalar the fields where the girls are picking flowers
modifier
noun
3. kzlar-n tarlalar-da topla-dk- iekler the flowers that the girls are picking in the fiels
modifier
noun
We can derive the following rules from the transformed nominal phrases
above:
1. When someone wants to modify the subject of a simple sentence, he
transforms the sentence into a modifier + noun compound by using
main verb - [en, an] + noun composition. This composition is a nominal phrase that can be used in the subject + predicate logical sentence
pattern. If a verb ends with a consonant, it takes one of these allomorphs
such as "konu-an" (ko*nu*an), a-an (a*an), "bekle-en (bek*le*en).
However, if a verb ends with a vowel, it needs the /y/ glide to link the verb to
one of the following [en] or [an] allomorphs: bekle-/y/en, oku-/y/an,
bala-/y/an.
This transformational rule can be applied to the verbs in The Simple Present, The Simple Past, The Present Continuous, The Past Continuous
Tenses and (imdiki Zamann Hikyesi) used to. However, the verbs in
The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses keep their forms when the
verb ol is used:
Kzlar yarn tarlalar-da iek topla-/y/acak-lar. yarn tarlalar-da iek
topla-/y/acak ol-an kzlar (o*lan).
Kzlar tarlalar-da iek topla-m-t. tarlalar-da iek topla-m ol-an kzlar
Consequently, Kzlar bahede koar, Kzlar bahede kotu, Kzlar bahede kouyor, Kzlar bahede kouyordu, and Kzlar bahede koard
simple sentences are all transformed into the modifier + noun structure
as bahe-de ko-an kzlar. As has already been noted, none of the time
263
modifier
noun
modifier
noun
modifier
noun
As all the modifier + noun (Turkish), or noun + modifier (English) compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they can be used in the subject +
predicate basic sentence pattern as Nominal Phrases because they constitute nominal phrases together.
1. Mutfakta patates soy-an iki kz ben-im kzlar-m. (so*yan)
(nominal phrase) subject
verb
subj
If the simple sentences from which the transformed phrases were in different
tenses, except the future and the past perfect tenses, the result would also
be the same transformed phrases above:
Mutfakta iki kz patates soyar, soyuyor, soydu, soyuyordu, soyard are
all transformed as mutfakta patates soyan kzlar or kzlarn soyduu
patatesler, or kzlarn patates soyduu mutfak.
The English equivalents of the sentences above are as follows:
264
modifier
modifier
modifier
As all the noun + modifier compounds are syntactic nominal phrases, they
can be used in the subject + predicate basic sentence pattern as Nominal
Phrases:
The two girls that are peeling potatoes in the kitchen are my daughters.
(nominal phrase) subject
The kitchen where the two girls are peeling potatoes is very large.
(nominal phrase) subject
The potatoes that the girls are peeling in the kitchen are of good quality.
(nominal phrase) subject
verb
(subj compl)
saw the two girls that were peeling potatoes in the kitchen.
subj verb
As an exception, the sentences in The Simple Future and The Past Perfect Tenses are transformed as follows:
(Ben) bir problem z-ecek-im. (ben-im) z-ecek-im problem
simple sentence
modifier
noun
noun
modifier
(Benim) z-ecek-im problem ok zor. The problem that I will solve is very difficult.
(nominal phrase) subject
subj compl
ok zor-du.
intransitive verb
passive verb
265
noun
modifier
sol-du
Geen hafta bana bir cep telefon-u al-d-n. geen hafta bana al-dk-n cep telefon-u
Geen hafta bana al-dk-n cep telefon-u-/n/u kaybet-ti-im.
(nominal phrase) definite object
verb
subj
266
The students who have been waiting for their teachers for an hour are being impatient.
(nominal phrase) subject
(subj compl)
267
(noun compound)
(noun compound)
(noun compound)
(noun compound)
When the same sentence is transformed into the modifier + noun compound, the transformed phrases may change as follows:
"ben-im dn bahe-de bulduum saat" (modifier + noun)
"bahe-de ben-im dn bulduum saat" (modifier + noun)
268
We can give the following table to sum up the above transformational rules:
1. benim gitmem
= NP
2. benim gidiim
= NP
3. benim gittiim
4. benim gideceim
= NP
5. benim gideceim
= NP
= NP
= NP
= NP
= NP
In the examples above, only the first person is given; the other persons
might have been given accordingly, which would not change the result. Nr.1
and Nr.2 compounds can only be used as noun compounds, such as
Benim oraya gitmem olanaksz. or Benim gidiim-i bekliyor
Nr. 3 and 4; 5 and 6; 7 and 8; and 9 are used both as noun compounds and
as modifiers such as: Ben-im git-tik-im-i gr-d. (syntactic nominal
phrase). However, Ben-im gittikim okul" is structurally a modifier + noun
compound, but syntactically it is a nominal phrase. Therefore, these noun
compounds are used both as noun compounds and as modifiers. As in all
infinitives, the infinitive parts of these compounds may have one or more
adverbials preceding to supply them with time, place, reason, etc:
269
geen hafta bir futbol ma seyret-mek iin Bursaya git-me-em kar-m- kzdr-d.
possessive adverbial.
adverbial
owned
def obj
verb
My go-ing to Bursa last week to watch a football match made my wife mad.
(Ben-im) geen hafta bir ift ayakkab al-mak iin git-tik-im dkkn ok kalablk-t.
modifier
noun
The shop where I went to buy a pair of shoes last week was very crowded.
When a verb ends with a consonant (V ), one of the [il, l, l, ul] allomorphs is attached to it before the time and subject allomorphs:
passive verb
predicate
270
271
The verbs ending with vowels (V ) are put into the passive form by using
the following verb composition. In this composition, as the last vowels and
the first vowels of the passive making allomorphs are identical, they combine and they are used as single vowels:
272
VERB FRAMES
A list of frequently used verbs, and their intransitive, transitive, causative,
passive, reflexive and reciprocal forms, which are called verb frames,
are given in the following list. While using reflexive and reciprocal verb
frames, one should be careful because these two forms may have meanings
different from the verb roots or stems that they are attached to. For instance,
although anla means understand, anla means reach an agreement. Therefore, one should consult a dictionary before using them.
Some of the most frequently used verb frames whose meanings are different
from their root or stem meanings are as follows:
aldrmak: care, care about; almak: get used to; atmak: have a row
with; bozulmak: deteriorate, embarrass; bozumak: break up, fall out with;
bulumak: meet with someone; atlatmak: make somebody jealous;
znmek: dissolve; dalamak: fight; dayanmak: act in solidarity with;
dnmek: transform; dvnmek: beat ones chest; durulmak: calm
down, settle down; geinmek: get on well with, make a living; gelitirmek:
improve, develop; gerinmek: stretch; kanmak: avoid; karmak: miss,
abduct, frighten away, hijack, go out of ones mind; kapmak: fall out with;
kayrmak: bestow a privilege on; kesimek: intersect; kestirmek: dose,
have a short nap, estimate; krmak: become wrinkled; korunmak: protect
oneself; rtmek: coincide, correspond to, match up with; sylenmek:
grumble; sylemek: chat; srnmek: creep, live a dogs life; armak:
be confused, be mixed up; iinmek: boast; tartmak: argue, discuss,
dispute; uydurmak: fabricate, feign; karmak: put ones nose into something.
The suffixes (inflectional allomorphs) used in producing verb frames are the
first suffixes to be attached to verb roots or stems; the others, such as the
negative making, time and subject allomorphs follow them.
273
274
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
REFLEXIVE
a
ak
a
akt
al
anla
anlat
ara
artr
as
ar
aykla
at
atlat
azdr
atr
akttr
aldr
al
aktl
aln
anlal
anlatl
aran
artrl
asl
arl
ayklan
atl
atlatl
azdrl
bakl
basl
batrl
balatl
bayltl
beklen
bekletil
beslen
biil
bilin
binil
bitiril
bkl
bozul
bln
bulun
bkl
cayl
al
art
atla
az
bak
bat
bala
bayl
bekle
bin
bit
bk
cay
co
al
al
arp
atla
bas
batr
balat
bayl
bekle
beklet
besle
bi
bil
bitir
bktr
boz
bl
bul
bk
caydr
cotur
al
al(tr)
arptr
atlat
ek
iz
anlattr
arat
artrt
astr
art
ayklat
attr
atlattr
azdrt
baktr
bastr
batrt
balattr
baylt
beklet
beklettir
beslet
bitir
bildir
bindir
bitirt
bktrt
bozdur
bldr
buldur
bktr
caydrt
coturt
aldr
altrt
arptrt
atlattr
ektir
izdir
aln
altrl
arpl
atlatl
ekil
izil
275
RECIPROCAL
aln
anla
at
bakn
bak
balan
bekle
beslen
bozul
bln
bozu
bl
bulu
arp
ekin
eki
k
dal
dayan
damla
de
dei
do
dol
don
doy
dn
dn
d
dn
es
esne
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
REFLEXIVE
rp
kert
z
daldr
daya
rptr
kerttir
zdr
daldrt
dayat
rpn
damlat
de
dedir
dein
deitir
del
dene
denetle
dengele
dik
dinle
dila
dour
doku
doldur
dondur
doyur
dk
dndr
dndr
duy
drt
dr
dn
ekle
elle
engelle
ertele
