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NB!
This written paper was compiled for the purpose of enhancing the 2015 BTech
Human Resource Management students employability in 2016. This will be achieved
by examining Victor Vrooms expectancy theory and thereafter linking it to work done
by Jack Welch, the former CEO of General Electric.
HR graduates can contribute to the success of an organisation by increasing the
productivity levels of an organisation effectively and efficiently through applying the
expectancy theory and linking it to the vitality curve to improve and sustain
individual motivation. The basic Organisational Behaviour model below clearly
exhibits the key dependent variables (DV) and the independent variables (IV),
organised by level of analysis that research indicates have varying effects on the
former, for example, productivity (DV) is dependent on individual motivation (IV)
(Judge, Odendaal, Robbins & Roodt, 2009:21).
Productivity
Absence
Turnover
ORGANISATION SYSTEMSGroup
LEVEL
Deviant workplace
behaviour
structure
Human resource
policies and
practice
Organisationa
Organisation
Work design
l culture
al structure
and
and design
technology
Citizenship
Human
output
GROUP LEVEL
Chang
e and
stress
Group decision
making
Communicati
on
Other
groups
Biographical
characteristics
Personality and
emotions
Human
input
Huma
n
input
Values and
attitudes
Abilit
y
Values and
Abilit
attitudes
Other
dependent
variables;
Effectiveness,
Leadership and
trust
Confli
ct
Satisfaction
Work
teams
Power
and
Efficiency and
Quality (Dale,
2015)
INDIVIDUAL
LEVEL
Perceptio
n
Motivatio
n
Individual learning
Individual
decision making
Motivatio
Individual
learning Individual decision
n
making
Explain
IV AND
DV
According to Robbins et al. (2009:17) the above Basic OB model is made up
the following levels; individual, group and organisation systems level. Each level
occupies several independent variables which have an effect on the key dependent
variables. For the purpose of this written paper, lets pay attention to the following
variables as highlighted and linked on the above Basic OB model in figure 1.
Individual motivation- independent variable
Robbins et al. (2009:17) mentioned that an independent variable is the supposed
reason as to why change happens in a dependent variable. For example, if an
independent variable such as; conflict decreases, then a dependent variable such as
turnover will decrease as well.
Finally, deliver the purpose of this written paper which is to clearly explain and show
how the expectancy theory and the linking thereof to the vitality curve will help
improve the employability of HRM BTech students in the year 2016.
The following diagram serves as a roadmap as to how this written paper will flow and
what aspects will be covered by the researcher:
Figure 2: Road map of this written paper (Mobara, Rasmus, Galant & Rowe, 2015).
The next section will provide the reader with the definitions regarding certain terms
that are applicable to this written paper.
Definitions
This section highlights and defines the important concepts which will be mentioned
throughout this written paper.
Motivation
According to Judge, Odendaal, Robbins & Roodt (2009:144), motivation can be
viewed as a process that entails an individuals effort of intensity, direction and
persistence in aid of attaining a particular goal. Additionally, as cited by Mukherjee
(2009:1) motivation can be defined as the urge which an individual possess because
of a desirable absence for the organisation in which the individual is engaged and
alter his or her behaviour in aid of achieving what the individual is looking for. In
addition, motivation according to Van Wyk (2011:14) refers to the force that drives an
individuals behaviour towards the attainment of a goal as well as their will power to
persist towards the attainment of a goal. Moreover, Garcia (2007:24) goes on to say
that motivation is a process whereby an individual persist towards a goal driven
activity or task in which the individuals is committed and does not quit until the set
out goal or task is achieved. In essence, motivation can be viewed as the influence
that; generates, guides and maintain an individuals established goal-directed
behaviour, (Hellreigel et al., 2006:267).
Organisational Behaviour (OB)
As cited by Robbins et al. (2009:539), organisational behaviour is the field of study
that aims at finding solutions to improve an organisations effectiveness by
examining how individuals, groups and structures impact the behaviour within the
organisation. Additionally, according to Cole (2005:6) organisational behaviour is the
way in which individuals and groups behave within the workplace and focuses on the
interrelationships between these individuals and groups and how they respond to
change and the environment that they are placed in. In addition, Bratton et al. (2006:
13), cites that organisational behaviour is the study of the relationship between the
behaviour of employees within the organisation and the impact it has on the
organisations effectiveness with regard to individual and social outcomes.
