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Roadsurface
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Roadsurfaceorpavementisthedurablesurfacemateriallaiddownonan
areaintendedtosustainvehicularorfoottraffic,suchasaroadorwalkway.
Inthepast,gravelroadsurfaces,cobblestoneandgranitesettswere
extensivelyused,butthesesurfaceshavemostlybeenreplacedbyasphalt
orconcretelaidonacompactedbasecourse.Roadsurfacesarefrequently
markedtoguidetraffic.Today,permeablepavingmethodsarebeginningto
beusedforlowimpactroadwaysandwalkways.
Aroadbeingresurfaced

Contents
1
2
3
4

Asphalt
Concrete
Compositepavement
Recycling
4.1 Inplacerecycling
5 Bituminoussurface
5.1 Thinmembranesurface
5.2 Ottaseal
6 Gravelsurface
7 Othersurfaces
7.1 Gallery
8 Acousticalimplications
9 Surfacedeterioration
10 Markings
11 Seealso
12 Notes
13 Externallinks

Asphalt
Asphalt(specifically,asphaltconcrete),sometimescalledflexiblepavement
duetothenatureinwhichitdistributesloads,hasbeenwidelyusedsince
the1920s.Theviscousnatureofthebitumenbinderallowsasphaltconcrete
tosustainsignificantplasticdeformation,althoughfatiguefromrepeated
loadingovertimeisthemostcommonfailuremechanism.Mostasphalt
surfacesarelaidonagravelbase,whichisgenerallyatleastasthickasthe
asphaltlayer,althoughsome'fulldepth'asphaltsurfacesarelaiddirectlyon
thenativesubgrade.Inareaswithverysoftorexpansivesubgradessuchas
clayorpeat,thickgravelbasesorstabilizationofthesubgradewith
Portlandcementorlimemayberequired.Polypropyleneandpolyester
geosyntheticshavealsobeenusedforthispurpose[1]andinsomenorthern
countries,alayerofpolystyreneboardshavebeenusedtodelayand
minimizefrostpenetrationintothesubgrade.[2]
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Dependingonthetemperatureatwhichitisapplied,asphaltiscategorizedashotmix,warmmix,orcoldmix.Hot
mixasphaltisappliedattemperaturesover300F(150C)withafreefloatingscreed.Warmmixasphaltis
appliedattemperaturesof200250F(95120C),resultinginreducedenergyusageandemissionsofvolatile
organiccompounds.[3]Coldmixasphaltisoftenusedonlowervolumeruralroads,wherehotmixasphaltwould
cooltoomuchonthelongtripfromtheasphaltplanttotheconstructionsite.[4]
Anasphaltconcretesurfacewillgenerallybeconstructedforhighvolumeprimaryhighwayshavinganaverage
annualdailytrafficloadgreaterthan1200vehiclesperday.[5]Advantagesofasphaltroadwaysincluderelatively
lownoise,relativelylowcostcomparedwithotherpavingmethods,andperceivedeaseofrepair.Disadvantages
includelessdurabilitythanotherpavingmethods,lesstensilestrengththanconcrete,thetendencytobecomeslick
andsoftinhotweatherandacertainamountofhydrocarbonpollutiontosoilandgroundwaterorwaterways.
Inthemid1960s,rubberizedasphaltwasusedforthefirsttime,mixingcrumbrubberfromusedtireswith
asphalt.[6]Whileapotentialusefortiresthatwouldotherwisefilllandfillsandpresentafirehazard,rubberized
asphalthasshowngreaterincidenceofwearinfreezethawcyclesintemperatezonesduetononhomogeneous
expansionandcontractionwithnonrubbercomponents.Also,applicationofrubberizedasphaltismore
temperaturesensitive,andinmanylocationscanonlybeappliedatcertaintimesoftheyear.
Studyresultsofthelongtermacousticbenefitsofrubberizedasphaltareinconclusive.Initialapplicationof
rubberizedasphaltmayprovide35decibels(dB)reductionintirepavementsourcenoiseemissionshowever,this
translatestoonly13decibels(dB)intotaltrafficnoiselevelreduction(duetotheothercomponentsoftraffic
noise).Comparedtotraditionalpassiveattenuatingmeasures(e.g.,noisewallsandearthberms),rubberizedasphalt
providesshorterlastingandlesseracousticbenefitsattypicallymuchgreaterexpense.