estir
damlattr
dedirt
dedirt
deitirt
deldir
denet
denetlet
dengelet
diktir
dinlet
dlat
dourt
dokut
doldurt
dondurt
doyurt
dktr
dndrt
dndrt
duyurt
drttr
drt
dndrt
eklet
ellet
engellet
ertelet
estirt
rpl
kertil
zl
daldrl
dayatl
dayanl
damlatl
denil
deil
deinil
deitiril
delin
denen
denetlen
dengelen
dikil
dinlen
dlan
dourul
dokun
doldurul
dondurul
doyurul
dkl
dndrl
dnl
duyurul
drtl
drl
dnl
eklen
ellen
engellen
ertelen
estiril
eitle
esnet
et
ez
eitlet
esnet
ettir
ezdir
eitlen
esnetil
edil
ezil
276
zn
RECIPROCAL
z
dala
dayan
dei
dolu
dkn
dn
drt
elle
esnen
esne
ge
gel
gez
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
frlat
ge
ger
getir
gez
gster
frlattr
geir
gerdir
getirt
gezdir
gstert
frlatl
geil
geril
getiril
gezdiril
gsteril
giril
gidil
giyil
grl
gsteril
gln
halan
hatrlan
hazrlan
hesaplan
iil
indiril
srl
slatl
iitil
iletil
inkr edil
itil
izlen
karl
kaln
kandrl
kapl
kapatl
kaplan
karalan
karl
karlatrl
kasl
kan
gir
git
gl
in
sr
ile
ka
kal
kan
kar
karla
giy
gr
gster
gldr
hala
hatrla
hazrla
hesapla
i
indir
sr
slat
iit
ilet
inkr et
it
izle
kar
gstert
gldrt
halat
hatrlat
hazrlat
hesaplat
iir
indirt
srt
slattr
iittir
ilettir
inkr ettir
ittir
izlet
kart
kandr
kap
kapat
kapla
karala
kartr
karlatr
kas
ka
kat
kaydet
kayr
kandrt
kaptr
kapattr
kaplat
karalat
kartrt
karlatrt
kastr
kat
kattr
kaydettir
kayrt
277
yaydedil
kay()rl
REFLEXVE
RECIPROCAL
gein
gerin
gezin
giri
giyin
grn
gr
gl
hazrlan
hesapla
slan
iti
kan
ka
kap
kapan
kasl
kan
kzar
kok
kon
konu
kop
kork
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
kaz
kes
kr
ky
kz
kzart
kokla
kondur
konutur
kopar
korkut
koru
kazdr
kestir
krdr
kydr
kzdr
kzarttr
koklat
kondurt
konuturt
kopart
korkut
korut
kotur
koydur
kurdur
kuruttur
kurulat
kusturt
kstrt
kuruttur
kurulat
lekelet
okuttur
onart
oturttur
oydur
oyalat
oynat
ltr
det
ldrt
ptr
rdr
rttr
ttrt
vdr
patlattr
piirt
kazl
kesil
krl
kyl
kzl
kzartl
koklan
kondurul
konuul
koparl
korkutul
korun
koul
koyul
kurul
kurutul
kurulan
kusul
ksl
kurutul
kurulan
lekelen
okun
onarl
oturul
oyul
ko
kuru
kus
ks
kuru
oku
otur
oyna
patla
pi
koy
kur
kurut
kurula
kustur
kstr
kurut
kurula
lekele
oku
onar
oturt
oy
oyala
oyna
l
de
ldr
p
r
rt
ttr
v
patlat
piir
san
sakla
REFLEXIVE
RECIPROCAL
kesi
kr
kz
kokla
korun
kou
kurulan
ks
kurulan
oturu
oyalan
oynan
ll
den
ldrl
pl
rl
rtl
vl
patlatl
piiril
sanl
saklan
saklat
278
oyna
l
de
ln
p
rtn
vn
saklan
rt
t
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
sap
saptr
sar
sarkt
sars
sat
say
se
sev
seyret
sez
sdr
saptrt
sardr
sarkt(tr)
sarstr
sattr
saydr
setir
sevdir
seyrettir
sezdir
sdrt
saptrl
sarl
sarktl
sarsl
satl
sayl
seil
sevil
seyredil
sezil
sl
sk
szdr
sil
sindir
sout
soldur
sor
sorgula
soy
sk
sndr
sktr
szdrt
sildir
sindirt
souttur
soldurt
sordurt
sorgulat
soydur
sktr
sndrt
svdr
sylet
sark
s
sz
sin
sou
sol
sn
sv
sus
a
i
ta
syle
sun
sustur
srt
ssle
sz
art
iir
tak
tara
tar
ta
tat
temizle
tercih et
tut
susturt
srttr
sslet
szdr
arttr
iirt
taktr
tarat
tart
tat
tattr
temizlet
tercih ettir
tuttur
279
REFLEXIVE
RECIPROCAL
sarn
sarsl
say
sevin
sevi
sn
skl
szdrl
silin
sindiril
soutul
soldurul
sorul
sorgulan
soyul
skl
sndrl
skn
sk
sylen
sunul
susturul
srtl
sslen
szl
artl
iiril
takl
taran
tarl
sylen
tan
tan
temizlen
tercih edil
tutul
temizlen
soyun
srtn
sslen
ar
iin
takn
taran
sv
syle
susu
srt
tak
tutu
TRANSITIVE
CAUSATIVE
PASSIVE
uur
um
unut
uydur
uyar
uygula
uyut
uzat
fle
tle
z
ver
vur
yadr
yakala
yak
yaat
yaz
yedir
yen
yerletir
yetitir
y
yka
yldr
yrt
yut
yor
ykselt
yrt
yzdr
uurt
uurul
umul
unutul
uydurul
uyarl
uygulan
uyutul
uzatl
flen
tlen
zl
veril
vurul
uy
uyu
uza
ya
yan
yaa
yerle
yeti
yksel
yr
yz
unuttur
uydurt
uyart
uygulat
uyuttur
uzattr
flet
tlet
zdr
verdir
vurdur
yadrt
yakalat
yaktr
yaattr
yazdr
yedirt
yakalan
yakl
yaatl
yazdrl
yediril
yenil
yerleil
yetiil
yl
ykan
yldrl
yrtl
yutul
yorul
ykseltil
yrtl
yzl
yerletirt
yetitirt
ydr
ykat
yldrt
yrttr
yuttur
ykselttir
yrttr
yzdrt
REFLEXIVE
RECIPROCAL
uu
uyu
uyun
uzan
vuru
yakn
yaan
yaz
yeni
ykan
yrtn
yorul
yrn
yz
280
PASSIVE CAUSATIVE
The passive causative frames are frequently used in both English and
Turkish:
Onlar bana kap-/y/ atr-d-lar. (Causative)
(on*lar / ba*na / ka*p*y / a*tr*d*lar )
They made me open the door.
Kap kim-e atr-l-d?
(ka*p / ki*me / a*t*rl*d )
Who was made to open the door?
(Passive causative)
Double causative forms are rarely used in Turkish, therefore they are not
put in the verb frames list above:
Araba-am- ykat-trt-t-m.
(a*ra*ba*m / y*kat*trt*tm )
I asked someone to have my car washed. (double causative)
281
282
a:
iekler sabah-leyin a-ar.
(i*ek*ler / sa*bah*le*yin / a*ar )
Flowers open in the morning. (Open is an intransitive verb.)
Jack kap-/y/ a-t.
(jack / ka*p*y / a*t )
Jack opened the door. (Open is a transitive verb.)
Jacke kap-/y/ atr-d-m. (Causative)
(ce*ke / ka*p*y / a*tr*dm )
I made (had) Jack open the door.
Kap-/y/ atr-d-m. (Causative)
(ka*p*y / a*tr*dm )
I had the door opened.
283
al:
Kitap- al-d-m. (Transitive)
(ki*ta*b / al*dm )
I have taken (received, bought) the book.
Kitap- satn aldr-d-m. (Causative)
(ki*ta*b / sa*t *nal*dr*dm ) (Liaison)
I (have) had the book bought.
Kitap- satn aldrt-t-m. (Double causative)
(ki*ta*b / sa*t*nal*dr(t)*tm ) (Liaison)
I asked someone to have the book bought.
Kitap satn aln-d. (Passive)
(ki*tap / sa*t*na*ln*d ) (Liaison)
The book has been bought.
Kitap- satn aldr-d-m. (Causative)
(ki*ta*b / sa*tn / al*dr*dm )
I have had the book bought.
Aldr-ma! (An expression)
(al*dr*ma )
Never mind!
Elmalar Ahmete aldrl-d. (Passive causative)
(el*ma*lar / ah*me*te / al*d*rl*d )
Ahmet was made to buy the apples.
Elma-lar- Ahmete aldr-d. (Causative)
(el*ma*la*r / ah*me*te / al*dr*d )
She had Ahmet buy the apples.
284
anla:
Jack ders-i anla-d. (Transitive)
(jack / der*si / an*la*d )
Jack understood the lesson.
Ders anlal-d. (Passive)
(ders / an*la*l*d )
The lesson has been understood.
Onlar anla-t-lar. (Reciprocal)
(on*lar / an*la*t*lar )
They (have) reached an agreement.
anlat:
Jack biz-e bir masal anlat-t. (transitive)
(jack / bi*ze / bir / ma*sa*lan*lat*t ) (Liaison)
Jack told us a story.
retmen masal- Ahmete anlattr-d. (Causative)
(*ret*men / ma*sa*l / ah*me*te / an*lat*tr*d )
The teacher made (had) Ahmet tell the story.
285
art:
Hz art-t. (Intransitive)
(hz / art*t)
The speed increased.
Hz- artr-d. (Transitive)
(h*z / ar*tr*d )
He increased the speed.
Hz artrl-d. (Passive)
(hz / ar*t*rl*d )
The speed has been increased.
O/n/a hz--/n/ artrt-t. (Causative)
(o*na / h*z*n / ar*trt*t )
He made him increase his speed.
Hz- artrt-t. (Causative)
(h*z / ar*trt*t )
He had the speed increased.
286
bala:
Oyun bala-d. (Intransitive)
(o*yun / ba*la*d )
The game (has) started.
Hakem oyun-u balat-t. (Transitive)
(ha*kem / o*yu*nu / ba*lat*t )
The referee started the game.
Hakem oyun-u Ahmete balat-t. (Causative)
(ha*kem / o*yu*nu / ah*me*te / ba*lat*t )
The referee made Ahmet start the game.
Oyun Ahmete balatl-d. (Passive causative)
(o*yun / ah*me*te / ba*la*tl*d )
Ahmet was made to start the game.
Oyun balatl-d. (Passive)
(o*yun / ba*la*tl*d )
The game was started (By someone)
Oyun-a balan-d. (Passive shaped intransitive verb)
(o*yu*na / ba*lan*d )
The game was started.
bat:
kinci Dnya Sava-/n/da birok gemi bat-t. (Intransitive)
(i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / bir*ok / ge*mi / bat*t )
A lot of ships sank during The Second World War.
kinci Dnya Sava-/n/-da ok gemi batr-d-lar. (Transitive)
(i*kin*ci / dn*ya: / sa*va*n*da / ok / ge*mi / ba*tr*d*lar )
They sank a lot of ships during The Second World War.
287
bul:
Yzk--/n/ bul-du. (Transitive)
(y*z**n / bul*du )
She has found her ring.
Yzk--/n/ koca-/s/-/n/a buldur-du. (Causative) .
(y*z**n / ko*ca*s*na / bul*dur*du )
She got her husband to find her ring.
Yzk koca-/s/-/n/a buldur-ul-du. (Passive causative)
(y*zk / ko*ca*s*na / bul*du*rul*du )
Her husband was made to find the ring.
Yzk--/n/ buldur-du. (Causative)
(y*z**n / bul*dur*du )
She had her ring found.
Yzk- bulun-du. (Passive)
(y*z* / bu*lun*du )
Her ring has been found.
al:
Birisi o-/n/un anta-/s/-/n/ al-d. (Transitive)
(bi*ri*si / o*nun / an*ta*s*n / al*d )
Somebody stole her handbag.
288
arp:
Top pencere-/y/e arp-t.
(top / pen*ce*re*ye / arp*t ), or (top / pen*ce*re*ye / carp*t )
The ball hit the window.
(Turkish is intransitive; English is transitive)
Klp-im sen-in iin arp-yor. (Intransitive)
(kl*bim / se*nin / i*in / ar*p*yor )
My heart is beating for you.
Araba-/s/-/n/ elektrik direk-i-/n/e arp-t. (Intransitive)
(a*ra*ba*s*n / e*lek*trik / di*re*i*ne / arp*t )
She hit her car to a lamppost.
Kap-/y/ arp-t. (Transitive)
(ka*p*y / arp*t )
He slammed the door.
Kap arpl-d. (Passive)
(ka*p / ar*pl*d )
The door was slammed.
289
al:
Almanyada al-yor. (Intransitive)
(al*man*ya*da / a*l**yor )
He is working in Germany.