Furthermore, French et al. (2011:1) argues that one needs to effectively manage
employees in order to ensure that the organisation aims to achieve success,
however individuals may behave unpredictably since they derive from diverse
groups, thus organisational behaviour focuses on these behaviours and attempts to
identify explanations or reasons as to why these individuals act a certain way in
order to explore ways to manage their unpredictable behaviour.
Valence
As cited by Veas (2007:55) valence is an individuals perception that a possible
outcome will either have a positive or negative value. In addition, valence can also
be defined as the regard to which an individual revere the outcome of their actions
(Cadieux, 2010:14). Moreover, as indicated by Koontz (2010:292) valence is the
strength of preference an individual has towards an outcome, also Ricketts &
Ricketts (2001:434) argues that valence is the way an individual feels about the job
outcomes and is commonly demarcated by the attractiveness or anticipated
satisfaction of the desired outcome.
Expectancy
As indicated by Koontz (2010:292) expectancy refers to an individuals perception of
a possibility that a certain action they embark on will result in a desirable outcome.
Additionally, Veas (2007:54) noted that expectancy is a perception that individuals
have, whereby they believe that the amount of effort they insert will result in a certain
level of performance, generating the perception of; the more effort they put in the
better quality of their desired outcome. In continuation of the latter, Cadiuex
(2010:14) referred to expectancy as the belief developed by an individual that if their
level of performance is high they will generate a higher outcome. However, Ricketts
& Ricketts (2011:434) argues that expectancy focuses on the relationship between
effort and performance and goes on to say that there might not be a direct
relationship between how hard you try and how well you excel, however there might
be a clear relationship between the harder an individual tries and the better an
individual gets whilst trying.
Instrumentality
As annotated by Cadieux (2010:14) instrumentality refers to the length of an
individuals belief that a current activity they embark on will shed light on the
outcome of the next activity. In addition, instrumentality according to Zehndorfer
(2014:87) refers to the assumption made by individuals that if they meet a certain
performance criteria they will receive a certain reward. However, as mentioned by
Ricketts & Ricketts (2011:434) instrumentality can be regarded as the perceived
degree of the relationship between an individuals performance and the attainment of
an outcome. Thus, for example when an individual is told that a pay increase is
solely depended on their performance, their instrumentality in this instance is very
likely to be high.
The next section depicts a menu of the various early and contemporary
motivational theories available to the researcher.
Menu
7
Hierarchy of Needs
Established by Psychologist Abraham Maslow
Identifying 5 types of needs (in the image below)
He suggested as a person satisfies each level of
need, motivation shifts to satisfying the next
higher level. (Robbins, 2007:186)
ERG Theory
Established by Clay Alderfer
Identifying 3 levels of needs (in the image
below)
His frustration-regression hypothesis was
individuals are frustrated in reaching higherlevel needs; the next lower-level needs
resurface and again direct behaviour.
(Robbins,2007:188)
Two-factor Theory
Established by Frederick Herzberg
Identifies two distinctive features responsible
for motivating employees (in the image below)
He proposed that these aspects would
determine employee job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction. (Robbins, 2007:189)
Equity Theory
Primary researcher J. S. Adams
Relates to how employees judge if the
organisation is treating them fairly.
This is done by employees comparing their
inputs and outcomes to others in the
organisation.(Robbins, 2007:203)
Reinforcement Theory
Established by Psychologist B. F. Skinner
This theory suggest that if employees
behaviours is followed by pleasant
consequences they most likely to do it
repeatedly, but if followed by unpleasant
consequences they will most like not
repeat it again. (Robbins, 2007:202)
3.2 Contemporary
theories
of
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
This theory discusses an individuals
belief that they are capable of performing
a task.
Higher self-efficacy results in more
confidence to with regards to the ability to
succeed in a task. (Robbins, 2007:200)
Expectancy Theory
Established by Victor Vroom
Identifying 3 stages (in the image below)
He suggests people choose among
alternative behaviours by considering
which behaviour will lead to their preferred
outcomes. (Robbins, 2007:208)
Chosen theory to be analysed.
10
Introduce theory
With that being mentioned, if any of the above conditions are not present, the
chances of an individual directing his or her efforts towards a particular course of
action will be relatively low.
Dubrin (1978:50) highlighted that the primary assumption behind the expectancy
theory is that how hard a person works depends essentially on the outcome he or
11
she expects. For example, Kyle studies three hours per day, believing that he
will perform well in the exams by obtaining 75% for all his modules.