Concrete
Concretesurfaces(specifically,Portlandcementconcrete)arecreated
usingaconcretemixofPortlandcement,coarseaggregate,sandandwater.
Invirtuallyallmodernmixestherewillalsobevariousadmixturesaddedto
increaseworkability,reducetherequiredamountofwater,mitigateharmful
chemicalreactionsandforotherbeneficialpurposes.Inmanycasesthere
willalsobePortlandcementsubstitutesadded,suchasflyash.Thiscan
reducethecostoftheconcreteandimproveitsphysicalproperties.The
materialisappliedinafreshlymixedslurry,andworkedmechanicallyto
compacttheinteriorandforcesomeofthecementslurrytothesurfaceto
produceasmoother,densersurfacefreefromhoneycombing.Thewater
allowsthemixtocombinemolecularlyinachemicalreactioncalled
hydration.

ConcreteroadwayinSanJose,
California

Concretesurfaceshavebeenrefinedintothreecommontypes:jointedplain(JPCP),jointedreinforced(JRCP)and
continuouslyreinforced(CRCP).Theoneitemthatdistinguisheseachtypeisthejointingsystemusedtocontrol
crackdevelopment.
Jointedplainconcretepavementscontainenoughjointstocontrolthelocationofalltheexpectedshrinkage
cracks.Theconcretecracksatthejointsandnotelsewhereintheslabs.Jointedplainpavementsdonot
containanysteelreinforcement.However,theremaybesmoothsteelbarsattransversejointsanddeformed
steelbarsatlongitudinaljoints.Thespacingbetweentransversejointsistypicallyabout15feet(4.6m)for
slabs7to12inches(180to300mm)thick.Today,amajorityofUSstateagenciesbuildjointedplain
pavements.
Jointedreinforcedconcretepavementscontainsteelmeshreinforcement(sometimescalleddistributedsteel).
Injointedreinforcedconcretepavements,designersincreasethejointspacingpurposely,andinclude
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reinforcingsteeltoholdtogetherintermediatecracksineachslab.Thespacingbetweentransversejointsis
typically30feet(9.1m)ormore.Inthepast,someagenciesusedaspacingasgreatas100feet(30m).
Duringconstructionoftheinterstatesystem,mostagenciesintheEasternandMidwesternUnitedStateslaid
jointedreinforcedpavement.Todayonlyahandfulofagenciesemploythisdesign,anditsuseisgenerally
notrecommendedasbothoftheothertypesofferbetterperformanceandareeasiertorepair.
Continuouslyreinforcedconcretepavementsdonotrequireanytransversecontractionjoints.Transverse
cracksareexpectedintheslab,usuallyatintervalsof3to5ft(0.91to1.52m).Thesepavementsare
designedwithenoughsteel,0.60.7%bycrosssectionalarea,sothatcracksareheldtogethertightly.
Determininganappropriatespacingbetweenthecracksispartofthedesignprocessforthistypeof
pavement.
Continuouslyreinforceddesignsmaycostslightlymorethanjointed
reinforcedorjointedplaindesignsduetoincreasedquantitiesofsteel.
Oftenthecostofthesteelisoffsetbythereducedcostofconcretebecause
acontinuouslyreinforceddesignisnearlyalwayssignificantlythinnerthan
ajointeddesignforthesametrafficloads.Properlydesigned,thetwo
methodsshoulddemonstratesimilarlongtermperformanceandcost
effectiveness.Anumberofagencieshavemadepolicydecisionstouse
continuouslyreinforceddesignsintheirheavyurbantrafficcorridors.
Oneofthemajoradvantagesofconcretepavementsistheyaretypically
strongerandmoredurablethanasphaltroadways.Theyalsocanbe
groovedtoprovideadurableskidresistantsurface.Anotabledisadvantage
isthattheytypicallycanhaveahigherinitialcost,andcanbemoretime
consumingtoconstruct.Thiscostcantypicallybeoffsetthroughthelong
lifecycleofthepavement.Concretepavementcanbemaintainedovertime
utilizingaseriesofmethodsknownasconcretepavementrestorationwhichincludediamondgrinding,dowelbar
retrofits,jointandcracksealing,crossstitching,etc.Diamondgrindingisalsousefulinreducingnoiseand
restoringskidresistanceinolderconcretepavement.[7][8]
AconcreteroadinEwing,New
Jersey.Theoriginalpavementwas
laidinthe1950sandhasnotbeen
significantlyalteredsince.