Motor-u altr-ama-d. (Transitive)
(mo*to*ru / a*l*t*ra*ma*d )
He couldnt start the engine.
Kar-/s/-/n/ al-tr-ma-yor. (Causative)
(ka*r*s*n / a*l*tr*m*yor )
He doesnt let his wife work.
Eskiden otomobil motorlar- el-le altrl-r-d. (Passive)
(es*ki*den / o*to*mo*bil / mo*tor*la*r / el*le / a*l*t*r*lr*d )
In the past car engines used to be manually started.
Bu fabrika-da kask-sz all-maz.
(bu / fab*ri*ka*da / kask*sz / a*l*l*maz )
It is forbidden (dangerous) to work without helmets in this factory.
(Passive shaped intransitive verb)
atla:
Bardak atla-d. (Intransitive)
(bar*dak / at*la*d )
The glass (has) cracked.
Kaynar su bardak- atlat-t. (Transitive)
(kay*nar / su / bar*da* / at*lat*t )
The boiling water cracked the glass.
Bardak- sen atlat-t-n. (Causative)
(bar*da* / sen / at*lat*tn )
You made the glass crack. (You cracked the glass.)
290
ek:
Bu baca iyi ek-er. (Intransitive)
(bu / ba*ca / i*yi / e*ker )
This chimney draws well.
Anne-/s/i-/n/e ek-mi. (Intransitive)
(an*ne*si*ne / ek*mi )
She seems to have taken after her mother.
Araba-/y/ iki at ek-iyor-du. (Transitive)
(a*ra*ba*y / i*ki / at / e*ki*yor*du )
Two horses were pulling the cart.
Kl--/n/ ek-ti. (Transitive)
(k*l*c*n / ek*ti )
He drew his sword.
Ac ek-iyor. (Transitive)
(a*c / e*ki*yor )
He is suffering.
Eskiden insan-lar kuyu-lar-dan su cek-er-di. (Transitive)
(es*ki*den / in*san*lar ~ / ku*yu*lar*dan / su / e*ker*di )
People used to draw water from wells in the past.
Teklif dikkat-im-i ek-ti. (Transitive)
(tek*lif / dik*ka*ti*mi / ek*ti )
The proposal attracted my attention.
Araba-am ekil-di. (Passive)
(a*ra*bam / e*kil*di), or (a*ra*bam / e*kil*di )
My car has been towed away.
Araba-am- ektir-di-im. (Causative)
(a*ra*ba*m / ek*tir*dim )
I had my car towed.
291
k:
Ev-den k-t. (Intransitive)
(ev*den / k*t )
He (has) left home. (Leave is transitive.)
Ceket-i-/n/i kar-d. (Transitive)
(ce*ke*ti*ni / *kar*d )
He took off his coat.
apka-am- kart-t. (Causative)
(ap*ka*m / *kart*t )
He made me take off my hat.
Dar kar-l-d. (Passive)
(d*a*r / *ka*rl*d )
He was taken out.
Boyuna sorun kar-yor. (Transitive)
(bo*yu*na / so*run / *ka*r*yor )
He is always creating problems.
z:
292
daya:
Merdiven-i duvar-a daya-d. (Transitive)
(mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*ya*d )
He leaned the ladder against the wall.
Merdiven-i duvar-a dayat-t. (Causative)
(mer*di*ve*ni / du*va*ra / da*yat*t )
He had the ladder leaned against the wall.
Merdiven duvar-a dayan-d. (Passive)
(mer*di*ven / du*va*ra / da*yan*d )
The ladder has been leaned against the wall.
dayan:
Bu ayakkab-lar daha ok dayan-r. (Intransitive)
(bu / a*yak*ka*b*lar ~ / da*ha / ok / da*ya*nr )
These shoes last longer.
Bu scak-a dayan-ama-yor-um. (Intransitive)
(bu / s*ca*a / da*ya*na*m*yo*rum )
I can't endure (tolerate) this warm weather.
dal:
293
dei:
Sen-i son gr-dk-m-den beri ok dei-ti-in (dei-mi-sin).
(se*ni / son / gr*d*m*den / be*ri / ok / de*i*tin )
You have changed a lot since I last saw you. (Intransitive)
Ev-e gel-ince giysi-ler-i-/n/i deitir-di. (Transitive)
(e*ve / ge*lin*ce~ / giy*si*le*ri*ni / de*i*tir*di )
He changed his clothes when he came home.
Eski lastik-ler-im-i deitirt-iyor-um. (Causative)
(es*ki / las*tik*le*ri*mi / de*i*tir*ti*yo*rum )
I am having my old tires changed.
Kirli masa rt-/s/ deitiril-di. (Passive)
(kir*li / ma*sa / r*t*s / de*i*ti*ril*di )
The dirty tablecloth has been changed.
Futbol kural-lar- degitiril-ecek. (Passive)
(fut*bol / ku*ral*la*r / de*i*ti*ri*le*cek )
The football rules are going to be changed.
dinle:
Syle-dik-im-i dinle. (Transitive)
(sy*le*di*i*mi / din*le )
Listen to what I say. (Intransitive)
Bana ark-/s/-/n/ dinlet-ti. (Causative)
(ba*na / ar*k*s*n / din*let*ti )
She got me to listen to her song.
do:
294
dol:
Okul hemen ocuk-lar-la dol-du. (Intransitive)
(o*kul / he*men / o*cuk*lar*la / dol*du )
The school soon filled with children.
Sepet-i-/n/i elma/y/-la doldur-du. (Transitive)
(se*pe*ti*ni / el*may*la / dol*dur*du )
She filled her basket with apples.
Sepet-i-/n/i bana elma/y/-la doldurt-tu. (Causative)
(se*pe*ti*ni / ba*na / el*may*la / dol*durt*tu )
She made me fill her basket with apples.
(onun) sepet-i elma/y/-la doldurul-du. (Passive)
(o*nun / se*pe*ti / el*may*la / dol*du*rul*du )
Her basked was filled with apples.
Sepet ban-a doldurtul-du. (Passive causative)
(se*pet / ba*na / dol*dur*tul*du )
I was made to fill the basket.
dn:
Tekerlek-ler yava yava dn-yor. (Intransitive)
(te*ker*lek*ler / ya*va / ya*va / d*n*yor )
The wheels are turning slowly.
295
d:
Kalem-im yer-e d-t. (Intransitive)
(ka*le*mim / ye*re / d*t )
My pen fell on the floor.
Kalem-im-i dr-d-m. (Transitive)
(ka*le*mi*mi / d*r*dm )
I dropped my pencil.
Ben-i dr-d. (Causative)
(be*ni / d*r*d )
He made me fall down.
Ar bavul-u-/n/u dr-d. (Transitive)
(a*r / ba*vu*lu*nu / d*r*d )
He let his heavy bag fall.
Drl-d-m. (Passive causative)
(d**rl*dm )
I was made to fall down.
296
gr:
Yanllk- gr-me-di-im. (Transitive)
(yan*l*l* / gr*me*dim )
I didnt (notice) see the mistake.
Yorgun grn-yor-sun. (Reflexive)
(yor*gun / g*r*n*yor*sun )
You look tired. (Tired is a subject complement.)
Bu teklif ilgin grn-yor. (Reflexive)
( bu / tek*lif / il*gin / g*r*n*yor )
This proposal sounds interesting. (Interesting is a subj complement.)
mkn-sz grn-yor. (Reflexive)
(im*kn*sz / g*r*n*yor )
It seems (sounds) impossible. (mpossible is a subject complement.)
gl:
Bebek gl-yor. (Intransitive)
(be*bek / g*l*yor )
The baby is laughing.
297
hatrla:
O/n/un isim-i-/n/i hatrla-yor-um. (Transitive)
(o*nun / is*mi*ni / ha*tr*l*yo*rum )
I remember her name.
Kar-m klar- kapat-ma-am- hatrlat-t. (Transitive)
(ka*rm / *k*la*r / ka*pat*ma*m / ha*tr*lat*t )
My wife reminded me to turn the lights off.
Bu eski fotograf bana bykanne-em-i hatrlat-yor. (Transitive)
(bu / es*ki / fo*tog*ra *lar / ba*na / b*y*kan*ne*mi / ha*tr*la*t*yor )
This old photograph reminds me of my grandmother.
Bu zafer uzun sre hatrlan-acak. (Passive)
(bu / za*fer / u*zun / s*re / ha*tr*la*na*cak )
This victory will be remembered for a long time.
hazrla:
Anne-em le yemek-i-/n/i hazrla-d. (Transitive)
(an*nem / *le / ye*me*i*ni / ha*zr*la*d )
Mother has prepared the lunch.
Anne-em yemek-i bana hazrlat-t. (Causative)
(an*nem / ye*me*i / ba*na / ha*zr*lat*t )
Mother made me prepare the lunch.
298
i:
Anne-em her sabah bir bardak ay i-er. (Transitive)
(an*nem / her / sa*bah / bir / bar*dak / ay / i*er )
Mother drinks a cup of tea every morning.
Anne-em bana her sabah iki bardak st iir-ir. (Causative)
(an*nem / ba*na / her / sa*bah / i*ki / bar*dak / st / i*i*rir )
Mother makes me drink two cups of milk every morning.
Bu su iil-ir. (Passive)
(bu / su / i*i*lir )
This water is drinkable. (Drinkable is a subject complement.)
iit:
yi iit-ebil-iyor mu-sun? (Intransitive)
(i*yi / i*i*te*bi*li*yor / mu*sun )
Can you hear well?
O/n/un Londrada ol-duk-u-/n/u iit-ti-im. (Transitive)
(o*nun / Lon*dra*da / ol*du*u*nu / i*it*tim )
I heard that he is (was) in London.
O-/n/un yalan syle-dik-i hi iitil-me-di. (Passive)
(o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*di*i / hi / i*i*til*me*di )
He has never been heard to tell a lie.
sr:
Havla-/y/an kpek sr-maz. (Intransitive)
(hav*la*yan / k*pek / *sr*maz )
A bark-ing dog never bites. (a proverb)
299
ka:
ki hkml hapis-ten ka-t. (Intransitive)
(i*ki / h*km*l / ha*pis*ten / ka*t )
Two prisoners (have) escaped from prison.
ki kii be ya-n-da bir ocuk-u kar-d. (Transitive.)
(i*ki / ki*i / be / ya*n*da / bir / o*cu*u / ka*r*d )
Two men kidnapped a five year old child.
Herkes gen kadn-n karl-dk--/n/ dn-yor. (Passive)
(her*kes / gen / ka*d*nn / ka**rl*d**n / d**n*yor )
Everybody thinks that the young woman has been abducted.
ocuk-lar- bahe-den kart-t. (Causative)
(o*cuk*la*r / bah*e*den / ka*rt*t )
He frightened the children away from the garden.
Grev-in-i yap-mak-tan kan-ma-mal-sn.(Reflexive)
(g*re*vi*ni / yap*mak*tan / ka*n*ma*ma*l*sn )
You shouldnt avoid do-ing your duty.
Herkes deiik ynler-e ka-t. (Reciprocal)
(her*kes / de*i*ik / yn*le*re / ka**t )
Everybody ran to different directions.