(The outcome is to obtain distinctions and he therefore exerts a high degree of effort
in terms of studying long hours regularly).
The following diagram clearly illustrates how the expectancy theory can be applied,
by highlighting the key elements of the expectancy theory, together with parts
extracted from the above mentioned example:
Figure 4: Model of how expectancy theory can be applied (Robbins et al., 2009:157).
Key elements
Expecta
ncy
Instrumentali
ty
Valence
12
Key Elements
13
3. Valence
Valence is the element which deals with how the individual perceives the end result
or reward. In other words, the individual can see the end result or reward as either
negative or positive. With reference to the example used previously, the value of
valence is positive because the 75% obtained by Kyle for his modules was regarded
as valuable to him and he also had a strong preference for obtaining that
reward/result. However, if Kyle did not value the reward then the valence would have
been 0 or negative.
Equation
Victor Vroom, according to Robbins et al. (2009:157) is the person who formulated
the
expectancy
theory
and
also
proposed
that
motivation,
expectancy,
14
Advantages &
disadvantages
In addition Bagga and Parijat (2014) and Robbins et al. (2009:158) also identified
some cons to the expectancy theory such as the following:
Along with the cons there are also pros which Bagga and Parijat (2014) and
Robbins et al. (2009:158) identified, the pros are as follow:
15
16
The above diagram depicts the vitality curve which was designed by the Former
CEO of General Electric, Jack Welch, for the purpose of effectively improving the
productivity levels of GE employees; through differentiating and sustaining the
motivational levels of its employees. The vitality curve is made up of three
categories, namely; 20% (top performers- A players), 70% (vital performers- B
players) and 10% (underperformers- C players) (Welch, 2001:72).
The following table highlights the characteristics identified and used by Jack Welch
at GE to differentiate employees and to categorise them either as; A, B or C players
(Welch, 2001: 72):
Table 7: Characteristics of the A, B and C players (Welch, 2001:72).
20% (A players)
Filled with passion
Committed to
making things
happen
Open to ideas from
anywhere
Blessed with lots of
70% (B players)
High levels of
energy
Ability to energise
others
Able to take tough
decisions
Ability to deliver
than energised
Procrastinate rather
tasks effectively
than deliver
Company spends
runway ahead of
them
Ability to energise
done
Makes someone
feel drained rather
and efficiently
Critical to the
resources on their
not themselves
operational success
elsewhere.
of the organisation
who comes in
10% (C players)
Cant get the job
deployment
Linkag
e!!
17
The expectancy theory deals with the motivation of employees whilst the vitality
curve is used to first differentiate employees based on their performance and
thereafter categorise them as either A, B or C players and ultimately reward them
based on the category they fall in for the purpose of sustaining their level of
motivation.
The following practical example will be used to depict the relationship between the
expectancy theory and the vitality curve.
Hannah is a sales manager at GE and does the following; works at a fast pace,
encourages her team to meet and exceed targets, has regular team building with
subordinates, delivers tasks on time and also directly informs subordinates about
their poor performance. By doing this, Hannah believes that her department will
perform effectively and efficiently and be rewarded by receiving a R1 000 bonus
each or Promotion the end of the year.
Expecta
ncy
theory
Effort
Performance
Rewards
her level of motivation, she will be rewarded with things that are of great value to her
which will help her achieve her personal goals effectively and efficiently and
ultimately contribute to the success of General Electric, rewards such as;
promotion, higher salary, stock options, car, house and the like. It is clear that
Hannahs strength of motivation was strong due to the fact that the rewards to be
achieved were of strong value to her.
The next section deals with how HRM graduates can improve their employability in
2016 by being able to understand and apply the above link between the expectancy
theory proposed by Victor Vroom and the vitality curve designed by Jack Welch.
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Section 6.0 - How does this paper enhance the employability of the
2015 BTech HRM Class
This section covers how HRM students can improve their chances of getting
employed by a prospective employer by using the expectancy theory (a
contemporary motivational theory) and linking it to the vitality curve designed by Jack
Welch, the CEO of General Electric.
Figure 8: How to improve the employability of HRM graduates in 2016 (Mobara,
Rasmus, Galant & Rowe, 2015).