ThefirststreetintheUnitedStatestobepavedwithconcretewasCourtAvenueinBellefontaine,Ohioin
1893.[9][10]ThefirstmileofconcretepavementintheUnitedStateswasonWoodwardAvenueinDetroit,
Michiganin1909.[11]

Compositepavement
CompositepavementscombineaPortlandcementconcretesublayerwith
anasphalt.Theyareusuallyusedtorehabilitateexistingroadwaysrather
thaninnewconstruction.
Asphaltoverlaysaresometimeslaidoverdistressedconcretetorestorea
smoothwearingsurface.[12]Adisadvantageofthismethodisthat
movementinthejointsbetweentheunderlyingconcreteslabs,whether
fromthermalexpansionandcontraction,orfromdeflectionoftheconcrete
Anexampleofcompositepavement:
slabsfromtruckaxleloads,usuallycausesreflectivecracksintheasphalt.
hotmixasphaltoverlaidonto
Todecreasereflectivecracking,concretepavementisbrokenapartthrough
Portlandcementconcretepavement
abreakandseat,crackandseat,orrubblizationprocess.Geosyntheticscan
beusedforreflectivecrackcontrol.[13]Withbreakandseatandcrackand
seatprocesses,aheavyweightisdroppedontheconcretetoinducecracking,thenaheavyrollerisusedtoseatthe
resultantpiecesintothesubbase.Themaindifferencebetweenthetwoprocessesistheequipmentusedtobreak
theconcretepavementandthesizeoftheresultingpieces.Thetheoryisfrequentsmallcrackswillspreadthermal
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stressoverawiderareathaninfrequentlargejoints,reducingthestressontheoverlyingasphaltpavement.
Rubblizationisamorecompletefracturingoftheold,wornoutconcrete,effectivelyconvertingtheoldpavement
intoanaggregatebaseforanewasphaltroad.[14]
WhitetoppingusesPortlandcementconcretetoresurfaceadistressedasphaltroad.

Recycling
Distressedroadmaterialscanbereusedwhenrehabilitatingaroadway.The
existingpavementisgroundorbrokenupintosmallpieces,throughaprocess
calledmilling.Itcanthenbetransportedtoanasphaltorconcreteplantand
incorporatedintonewpavement,orrecycledinplacetoformthebaseorsubbase
fornewpavement.Somemethodsusedinclude:

Inplacerecycling
Rubblizingofconcretepavement.Existingconcretepavementisbrokeninto
Anasphaltmillingmachinein
gravelsizedparticles.Anysteelreinforcingisremoved,thentheremaining
Boise,Idaho.
gravelsizedparticlesarecompactedandoverlaidwithasphaltpavement.[15]
Coldinplacerecycling.Bituminouspavementisgroundormilledinto
smallparticles.Theasphaltmillingsareblendedwithasmallamountofasphaltemulsionorfoamed
bitumen,pavedandcompacted,allowedtocureforseventotendays,thenoverlaidwithasphalt.[16]
Hotinplacerecycling.Bituminouspavementisheatedto250to300F(120to150C),milled,combined
witharejuvenatingagentorvirginasphaltbinder,andcompacted.Itmaythenbeoverlaidwithanew
asphaltoverlay.Thisprocessonlyrecyclesthetoptwoinches(50mm)orless,soitcanbeusedtocorrect
rutting,polishingorothersurfacedefects.Itisnotagoodprocedureforroadswithstructuralfailures.Italso
generateshighheatandvaporemissions,andmaynotbeagoodcandidateforbuiltupareas.[16]
Fulldepthreclamationisaprocesswhichpulverizesthefullthicknessoftheasphaltpavementandsomeof
theunderlyingmaterialtoprovideauniformblendofmaterial.Abindingagentmaybemixedintoforma
basecourseforthenewpavement,oritmaybeleftunboundtoformasubbasecourse.Commonbinding
agentsincludeasphaltemulsion,flyash,Portlandcementorcalciumchloride.Itcanalsobemixedwith
aggregate,recycledasphaltmillings,orcrushedPortlandcementtoimprovethegradationofthematerial,
andcanprovideadesignlifecycleof30yearswithproperlabtestingandfieldverification.[16][17]