Akl-/n/ kar-d. (Idiomatic) (Transitive)
(ak*l*n / ka*r*d )
He went mad. (Mad is a subject complement.)
300
kandr:
Adam ben-i kandr-d. (Transitive)
(a*dam / be*ni / kan*dr*d )
The man cheated me.
Kandrl-d-m. (Passive)
(kan*d*rl*dm )
I was cheated.
Ben-i kandr-ma-/y/a al-ma! (Transitive)
(be*ni / kan*dr*ma*ya / a*l*ma )
Don't try to deceive me!
kap:
Kk bir ocuk anta-am- kap-t. (Transitive)
(k*k / bir / o*cuk / an*ta*m / kap*t )
A little boy snatched my handbag.
301
kapat:
Kap-/y/ kapat-t-m. (Transitive)
(ka*p*y / ka*pat*tm )
I have closed the door.
Kap-/y/ bana kapattr-d. (Causative)
(ka*p*y / ba*na / ka*pat*tr*d )
She made me close the door.
Bahe kap-/s/ hizmeti tarafndan kapatl-d. (Passive)
(bah*e / ka*p*s / hiz*met*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ka*pa*tl*d )
The garden gate was closed by the servant.
Dkkn-lar saat yedi-de kapan-r. (Reflexive) (They close themselves.)
(dk*kn*lar / sa*at / ye*di*de / ka*pa*nr )
Shops close at seven p.m.
Gen kadn kapan-d. (Reflexive)
(gen / ka*dn / ka*pan*d )
The young woman veiled herself.
Hava kapan-d. (Reflexive)
(ha*va / ka*pan*d )
It has got cloudy. (Cloudy is a subject complement.)
karla:
Araba-/s/-/n/ ben-im-ki/y/-le karlatr-d. (Transitive)
(a*ra*ba*s*n / be*nim*kiy*le / kar**la*tr*d )
He compared his car with mine.
302
ka:
Ba--/n/ ka-d. (Transitive)
(ba**n / ka**d )
He scratched his head.
Srt--/n/ kar-/s/-/n/a kat-t. (Causative)
(sr*t*n / ka*r*s*na / ka*t*t )
He got his wife to scratch his back.
Srt-m kan-yor. (Intransitive)
(sr*tm / ka**n*yor )
My back is itching.
Kpek kan-yor. (Reflexive) (It is scratching itself.)
(k*pek / ka**n*yor )
The dog is scratching.
kr:
Vazo-/y/u sen kr-d-n, deil mi? (Transitive)
(va*zo*yu / sen / kr*dn / de*il / mi )
You broke the vase, didnt you?
Vazo dn krl-d. (Passive)
(va*zo / dn / k*rl*d )
The vase was broken yesterday.
Sen ben-i kr-d-n. You refused me. (Transitive)
(sen / be*ni / kr*dn )
You hurt my feelings. .
303
kz:
O bana kz-d. (Intransitive)
(o / ba*na / kz*d )
He got angry with me. (Angry is a subject complement.)
O ben-i kzdr-d. (Transitive)
(o / be*ni / kz*dr*d )
He made me angry. (Angry is an object complement.)
(O) kzdrl-d. (Passive)
(kz*d*rl*d )
He was irritated.
Bu-/n/a kzl-maz. (Passive shaped intransitive)
(bu*na / k*zl*maz )
This is not a matter to get angry.
kzar:
Balk-lar kzar-yor. (Intransitive)
(ba*lk*lar / k*za*r*yor )
The fish are frying.
Balk kzart-yor. (Transitive)
(ba*lk / k*zar*t*yor )
She is frying fish.
Tm balk-lar- bana kzart-t. (Causative)
(tm / ba*lk*la*r / ba*na / k*zart*t )
She made me fry all the fish.
304
kok:
Bu balk bayat kok-uyor. (Kok is an action verb.) (Intransitive)
(bu / ba*lk / ba*yat / ko*ku*yor )
This fish smells stale. (Stale is a subject complement)
Bu ekmek dilim-i sarmsak kok-uyor. (Intransitive)
(bu / ek*mek / di*li*mi / sa*rm*sak / ko*ku*yor )
This slice of bread smells of garlic.
Her sabah gller-i-/n/i kokla-ar. (Transitive)
(her / sa*bah / gl*le*ri*ni / kok*lar )
She smells her roses every morning.
Bana yeni parfm--/n/ koklat-t. (Causative)
(ba*na / ye*ni / par*f*m*n / kok*lat*t )
She made me smell her new perfume.
Kokla-yor-lar. (Reciprocal)
(kok*la**yor*lar )
They are smelling each other. (Transitive)
Bu balk kokmu. (Subject complement)
(bu / ba*lk / kok*mu ~)
This fish is rotten. (Subject complement)
konu:
O-/n/un-la yarn konu-acak-m. (Intransitive)
(o*nun*la / ya*rn / ko*nu*a*ca*m )
I will talk (speak) to him tomorrow.
Polis onu konutur-abil-ir. (Causative)
(po*lis / o*nu / ko*nu*tu*ra*bi*lir )
The police can make him talk.
305
kop:
p kop-tu. (Intransitive)
(ip / kop*tu )
The rope broke.
Aa-n bir dal--/n/ kopar-d. (Transitive)
(a*a*cn / bir / da*l*n / ko*par*d )
He broke a branch off the tree.
Aa-n dal-lar-/n/-dan bir-i-/n/i bana kopart-t. (Causative)
(a*a*cn / dal*la*rn*dan / bi*ri*ni / ba*na / ko*part*t )
He made me break off one of the branches of the tree.
ko:
Baz ocuk-lar okul-a ko-uyor. (Intransitive)
(ba:*z / o*cuk*lar / o*ku*la / ko*u*yor )
Some children are running to school.
At--/n/ drtnal kotur-du. (Causative)
(a*t*n / drt*nal / ko*tur*du )
He made his horse run at a gallop.
At- drtnal koturul-du. (Passive causative)
(a*t / drt*nal / ko*tu*rul*du )
His horse was made to run at a gallop.
ocuk-lar bahe-de kou-uyor-lar. (Reciprocal)
(o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*u*u*yor*lar )
The children are running about in the garden.
306
kuru:
iek-ler-im-den baz-lar- kuru-du. (Intransitive)
(i*ek*le*rim*den / ba:*z*la*r / ku*ru*du )
Some of my flowers dried.
Yaz-n baz nehirler kuru-ur. (Intransitive)
(ya*zn / ba:*z / ne*hir*ler / ku*rur )
Some rivers dry up in summer.
Kzgn gne iek-ler-im-i kurut-tu. (Transitive)
(kz*gn / g*ne / i*ek*le*ri*mi / ku*rut*tu )
The hot sun dried my flowers.
Sa--/n/ bana kurut-tu. (Causative)
(sa**n / ba*na / ku*rut*tu )
She got me to dry her hair.
Islak ceket-in kurutul-du. (Passive)
(s*lak / ce*ke*tin / ku*ru*tul*du )
Your wet coat has been dried.
oku:
Osmann baba-/s/ gazete-/s/i-/n/i oku-uyor. (Transitive)
(os*ma*nn / ba*ba*s / ga*ze*te*si*ni / o*ku*yor )
Osmans father is reading his newspaper.
Mektup-u bana okut-tu. (Causative)
(mek*tu*bu / ba*na / o*kut*tu )
He made (had) me read the letter.
Btn hikye bana okutul-du. (Passive causative)
(b*tn / hi*k:*ye / ba*na / o*ku*tul*du )
I was made to read all the story.
307
onar:
Musluk-u sz-an bir boru-/y/u onar-yor. (Transitive)
(mus*luk*u / s*zan / bir / bo*ru*yu / o*na*r*yor )
The plumber is repairing (fixing) a leak-ing pipe.
Bu sz-an boru-/y/u onart-mal-sn. (Causative)
(bu / s*zan / bo*ru*yu / o*nart*ma*l*sn )
You must have this leak-ing pipe repaired.
Araba-am henz onarl-ma-d. (Passive)
(a*ra*bam / he*nz / o*na*rl*ma*d )
My car hasnt been repaired yet.
Anne-em krk vazo-/y/u bana onart-t. (Causative)
(an*nem / k*rk / va*zo*yu / ba*na / o*nart*t )
Mother made me fix the broken vase.
otur:
Onlar bir bank-ta otur-uyor-lar. (Intransitive)
(on*lar / bir / bank*ta / o*tu*ru*yor*lar )
They are sitting on a bench.
Kk ocuk-u masa-/y/a oturt-tu. (Causative)
(k*k / o*cu*u / ma*sa*ya / o*turt*tu )
He made (helped) the little boy sit on the table.
Ke-/y/e oturtul-du. (Passive causative)
(o~/ k*e*ye / o*tur*tul*du )
He was made to sit in the corner.
Hl oturu-uyor-sunuz. (Reciprocal) (Complaint)
(h:*l: / o*tu*ru*u*yor*su*nuz )
You are still sitting and doing nothing.
Kadkyde otur-uyor. (Intransitive)
(ka*d*ky*de / o*tu*ru*yor )
He lives in Kadky.
308
oyna:
ocuk-lar bahe-de basketbol oyna-uyor-lar. (Transitive)
(o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / bas*ket*bol / oy*nu*yor*lar )
The children are playing basketball in the garden.
Ko o-/n/u ma-ta oynat-ma-d. (Causative)
(ko / o*nu / ma*ta / oy*nat*ma*d )
The coach didnt let him play in the match.
Ma-ta oynatl-ma-d. (Passive causative)
(ma*ta / oy*na*tl*ma*d)
He wasnt allowed to play in the match.
Onlar oyna-yor-lar. (Reciprocal)
(on*lar / oy*na**yor*lar )
They are carrying on a love affair.
Sahne-de oyna-uyor. (Intransitive)
(sah*ne*de / oy*nu*yor )
She is belly dancing on the stage.
renci-ler bir piyes oyna-ma-/y/a karar ver-di-ler. (Transitive)
(*ren*ci*ler / bir / pi*yes / oy*na*ma*ya / ka*rar / ver*di*ler )
The students decided to perform a play.
Bu saha-da futbol oynan-maz. (Passive)
(bu / sa:*ha*da / fut*bol / oy*nan*maz )
Football cant be played on this field.
l:
O, 1920de l-d. (Intransitive)
(o~/ bin / do*kuz / yz / yir*mi*de / l*d )
He died in 1920.
Onu yanl-lk-la ldr-d. (Transitive)
(o*nu / yan*l*lk*la / l*dr*d )
He killed him by mistake.
309
rt:
Koltuklar- toz-dan koru-mak iin rt-t. (Transitive)
(kol*tuk*la*r / toz*dan / ko*ru*mak / i*in / rt*t )
She covered the armchairs to protect them from dust.
Mobilya-/y/ bana rttr-d. (Causative)
(mo*bil*ya*y / ba*na / rt*tr*d )
She made me cover the furniture.
Duvar-lar boyan-ma-dan nce btn mobilya rtl-m-t. (Passive)
(du*var*lar / bo*yan*ma*dan / n*ce / b*tn / mo*bil*ya / r*tl*m*t )
All the furniture had been covered before the walls were painted.