19
Detailed explanation
of the above diagram
This is how the linkage between the expectancy theory proposed by Victor Vroom
and the vitality curve as well as the 4Es and a P, used by Jack Welch; former CEO of
General Electric can help BTech HRM graduates get employed in 2016:
1. After completing this year, students will start applying for jobs at various
companies that are advertising vacant HR positions. Furthermore, after
applying, the applicant may be invited for an interview.
2. During the interview, the employer will ask why should the job be granted to
you? the reply of the interviewee (HR graduate) should be: I will add value to
your organisation.
3. The employer would want to know how exactly the student will add value to
the organisation. The HR graduate can say that value will be added in terms
of motivating the employees of the organisation and help the organisation
achieve success.
4. Once again, the employer or interviewer would want to know how?
5. At this stage, the HR graduate should use the expectancy theory by means of
taking into account that the theory is about; effort, performance and rewards
(Robbins et al., 2009:157). Additionally, the HR graduate should answer by
saying; that he or she will ask employees what motivates them intrinsically
and/or extrinsically (promotion, salary, recognition, car, stock options, house
and the like), negotiate with them in terms of telling them that they need to
perform effectively and when doing so, the employees will be rewarded with
things that are of value to them, which could be non-incentives (recognition for
hard work) or incentives (money). And ultimately, employees would be highly
motivated and high performance will be achieved and ultimately the goals of
the organisation will be met effectively and efficiently.
6. In terms of the vitality curve, the employees performance should then be
measured and then be categorised by the following categories; 20% (the top
performers), 70% (vital performers). 30% (underperformers who are required
to either improve their performance or leave the company). Additionally, the
employees will be rewarded with things that are of value to them, based on
20
Where:
For example, the following table represents the units produced (productivity)
and motivational levels of employees at ABC, for over a period of 5 months.
Table 9: Units produced (labour productivity) and motivational levels of
employees (Mobara, Rasmus, Galant & Rowe, 2015).
Motivation
Productivity
(units
Jan
5
10
Feb
10
20
March
15
30
April
20
40
May
25
50
produced)
21
The above graph clearly shows that when motivation improves, productivity
increases greatly.
8. HR graduate will be seen as having the ability to add true value to the
organisation.
9. The prospective employer will be impressed and the HR graduate will get
employed.
10. Most importantly, the HR graduate will not become a statistic of graduate
unemployment; instead the graduate will successfully apply his or her theory
learnt by the Universitys competent lecturers and ultimately prove that CPUT
is able to generate successful graduates.
Statistics were collected as a means to prove that graduate unemployment is a fact
of life and that CPUT graduates should improve their chances of being more
employable by means of knowing how exactly they will be able to add value to
organisations at which they will be seeking employment from.
Additionally, the statistics in table: 11 below also involve other Universities such as;
UCT, STELLENBOSCH and UWC that are producing graduates which CPUT
graduates are expected to compete against when applying for jobs in the year after
completing their studies.
22
The table below highlights the statistics concerning the employment status of
graduates from UCT, UWC, CPUT and US who were looking for jobs from 2010 till
the year 2012 (CHEC, 2013:40):
Table 11: Statistics concerning unemployment status of graduates from UCT, UWC,
US and CPUT (CHEC, 2013:40).
Institution
CPUT
Count
%
1922
44.8
UCT
Count
1432
%
45.7
US
Count
1458
%
37.9
UWC
Count
751
%
36.7
TOTAL
Count
5633
%
41.8
1410
31.7
810
25.9
1751
45.5
877
42.9
4848
36.0
143
3.2
127
4.1
175
4.5
66
3.2
510
3.8
sector
Employed in the
84
1.9
87
2.8
44
1.1
0.0
215
1.6
informal sector
Unemployed
719
16.2
513
16.4
333
8.6
309
15.1
1874
13.9
102
2.3
162
5.2
89
2.3
43
2.1
396
2.9
4449
100.0
3131
100.0
3850
100.0
2046
100.0
13477
100.0
Employed part
time or full time
in the private
sector
Employed part
time or full time
in the public
sector
Self-employed
in the private
The statistics highlighted above clearly show that CPUT had obtained the highest
percentage in terms of graduates who were unemployed and seeking for
employment. Additionally, the count for CPUT was 719 compared to UCT which was
513, US, 333 and UWC 309. With that being mentioned, it is evident and of great
importance that CPUT graduates in general should start applying their mind in terms
of how they will improve their chances of becoming more employable in the following
year for the purpose of preventing themselves from becoming a statistic of CPUTs
graduates who are unemployed and desperately seeking for job opportunities.
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