Ben-i gr-nce rtn-d. (Reflexive)
(be*ni / g*rn*ce / r*tn*d )
She put on her scarf when she saw me.
She covered her head with a scarf when she saw me.
t:
Ku-lar t-er. (Liaison) (Intransitive)
(ku*la*r*ter ) (ku*lar / *ter )
Birds sing.
Hakem ddk--/n/ ttr-d (al*d). (Transitive)
(ha*kem / d*d**n / al*d )
The referee blew his whistle.
O gzel ark syle-er. (Transitive)
( o / g*zel / ar*k / sy*ler )
She sings beautifully. (Intransitive)
310
v:
O ben-i v-d. (Transitive)
(o / be*ni / v*d )
He praised me.
O, kz karde-i-/n/i bana vdrt-t. (Causative)
(o~/ kz*kar*de*i*ni / ba*na / v*drt*t )
He made me praise his sister.
O, karde-i tarafndan ok vl-r. (Passive).
(o~ / kz*kar*de*i / ta*ra*fn*dan / ok / *v*lr )
He is praised a lot by his sister.
Boyuna vn-yor. (Reflexive) (He is praising himself.)
(o / bo*yu*na / *v*n*yor )
He is always boasting. (Intransitive)
patla:
Bir su boru-/s/u patla-d ve ev su/y/-la dol-du. (Intransitive)
(bir / su / bo*ru*su / pat*la*d~/ ve / ev / suy*la / dol*du )
A water pipe burst, and the house filled with water.
311
pi:
Yemek pi-iyor. (Intransitive)
(ye*mek / pi*i*yor )
The meal is cooking.
Anne-em mutfak-ta yemek piir-iyor. (Transitive);
(an*nem / mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*ri*yor )
Mother is cooking in the kitchen. (Intransitive)
Anne-em mutfak-ta bana yemek piirt-ti. (Causative)
(an*nem / mut*fak*ta / ba*na / ye*mek / pi*irt*ti )
Mother made me cook in the kitchen.
Yemek piiril-iyor. (Passive)
(ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor) (ye*mek / pi*i*ri*li*yor )
The meal is being cooked.
sakla:
312
sark:
Duvar-dan sark-t. (Intransitive)
(du*var*dan / sark*t)
He hung down the wall.
Sepet-i pencere-den sarkt-t.
(se*pe*ti / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*t )
He let the basket hang down the window.
(Turkish is transitive; English is causative.)
Sepet-i bana pencere-den sarkttr-d. (Causative)
(se*pe*ti / ba*na / pen*ce*re*den / sar*kt*tr*d )
He made me hang down the basket from the window.
Sepet pencere-den sarktl-d. (Passive)
(se*pet / pen*ce*re*den / sar*k*tl*d )
The basket was allowed to hang down the window.
sars:
Patla-ma yer-i sars-t. (Transitive)
(pat*la*ma / ye*ri / sars*t )
The explosion shook the ground.
313
sat:
Eski araba-/s/-/n/ sat-t. (Transitive)
(es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / sat*t )
He has sold his old car.
Eski araba-/s/-/n/ bana sattr-d. (Causative)
(es*ki / a*ra*ba*s*n / ba*na / sat*tr*d )
He made me sell his old car.
Eski araba-am satl-d. (Passive)
(es*ki / a*ra*bam / sa*tl*d )
My old car has been sold.
sev:
Sen ben-i sev-me-iyor-sun. (Transitive)
(sen / be*ni / sev*mi*yor*sun )
You dont love me.
O bana kendi-/s/i-/n/i sevdir-di. (Causative)
(o / ba*na / ken*di*si*ni / sev*dir*di )
She made me love her.
O herkes tarafndan sevil-ir. (Passive)
(o / her*kes / ta*ra*fn*dan / se*vi*lir )
She is loved by everybody.
Hep-imiz sevin-di-ik. Hepimiz mutlu ol-du-uk.
(he*pi*miz / se*vin*dik )
We all became happy. (Mutlu and happy are subject complements.)
Onlar sevi-iyor-lar. (Reciprocal)
(on*lar / se*vi*i*yor*lar )
They are in love with each other. (They are carrying on a love affair.)
seyret:
314
sinirlen:
Onun ne syle-dik-i-/n/i iit-ince sinirlen-di-im. (Intransitive)
(o*nun / ne / sy*le*di*i*ni / i*i*tin*ce / si*nir*len*dim )
I became angry when I heard what he said.
Kz karde-im ben-i sinirlendir-di. (Transitive)
(kz*kar*de*im / be*ni / si*nir*len*dir*di )
My sister made me mad.(Angry).
Sinirlendiril-di-im. (Passive)
(si*nir*len*di*ril*dim )
I was irritated.
sou:
Hava sou-du. (Sou is an intransitive verb.)
(ha*va / so*u*du )
It became (turned) cold. (Cold is a subject complement.)
-me-den nce limonata-an- sout. (Transitive)
(i*me*den / n*ce / li*mo*na*ta*n / so*ut )
Cool your lemonade before you drink it.
315
soy:
Patates soy-uyor. (Transitive)
(pa*ta*tes / so*yu*yor )
She is peeling potatoes.
Elma-lar soyul-uyor. (Passive)
(el*ma*lar / so*yu*lu*yor )
The apples are being peeled.
Patates-ler-i hep bana soydur-uyor. (Causative) (Complaint)
(pa*ta*tes*le*ri / hep / ba*na / soy*du*ru*yor )
She is always making me peel the potatoes.
Banyo yaptr-mak iin bebek-i-/n/i soy-du. (Transitive)
(ban*yo / yap*tr*mak / i*in / be*be*i*ni / soy*du )
She undressed her baby to bath.
Dn gece bir banka soy-du-lar. (Transitive)
(dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / soy*du*lar )
They robbed a bank last night.
Dn gece bir banka soyul-du. (Passive)
(dn / ge*ce / bir / ban*ka / so*yul*du )
A bank was robbed last night.
Soyun-uyor. (She is undressing herself) (Reflexive)
(so*yu*nu*yor )
She is undressing. (Intransitive)
syle:
Bana bir ey syle-me-di. (Transitive)
(ba*na / bir / ey / sy*le*me*di)
He didnt tell me anything.
Ne iste-dik-in-i bana syle. (Transitive)
(ne / is*te*di*i*ni / ba*na / sy*le )
Tell me what you want.
316
sus:
Sus-tu. (Intransitive)
(sus*tu )
He stopped talk-ing or cry-ing. (Transitive)
retmen renci-ler-i sustur-du. (Causative)
(*ret*men / *ren*ci*le*ri / sus*tur*du )
The teacher made the students stop talking.
O susturul-du. (Passive causative)
(o / sus*tu*rul*du )
He was made to stop talk-ing or cry-ing.
317
spr:
Kuru yaprak-lar- bahe-den spr-d-m. (Transitive)
(ku*ru / yap*rak*la*r / bah*e*den / s*pr*dm )
I have swept the dry leaves out of the garden.
Anne-em bahe-/y/i bana sprt-t. (Causative)
(an*nem / bah*e*yi / ba*na / s*prt*t )
Mother made me sweep the garden.
Oturma oda-/s/ henz sprl-me-di. (Passive)
(o*tur*ma / o*da*s / he*nz / s*p*rl*me*di )
The living room hasnt been swept yet.
sr:
O araba-/s/-/n/ dikkat-li sr-er. (Transitive)
(o~ / a*ra*ba*s*n / dik*kat*li / s*rer )
She drives her car carefully.
(Ben) tarla-am- sonbahar-da srdr-r-m. (Causative)
(Tar*la*m / son*ba*har*da / sr*d*r*rm )
I have my field ploughed in the autumn.
Tarlalar k-n srl-mez. (Passive)
(tar*la*lar / k*n / s*rl*mez )
Fields arent ploughed in winter.
ssle:
ocuklar Christmas iin oturma oda-/s/-/n/ ssle-di. (Transitive)
(o*cuk*lar / kris*mas / i*in / o*tur*ma / o*da*s*n / ss*le*di )
The children decorated the sitting room for Christmas.
318
a:
O-/n/un syle-dik-i sz-e sa-t-m.
(o*nun / sy*le*di*i / s*ze / a*tm )
I was astonished by what he said.
(Turkish is intransitive; English is passive.)
art:
Syle-dik-i sz ben-i art-t. (Transitive)
(sy*le*di*i / sz / be*ni / a*rt*t )
What he said surprised me.
Snav-da sorul-an soru-lar ben-i art-t. (Transitive.)
(s*nav*da / so*ru*lan / so*ru*lar / be*ni / a*rt*t )
The questions asked in the exam confused me.
artl-d-m. (Passive)
(a*r*tl*dm )
I was confused.
tara:
Sa--/n/ tara-yor. (transitive)
(sa**n / ta*r*yor)
She is combing her hair.
Sa--/n/ anne-/s/i-/n/e tarat-t. (Causative)
(sa**n / an*ne*si*ne / ta*rat*t )
She got her mother to comb her hair.
319
tart:
Yal adam uyan-r uyan-maz altnlar--/n/ tart-t. (Transitive)
(ya*l / a*dam / u*ya*nr / u*yan*maz ~/ al*tn*la*r*n / tart*t )
The old man weighed his gold coins as soon as he woke up.
unlar- tarttr. (Causative)
(un*la*r / tart*tr )
Have these things weighed.
Tart-yor-lar. (Reciprocal)
(tar*t**yor*lar )
They are discussing. They are having a row.
ta:
Nehir ta-t. (Intransitive)
(ne*hir / ta*t )
The river overflowed.
St ta-t. (Intransitive)
(st / ta*t )
The milk boiled over.
St- tar-ma. (Causative)
(s*t / ta*r*ma )
Dont let the milk boil over.
ta:
Baz bcek-ler hastalk ta-r. (transitive)
(ba*z / b*cek*ler / has*ta*lk / ta*r )
Some insects carry disease.
320
temizle:
Anne-em buzdolab-/n/ temizle-iyor. (Transitive)
(an*nem / buz*do*la*b*n / te*miz*li*yor )
Mother is cleaning the refrigerator.
Anne-em ev-i temizlet-ecek. (Causative)
(an*nem / e*vi / te*miz*le*te*cek)
Mother is going to have the house cleaned.
Snf temizlen-iyor. (Passive)
(s*nf / te*miz*le*ni*yor )
The classroom is being cleaned.
tercih et:
Kz-m, televizyon seyret-me-/y/i dev yap-ma-/y/a tercih et-er.
(k*zm~ / te*le*viz*yon / sey*ret*me*yi ~ / *dev / yap*ma*ya /
ter*ci:*he*der ) (Liaison)
My daughter prefers watching TV to doing her homework.
Genellik-le kalabalk ehirler-de kk araba-lar tercih etil-ir. (Passive)
(ge*nel*lik*le~ / ka*la*ba*lk / e*hir*ler*de~ / k*k / a*ra*ba*lar /
ter*ci:*he*di*lir ) (Liaison)
Compact cars are generally preferred in crowded cities.
unut:
Iklar- sndr-me-/y/i unut-ma. (The underlined words are infinitives.)
(*k*la*r / sn*dr*me*yi / u*nut*ma )
Dont forget to turn off the lights. (Transitive)
321
uy:
Bu ceket bana uy-ma-uyor. (Intransitive)
(bu / ce*ket / ba*na / uy*mu*yor )
This coat doesnt fit (become) me. (Transitive)
Gmlek-in sana iyi uy-uyor (yakyor). (Intransitive)
(gm*le*in / sa*na / i*yi / u*yu*yor )
Your shirt fits (becomes) you well. (Transitive)
uyu:
Ml ml uyu-uyor. (Intransitive)
(m*l / m*l / u*yu*yor )
She is sleeping soundly.
Bir saat-tir uyu-uyor. (Intransitive)
(bir / sa*at*tir / u*yu*yor )
He has been sleeping for an hour.
Bebek-i yarm saat nce uyut-tu-um. (Causative)
(be*be*i / ya*rm / sa*at / n*ce / u*yut*tum )
I had the baby sleep half an hour ago.
322
tle:
Pantalon-um-u tle-di-in mi? (Transitive)
(pan*to*lo*nu*mu / *t*le*din / mi)
Have you ironed my trousers?
Sabah-tan beri t yap-iyor.
(sa*bah*tan / be*ri / *t / ya*p*yor )
She has been ironing since morning.
(Turkish is transitive, English is intransitive.)
Giysiler-i-/n/i hep kz karde-i-/n/e tlet-iyor. (Causative)
(giy*si*le*ri*ni / hep / kz*kar*de*i*ne / *t*le*ti*yor )
He is always making his sister iron his clothes.
Gmlekler-in tlen-iyor. (Passive)
(gm*lek*le*rin / *t*le*ni*yor )
Your shirts are being ironed.
z:
it-tik-im sz-ler ben-i z-d. (z is an action verb.)
(i*it*ti*im / sz*ler / be*ni / z*d )
What I heard made me sorry.
323
yakala:
Kaleci top-u yakala-d. (Transitive)
(ka*le*ci / to*pu / ya*ka*la*d )
The goal-keeper caught the ball.
Son-u/n/-da tavan yakalan-d. (Passive)
(so*nun*da / tav*an / ya*ka*lan*d )
The rabbit was caught at last.
retmen ben-i kopya ek-er-ken yakala-d. (Transitive)
(*ret*men / be*ni / kop*ya / e*ker*ken / ya*ka*la*d )
The teacher caught me cheating.
Halk hrsz- polis-e yakalat-t. (Causative)
(halk~/ hr*s*z / po*li*se / ya*ka*lat*t )
The people had (helped) the police catch the thief.
yan:
Kuru odun kolay yan-ar. (Intransitive)
(ku*ru / o*dun / ko*lay / ya*nar )
Dry wood burns easily.
Mutfak-ta yemek piir-irken parmak-lar--/n/ yak-t. (Transitive)
(mut*fak*ta / ye*mek / pi*i*rir*ken / par*mak*la*r*n / yak*t )
She burnt her fingers while cooking in the kitchen.
Tepe-de bir ate yak-t-lar. (Transitive)
(te*pe*de / bir / a*te / yak*t*lar )
They lit a fire on the hill.
Anne-em mum-lar- bana yaktr-d. (Causative)
(an*nem / mum*la*r / ba*na / yak*tr*d )
Mother had me light the candles.
324
yap:
Zarf-a pul yaptr-ma-/y/ unut-tu-um. (Transitive)
(zar*fa / pul / ya*p*tr*ma*y / u*nut*tum )
I forgot to stick a stamp on the envelope.
Bu pul yap-ma-yor. (Intransitive)
(bu / pul / ya*p*m*yor )
This stamp doesnt stick.
Anne-em bana yatak oda-am-n kap-/s/-/n/a bir uyar yaptrt-t.
(an*nem / ba*na / ya*tak / o*da*mn / ka*p*s*na / bir / u*ya*r / ya*p*trt*t )
Mother made me stick a notice on my bedroom door. (Causative)
Duvarlar-a birey yaptrl-ma-sn. (Passive)
(du*var*la*ra / bir*ey / ya*p*t*rl*ma*sn )
Nothing should be stuck on the walls.
yat:
Saat 11de yat-t-m. (Intransitive)
(sa*at / on*bir*de / yat*tm )
I went to bed at 11 p.m.
Anneler-i onlar- saat 10da yatr-r. (Causative)
(an*ne*le*ri / on*la*r / sa*at / on*da / ya*t*rr )
Their mother makes them go to bed at 10 p.m.
Bebek-i yatak--/n/a yatr-d. (Transitive)
(be*be*i / ya*ta**na / ya*tr*d )
She laid the baby in her bed.
O-/n/u gr-dk-m-de yer-de yat-yor-du. (Intransitive)
(o*nu / gr*d*m*de / yer*de / ya*t*yor*du )
When I saw her, she was lying on the floor.
Yorgun-um. Yat-mal-/y/m. (Intransitive)
(yor*gu*num) (yat*ma*l*ym )
I am tired. I must lie down.
325
ye:
Saat ka-ta akam yemek-i ye-er-siniz? (Transitive)
(sa*at / ka*ta / ak*am / ye*me*i / yer*si*niz )
What time do you eat dinner?
Bebek-i yedir-iyor. (Transitive)
(be*be*i / ye*di*ri*yor )
She is feeding the baby.
Bu hamburger yen-(il)-mez. (Passive) (It cant be eaten.)
(bu / ham*bur*ger / yen*mez )
This hamburger is not edible. (Edible is a subject complement.)
Akam yemek-i yen-iyor. (Passive)
(ak*am / ye*me*i / ye*ni*yor )
Dinner is being eaten.
Anne-em bana iki tabak sebze yedir-di. (Causative)
(an*nem / ba*na / i*ki / ta*bak / seb*ze / ye*dir*di )
Mother made me eat two plates of vegetables.
yka:
Kz karde-im bulak-lar- yka-yor. (Transitive)
(kz*kar*de*im / bu*la*k*la*r / y*k*yor )
My sister is washing the dishes.
326
yor:
Btn gn bahe-de al-mak ben-i yor-du. (Transitive)
(b*tn / gn / bah*e*de / a*l*mak / be*ni / yor*du )
Work-ing in the garden all day long tired me.
Yorul-du-um. (Reflexive) (I feel myself tired)
(yo*rul*dum )
I have got tired. (I feel tired.) (Tired is a subject complement.)
Sen-in sama sapan sorular-n-dan bk-t-m. (Intransitive)
(se*nin / sa*ma / sa*pan / so*ru*la*rn*dan / bk*tm )
I am tired of your nonsense questions.
yksel:
Balon gk-te yksel-iyor. (Intransitive)
(ba*lon / gk*te / yk*se*li*yor )
The balloon is rising in the sky.
iddet-li yamur-dan sonra nehir yksel-di. (Intransitive)
(id*det*li / ya*mur*dan / son*ra / ne*hir / yk*sel*di )
The river rose after the heavy rainfall.
Gne dou-dan do-ar ve bat-dan bat-ar. (Intransitive)
(g*ne / do*u*dan / do*ar / ve / ba*t*dan / ba*tar )
The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west.
327
yr:
O-/n/a rasla-dk-m-da cadde-de yr-yor-du-um. (Intransitive)
(o*na / ras*la*d*m*da / cad*de*de / y*r*yor*dum )
I was walking along the street when I met him.
Otobs-e yeti-mek iin ben-i hz-la yrt-t. (Causative)
(o*to*b*se / ye*ti*mek / i*in / be*ni / hz*la / y*rt*t )
She made me walk fast to catch the bus.
Hz-la yrtl-d-m. (Passive causative)
(hz*la / y*r*tl*dm )
I was made to walk fast.
Bu yol-da yrn-mez. (Passive shaped intransitive)
(bu / yol*da / y*rn*mez )
It is impossible to walk in this street.
yz:
Anne-em deniz-de yz-yor. (Intransitive)
(an*nem / de*niz*de / y*z*yor )
Mother is swimming in the sea.
Onlar gl-de model kayklar yzdr-yor-lar. (Transitive)
(on*lar / gl*de / mo*del / ka*yk*lar / yz*d*r*yor*lar )
They are sailing model boats on the lake.
Kpek-i-/n/i gl-de yzdr-d. (Causative)
(k*pe*i*ni / gl*de / yz*dr*d )
He made (let) his dog swim in the lake.
328
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Turkish Postpositional Adverbial Phrases
In general, we can transform Turkish simple sentences into timeless adverbial phrases to furnish them with the concepts of time, contrast, cause,
purpose, result, manner, degree, and place, etc. However, when we want
to build up a conditional sentence, we attach either [se] or [sa] allomorphs to
the ends of simple sentences to produce the only Turkish conditional
clauses.
English adverbial clauses are structurally simple sentences that are connected to main clauses by subordinating conjunctions, which are characterized by some fundamental adverbial concepts mentioned above. On the
other hand, Turkish simple sentences undergo some transformational
changes before they are used as adverbial phrases. Therefore, we can say
that the English adverbial clauses are structurally adverbial sentences
(clauses) as they have finite verbs at the ends of all adverbial clauses.
TIME
BEFORE (NCE)
This time concept is expressed in main verb- [me-den] or [ma-dan] +
nce in Turkish.
Ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. Sonra okul-a gel-di-im. (im = benim) (m = ben)
I did my homework. Then I came to school.
One can understand from these sentences that the time of the first sentence
is before the time of the second one. To furnish the first English sentence
with a previous time concept, The Past Perfect Tense may be used to convey this time difference and the conjunction before is put in the beginning
of the second sentence without its simple sentence order being changed.
329
before
I came to school.
subordinating conj
simple sentence
adverbial clause
Although the normal order of the English sentence is like the sentence
above, the regular order of the Turkish sentence is Before I came to school,
I had done my homework. If we think about how this sentence is produced,
we can find out that there are two simple sentences underlying it in our
minds:
(Ben) ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. (Ben) okul-a gel-di-im.
In order to add a "before" time concept to the sentence "I came to school",
only the word "before" is put in the beginning of the English sentence. However, in Turkish, to add the same concept "before (nce)" to the Turkish
sentence, the sentence "Ben okul-a geldim + nce" is transformed into
"ben okul-a gel-me-den nce", which is a timeless postpositional phrase.
ben okul-a geldim + nce ben okul-a gel-me-den nce
(Ben) okul-a gel-me-den nce (ben) ev dev-im-i yap-t-m. (m = ben)
subject
infinitive-den
posp
|
|
postpositional adverbial phrs
definite object
predicate
verb
infinitive-den
postp
|
postp adverbial phrase
indefinite obj
predicate
|
verb
|
subj
verb
object
predicate
adverbial clause
In the sentence above, the [me, ma] allomorphs are a cause of confusion in
Turkish. They are considered either as the allomorphs of infinitive allomorphs [me, ma] or the negative making allomorphs [me, ma]. Therefore, Turkish students tend to build up English sentences like *"I had done
my homework before I didn't come to school. This is because the syllable
stress in speech is generally used on the verb root or stem (gel*me*den),
not on the [den, dan] allomorphs, which misleads the learners of English. In
fact, these are the infinitive allomorphs; if they were not, the [den, dan]
allomorphs would not be attached to them.
330
infinitive-[den]
postp
postpositional phrs of time
predicate
|
|
verb subj allomorph
subject
The sentence order above is used when the adverb of time is stressed.
The adverbial clauses in English start with subordinating conjunctions,
and both the main clauses and the subordinate clauses in such complex
sentences have finite verbs, which mean that both clauses are structurally
simple sentences. When a subordinating conjunction such as before, after, since, although, until, when, or while, etc. is placed before one
of these sentences, these subordinating conjunctions transform them into
adverbial clauses, which are furnished by the concepts of these conjunctions. On the contrary, when adverbial phrases are formed in Turkish, the
simple sentences are transformed into postpositional phrases before they
become adverbials.
If we think about how this sentence is produced, we can see that there is a
simple sentence underlying the phrase "ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am" such
as in the following example. (var-ma-am = ben-im var-ma-am)
(Ben) istasyon-a var-d-m + nce "(ben-im) istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan + nce
postp
git-mi-ti
|
verb
This sentence is like the English sentence, The train had left before my
arriving at the station. In this sentence, ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a
noun + infinitive compound. stasyon-a is an adverbial which is composed of a noun-[E]. Ben-im istasyon-a var-ma-am is a nominal phrase.
As all nouns can be followed by [], [E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] morphemes,
this nominal phrase can be followed by a [dan] allomorph. nce is a postposition used after a noun-[DEN] such as: le-den nce, okul-dan nce,
sen-den nce, yemek-ten nce, sen gel-me-den nce. Therefore, benim istasyon-a var-ma-am-dan nce is a noun compound-dan + nce,
which is a postpositional phrase functioning as an adverb of time.
331
332
333
334
|
verb
infinitive- tan
postp
postp adverb phrs of time
verb
adv
infinitive
postp
|
postp adverb phrs of cause adverbial
predicate
to play football
|
verb
335
while
When the verbs end with vowels, however, the allomorphs of [NCE] are
attached to these verbs by the /y/ glides. On the other hand, when the allomorphs of [RKEN] are attached to verbs ending with vowels, the coinciding
vowels i-i, -, -, u-u, e-e, a-a combine:
when
while
Besides the [NCE] morpheme, there are two more adverbial alternatives
that convey the concept of when:
verb- [DK]-[possessive personal morpheme] + zaman, or
verb- [DK]-[possessive personal morpheme]-[de, da]
Okul-a git-ince retmen-in-i grecek-sin. (gi*din*ce)
Okul-a git-tik-in zaman retmen-in-i grecek-sin. (git*ti*in / za*man)
Okul-a git-tik-in-de retmen-in-i grecek-sin. (git*ti*in*de)
336
definite obj
predicate
verb
subj
337
338
adverbial
adverbial
adverbial phrase of time
|
indefinite object
predicate
|
verb
Jack was going to school + duration while Jack was going to school
Jack found a purse of gold coins while he was going to school.
subj
verb
indefinite object
predicate
339
340
341
|
adv phrase of time
|
adverbial
infinitive postp
|
postp phrs of purpose adverbial
predicate
|
verb
As soon as the bell rang, the students went out to play in the garden.
The places of adverbs and nouns are arranged in sentences in accordance
with the importance given to these units. Therefore the following alternatives
of the sentence above may also be produced as follows:
renciler, zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin diar-/y/a ktlar.
renciler, bahede oynamak iin zil alar almaz dar-y/a ktlar.
Zil alar almaz, bahede oynamak iin renciler dar-/y/a ktlar.
*Dar-/y/a ktlar renciler zil alar almaz bahede oynamak iin.
The last sentence above is understandable, but a Turkish teacher may not
accept it as a good sentence.
The main point in changing the places of the adverbial units above is that the
nearer to the verb, the more important these units are. However, in doing
this, the grammatical units should be kept intact. The grammatical units in
the sentences above are as follows:
1. renciler 2. zil alar almaz 3. bahede oynamak iin 4. dar ktlar.
Examples:
Yatak--/n/a yat-ar yat-maz uyku-/y/a dal-d. (I means his)
(ya*ta**na / ya*tar / yat*maz / uy*ku*/ya / dal*d )
He fell asleep as soon as he went to bed.
342
verb
subj
subj
verb
343
|
|
verb subj
verb
adv phrase
adverbial clause
predicate
|
verb
subject
|
verb
As an alternative to the above adverbial phrase verb-[ince-/y/e, nca/y/a, nce-/y/e, unca-/y/a] + kadar form can also be used:
Boya kuru-/y/unca-/y/a kadar duvarlar-a dokun-ma.
(bo*ya / ku*ru*yun*ca*ya / ka*dar / du*var*la*ra / do*kun*ma )
Dont touch the walls until the paint dries.
Sen ev-e dn-ene kadar ders al-acak-m-a sz ver-iyor-um.
(sen / e*ve / d*ne*ne / ka*dar / ders / a*l*a*ca**ma / sz /
ve*ri*yo*rum )
I promise I will study until you come back home.
Hava karar-ana kadar ocuk-lar bahe-de oyna-d-lar.
(ha*va / ka*ra*ra*na / ka*dar / o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / oy*na*d*lar )
The children played in the garden until it got dark.
(Sen) bir iftlik-e gel-ene kadar bu patika-/y/ izle.
(bir / ift*li*e / ge*le*ne / ka*dar / bu / pa*ti*ka*y / iz*le )
Follow this path until you come to a farm.
344
345
i-im-i
bitir-mi ol-acak-m.
I
subj
verb
subj
object
prep phrs of time
predicate
bitir-mi ol-acak-m.
verb
subj
verb
object
346
gr-me-di-im.
I
subj
havent seen
verb
her
verb
subj
|
verb
subj
verb
object
adverbial clause of time
predicate
347
CAUSE OR REASON
As, since or because subordinating conjunctions are used in English
to express cause or reason. In Turkish, in place of as or since, iin
postposition is used. Since all postpositions follow nouns in Turkish, iin
can also follow a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive, or a noun + infinitive
compound. All noun + infinitive and modifier + noun compounds are
syntactic nominal phrases. Follow the simple sentences below:
Ev-e ge gel-di-im + iin ev-e ge gel-dik-im iin
I came home late + as as I came home late
348
|
verb
subj
Note: (Ben-im) and (onlar) are not used in the sentence above. They might
have been put there so that the noun compounds should be well understood.
The personal suffixes [im], which mean ben-im, at the ends of the verb
compositions are enough to express the possessive pronouns. and the [ler,
lar], which mean onlar, are enough to understand the ignored pronouns.
They
subject
object
349
350
verb
verb
351
|
adverbial
|
subj
verb
|
verb
|
adverbial
|
preposition
modifier
noun
adverbial
prep adverbial phrase of contrast
predicate
352
PURPOSE
In order to compose an adverbial phrase of purpose, one should use a simple sentence containing wish mood (dilek kipi) without structurally changing it, and by doing so, the wish simple sentence becomes a nominal
phrase to be used preceding the postposition diye to compose a postpositional phrase of purpose:
eri-ye gir-e-/y/im.
eri-ye gir-e-sin.
eri-ye gir-sin.
eri-ye gir-e-lim.
eri-ye gir-e-siniz.
eri-ye gir-sin-ler.
Let me go in.
I wish you to go in
Let him go in.
Let us go in.
I wish you to go in.
Let them go in.
eri-/y/e gir-e-/y/im diye kapy at. He opened the door to let me go in.
simple sentence
postp
|
postp phrase of purpose
object
predicate
eriye gir-ebil-e-/y/im.
eriye gir-ebil-e-sin.
eriye gir-ebil-sin.
eriye gir-ebil-e-lim.
eriye gir-ebil-e-siniz.
eriye gir-ebil-sin-ler.
| subj
verb
verb
obj
353
kap-/y/ a-t.
simple sentence
postposition
|
adverbial phrase of purpose
def object
predicate
|
verb
verb
def object
354
diye bekle-di-im.
|
verb
subj
|
obj
simple sentence
postposition
|
postpositional phrase of purpose adverbial
predicate
|
verb
355
356
modifier noun-e
adverbial
verb
subj
def obj
verb
prep phrase
modifier
adverbial clause of place
yer-e koy.
verb
(You) put the book (in the place) where you found it.
subj
verb
def obj
prep phrs
modifier
adverbial clause of place
Nere-/y/e git-er-se-en (git) ngilizce konu-abil-en bir-i-/s/i-/n/i bul-abilir-sin. (ne*re*ye / gi*der*sen / git / in*gi*liz*ce / ko*nu*a*bi*len / bi*ri*si*ni /
bu*la*bi*lir*sin )
You can find someone who can speak English wherever you go.
Nasrettin Hoca eek-i-/n/i kaybet-tik-i yer-de bul-du ve bu onu ok mutlu etti.
Nasrettin Hoca found his donkey where he had lost it, which made him
very happy.
Been-dik-in (herhangi bir) yer-e otur-abil-ir-sin.
(be*en*di*in / ye*re / o*tu*ra*bi*lir*sin )
You can sit wherever you like.
Onu koy-duk-un yer-i hatrla-ma-/y/a al.
(o*nu / koy*du*un / ye*ri / ha*tr*la*ma*ya / a*l)
Try to remember where you put it.
MANNER
To transform a simple English sentence into an adverbial clause of manner,
the conjunction as is put in the beginning of a sentence. In Turkish, gibi
postposition is used after a noun + infinitive compound:
AS
The mental development of an adverbial phrase of manner is as follows:
Ben sana dyle-di-im + gibi ben-im sana dyle-dik-im gibi"
I told you + as "as I told you"
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|
def obj
noun compound
postp
|
postp adverbial phrase of manner verb
predicate
(You) do it
subj
verb obj
verb
|
object
noun compound
postp
|
postpositional phrs of manner verb
predicate
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subj
subject allomorph
In Turkish, it is impossible to use only the pronoun without using the subject allomorph at the end of a sentence. One has to say either Ben gelecek
hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um, or Gelecek hafta Ankaraya gidiyor-um. It is
incorrect to say *Ben Ankaraya gidiyor, or *Ben Trke bilmiyor.
AS IF (AS THOUGH)
verb-[ [mi, m, m, mu]- (pers) + gibi verb structure is used to
express as if in Turkish. The mental development of "as if" is as follows:
"Sen bir soru sor-acak-sn" + gibi "bir soru sor-acak-m-(sn) gibi"
"You are going to ask a question" + as if as if you are going to ask a question
(Sen) bir soru sor-acak-m-(sn) gibi grn-yor-sun.
subj
simple sentence
postp
postpositional adverbial phrase of manner
predicate
|
verb
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simple sentence
postp
postp adverbial phrase of manner
predicate
|
adverbial
|
verb
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RESULT
In place of so or therefore, byle-ce, bu yzden, bu nedenle, bu
sa:ye-de, or bu ekilde adverbs may be used to supply a simple sentence with a result concept:
Sabah-le.yin erken kalk-t-m, ve byle-ce ev dev-im-i bitir-ebil-di-im.
(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*tm ~/ ve / by*le*ce / e*v*de*vi*mi /
bi*ti*re*bil*dim )
I got up early, and so I was able to finish my homework.
ok a-m, bu yzden sandvi bile ye-/y/ebil-ir-im.
I am very hungry; therefore, I can eat even three sandwiches.
Yamur ok iddet-li ya-yor-du, bu neden-le bir yer-e sn-mak
zorunda kal-d-k.
It was raining heavily; therefore, we had to shelter somewhere.
Gne-li bir sabah-t, bu yz-den kr-da yr-/y/-e k-ma-/y/a karar ver-dik.
Your sister is doing her homework; therefore, you had better turn off the TV.
SO THAT
SUCH THAT
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adv
adjective
subject
noun
|
|
indef object
verb
predicate
The questions were so difficult that only few students were able to answer.
subject
deficient predicate
conj
adv
adj
noun
subject
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ok yal-/y/m.
|
subj compl
subj
I am too old to play basketball. (The green underlined infinities are adverbial.)
Kz-m araba sr-mek iin ok gen-ti.
(k*zm / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / gen*ti )
My daughter was too young to drive. (To drive is an adverbial infinitive.)
Oul-um araba sr-mek iin ok yal ol-duk-um-u syle-yor.
(o*lum ~ / a*ra*ba / sr*mek / i*in / ok / ya*l / ol*du*u*mu /
sy*l*yor)
My son says that I am too old to drive. (To drive is an adverbial infinitive.)
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am
verb
old-er
than you.
subj subj
run
fast-er
verb
than you.
verb
subject complement
comparative adverbial
predicate
Besides nouns and pronouns, noun compounds and infinitives can be compared:
Otobs-le seyahat et-mek uak-la seyahat et-mek-ten ucuz-dur.
infinitive
subject
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SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
The superlative degree of an adjective or an adverb is made by putting the
intensifier adverb en before an adjective or an adverb:
Ben-im araba-am ehir-de-ki en ekonomik araba-dr.
(be*nim / a*ra*bam / e*hir*de*ki / en / e*ko*no*mik / a*ra*ba*dr )
My car is the most economical car in town.
Fatma dnya/n/n en gzel kadn--dr.
(fat*ma / dn*ya:*nn / en / g*zel / ka*d*n*dr )
Fatma is the most beautiful woman of the world.
ita dnya-da-ki en hzl hayvan-dr.
(i*ta / dn*ya:*da*ki / en / hz*l / hay*van*dr )
The cheetah is the swiftest animal in the world.
ita en hz-l ko-ar.
(i*ta / en / hz*l / ko*ar )
The cheetah runs the swiftest.
(Ben-im) kar-m hep en iyi-/s/i-/n/i se-er.
(ka*rm / hep / en / i*yi*si*ni / se*er )
My wife always chooses the best.
Jack okul-da-ki en yakkl ocuk-tur.
(jack / o*kul*da*ki / en / ya*k*k*l / o*cuk*tur )
Jack is the most handsome boy in school.
Ocak, Trkiyede yl-n en souk ay--dr.
(o*cak / tr*ki*ye*de / y*ln / en / so*uk / a*y*dr )
January is the coldest month of the year in Turkey.
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ok
hzl
subject
intensifier
adverb
predicate
Bir kedi
subject
bir kpek
kadar
verb
subject
hzl
verb
intens adv
predicate
ko-abil-ir.
noun
postp
|
postp phrs of comparison adv
predicate
|
verb
noun compound
postp
|
postp phrase of comparison
adverb
predicate
|
verb
subject complement
predicate
verb
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369
WISH
WISH + WOULD
The expression above is used when the speaker wishes something to happen, or when he is complaining about the present situation. I wish is generally translated into Turkish as keke = I wish, which may sometimes be
misleading when it is used with would. In Turkish, this sort of expression is
called dilek kipi, which means, wish mood". The structure of this expression is as follows:
verb-([me, ma])-[se, sa]-[pers] or verb-[ebil, abil]-[se,sa]-[pers]
Compare and consider the following sentences:
u adam eki grlt-/s/-/n/ bir durdur-sa!
(u / a*dam / e*ki / g*rl*t*s*n / bir / dur*dur*sa~)
I wish that man would stop hammer-ing.
Biri-/s/i u televizyon-un ses-i-/n/i bir ks-sa!
(bi*ri*si / u / te*le*viz*yo*nun / se*si*ni / bir / ks*sa~)
I wish someone would turn down that TV.
Biri-/s/i u telefon-a cevap ver-se!
(bi*ri*si / u / te*le*fo*na / ce*vap / ver*se~)
I wish someone would answer this telephone call.
Bir-i -/n/iz bana yardm et-se! Nasl ol-ur?
(bi*ri*niz / ba*na / yar*dm / et*se~ / nasl / o*lur)
I wish one of you would help me.
u sigara-/y/ bir brak-abil-se-em!
(u / si*ga*ra*y / bir / b*ra*ka*bil*sem~)
I wish I could stop smok-ing.
Araba-/y/ bu kadar hzl sr-me-se-en; ol-maz m?
(a*ra*ba*y / bu / ka*dar / hz*l / sr*me*sen / ol*maz / m )
I wish you wouldnt drive the car so fast. Wouldnt you?
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CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are two parts in a conditional sentence: if clause and the main
clause. In an if clause, the supposition is either real or unreal. These
real and unreal suppositions in Turkish are also classified according to their
times:
1 (a): present real supposition. 1(b): present unreal supposition. 2 (a):
past real supposition. 2 (b): past unreal supposition.
1 (a): If the supposition is real at present, verb-[ir, r, r, ur, er, ar][se, sa]-[subj allomorph] verb composition is used in the condition part,
and The Simple Present (Geni Zaman) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
1 (b): If the supposition is unreal at present, verb-[se,sa]-[subj allomorph] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to
(Geni Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
2 (a): If the supposition is real in the past, verb-[di/y/, d/y/, d/y/,
du/y/, ti/y/, t/y/, t/y/, tu/y/]-[se, sa]-[subj allomorph] is used in the condition part, and verb-[mi, m, m, mu]-[tir, tr, tr, tur] verb composition is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
2 (b): If the supposition is unreal in the past, verb-[se/y/, sa/y/]-[di, d]-[subj
allomorph] verb structure is used in the condition part, and used to (imdiki
Zamann Hikyesi) is used in the result part of a conditional sentence.
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otur-ur-uz.
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375
376
subj allomorph
definite object
verb
subj
predicate
377
verb
|
subj
378
379
380
POLITE REQUESTS
3.
Kap-/y/ a, ol-ur mu?
(ka*p*y / a / o*lur / mu )
Open the door, will you?
Televizyon-u kapat, ol-ur mu?
(te*le*viz*yo*nu / ka*pat / o*lur / mu )
Turn the TV off, will you?
Syle-dik-im-i yap, ol-ur mu?
(sy*le*di*i*mi / yap / o*lur / mu )
Do what I tell you, will you?
Ev-e ge gel-me, ol-ur mu ?
(e*ve / ge / gel*me / o*lur / mu )
Dont come home late, will you?
4.
Lutfen kap-/y/ a-ar m-sn?
(lut*fen / ka*p*y / a*ar / m*sn )
Will (would) you open the door, please?
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382
OFFERS
To make an offer in Turkish verb-[eli, al]-[subject allomorph] verb
composition is used:
Konser-e git-eli-im.
(kon*se*re / gi*de*lim )
Let us go to the concert.
Televizyon seyret-eli-im.
(te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*lim )
Let us watch television.
If someone wishes, he can put question tags after the above expressions:
Konser-e git-eli-im mi, ne der-sin?
(kon*se*re / gi*de*lim / mi / ne / der*sin)
Let us go to the concert, shall we? Shall we go to the concert?
383
verb
predicate
subj
(o*tu*rup / d*n*dm )
I sat down and thought.
Bekle-/y/ip gr-ecek-iz.
(bek*le*yip / g*re*ce*iz )
We will wait and see.
al-p baar-abil-ir-sin.
(a*l*p / ba*a*ra*bi*lir*sin )
You can work and succeed.
ocuk-lar bahe-de ko-up oyna-uyor-lar-d.
(o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / ko*up / oy*nu*yor*lar*d )
The children were running and playing in the garden.
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385
386
387
aslnda : in fact
Mary ev iini kendisinin yaptn syyor. Ama aslnda, iin ounu
kocas yapyor.
Mary says that she does the housework herself. In fact, her husband does
most of the housework.
388
nk : because
Televizyonu kapatsan iyi olur, nk iime devam edemiyorum.
You had better turn off the TV because I cant go on with my work.
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390
ki: that
Korkarm (ki) pastan kedi yedi.
Im afraid (that) the cat has eaten up your cake.
nanrm (ki) haklsn.
I believe (that) you are right.
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392
sonra: then
Eve geldi, sonra mutfaa dald ve yemek hazrlamaya balad.
She came home, then hurried into the kitchen, and started preparing dinner.
393
INTENSIFIERS
Intensifiers are adverbs that are used before adjectives or adverbs to
strengthen or weaken their meanings. Besides these words, there are
some prefixes, which are the only ones in Turkish that are attached to adjectives, nouns, and adverbs to strengthen their meanings:
St ok scak.
(st / ok / s*cak )
The milk is very hot.
Sorular biraz g-t.
(so*ru*lar / bi*raz / g*t )
The questions were rather difficult.
Tamamen hakl-sn.
(sen / ta*ma:*men / hak*l*sn )
You are quite right.
Baz kelebekler son derece gzel-dir.
(ba:*z / ke*le*bek*ler / son / de*re*ce / g*zel*dir )
Some butterflies are extremely beautiful.
renciler sorular-a ok dikkatli cevap verdi-ler.
(*ren*ci*ler / so*ru*la*ra / ok / dik*kat*li / ce*vap / ver*di*ler )
The students answered the questions very carefully.
Ev olduka iyi.
(ev / ol*duk*a / i*yi )
The house is pretty good.
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395
396
397
398
399
400
401
adj
adv
cond
comp
compr
cond
conj
D
def obj
Indef obj
inf
intr
NP
obj
subj allomorph
phrs
pred
prep
pron
postp
subj
synt
tran
V
Vc
Vi
VP
Vt
Vv
()
(*)
(:)
(-)
(u)
(r)
a-a, e-e,
i-i, -,
u-u, -
adjective
adverb or adverbial
conditional
Compound or complement
comparative
conditional
conjunction
determiner
definite object
indefinite object
infinitive
intransitive
Nominal Phrase (subject or object)
object
subject allomorph
phrase
predicate
preposition(al) (English )
pronoun
postposition(al) (Turkish)
Subject or subject allomorph
syntactic
transitive
verb root ,stem, frame, or verb composition
a verb that ends with a consonant
intransitive verb
Verbal Phrase (predicate)
transitive verb
a verb that ends with a vowel
Transforming symbol
Asterisks are used to separate syllables.
A colon is used to show a long vowel: (te*da:*vi:)
Hyphens are used to separate morphemes.
Double underlined vowels show the dropped
vowels.
Single underlined consonants detach from their
syllables and attach the following vowels.
These successive vowels combine and verbalize
as single vowels, such as a, e, i, , u,
402
403
404
405
406