Bituminoussurface
Bituminoussurfacetreatment(BST)orchipsealisusedmainlyonlowtrafficroads,butalsoasasealingcoatto
rejuvenateanasphaltconcretepavement.Itgenerallyconsistsofaggregatespreadoverasprayedonasphalt
emulsionorcutbackasphaltcement.Theaggregateisthenembeddedintotheasphaltbyrollingit,typicallywitha
rubbertiredroller.Thistypeofsurfaceisdescribedbyawidevarietyofregionaltermsincluding"chipseal","tar
andchip","oilandstone","sealcoat","sprayedseal"[18]or"surfacedressing"[19]orassimply"bitumin."
BSTisusedonhundredsofmilesoftheAlaskaHighwayandothersimilarroadwaysinAlaska,theYukon
Territory,andnorthernBritishColumbia.TheeaseofapplicationofBSTisonereasonforitspopularity,but
anotherisitsflexibility,whichisimportantwhenroadwaysarelaiddownoverunstableterrainthatthawsand
softensinthespring.
OthertypesofBSTsincludemicropaving,slurrysealsandNovachip.Thesearelaiddownusingspecializedand
proprietaryequipment.Theyaremostoftenusedinurbanareaswheretheroughnessandloosestoneassociated
withchipsealsisconsideredundesirable.
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Thinmembranesurface
Athinmembranesurface(TMS)isanoiltreatedaggregatewhichislaiddownuponagravelroadbedproducinga
dustfreeroad.[20]ATMSroadreducesmudproblemsandprovidesstonefreeroadsforlocalresidentswhere
loadedtrucktrafficisnegligible.TheTMSlayeraddsnosignificantstructuralstrength,andsoisusedon
secondaryhighwayswithlowtrafficvolumeandminimalweightloading.Constructioninvolvesminimalsubgrade
preparation,followingbycoveringwitha50to100millimetres(2.03.9in)coldmixasphaltaggregate.[5]The
OperationDivisionoftheMinistryofHighwaysandInfrastructureinSaskatchewanhastheresponsibilityof
maintaining6,102kilometres(3,792mi)ofthinmembranesurface(TMS)highways.[21]

Ottaseal
Ottasealisalowcostroadsurfaceusinga1630millimetre(0.631.18in)thickmixtureofbitumenandcrushed
rock.[22]

Gravelsurface
GravelisknowntohavebeenusedextensivelyintheconstructionofroadsbysoldiersoftheRomanEmpire(see
Romanroad)butalimestonesurfacedroad,thoughttodatebacktotheBronzeAge,hasbeenfoundinBritain.[23]
Applyinggravel,or"metalling,"hashadtwodistinctusagesinroadsurfacing.Thetermroadmetalreferstothe
brokenstoneorcindersusedintheconstructionorrepairofroadsorrailways,[24]andisderivedfromtheLatin
metallum,whichmeansboth"mine"and"quarry".[25]Thetermoriginallyreferredtotheprocessofcreatinga
gravelroadway.Therouteoftheroadwaywouldfirstbedugdownseveralfeetand,dependingonlocalconditions,
Frenchdrainsmayormaynothavebeenadded.Next,largestoneswereplacedandcompacted,followedby
successivelayersofsmallerstones,untiltheroadsurfacewascomposedofsmallstonescompactedintoahard,
durablesurface."Roadmetal"laterbecamethenameofstonechippingsmixedwithtartoformtheroadsurfacing
materialtarmac.Aroadofsuchmaterialiscalleda"metalledroad"inBritain,a"pavedroad"inCanadaandthe
US,ora"sealedroad"inpartsofCanada,AustraliaandNewZealand.[26]
Agranularsurfacecanbeusedwithatrafficvolumewheretheannualaveragedailytrafficis1,200vehiclesper
dayorless.Thereissomestructuralstrengthastheroadsurfacecombinesasubbaseandbaseandistoppedwitha
doublegradedsealaggregatewithemulsion.[5][27]Besidesthe4,929kilometres(3,063mi)ofgranularpavements
maintainedinSaskatchewan,around40%ofNewZealandroadsareunboundgranularpavementstructures.[21][28]
Thedecisionwhethertopaveagravelroadornotoftenhingesontrafficvolume.Ithasbeenfoundthat
maintenancecostsforgravelroadsoftenexceedthemaintenancecostsforpavedorsurfacetreatedroadswhen
trafficvolumesexceed200vehiclesperday.[29]
Somecommunitiesarefindingitmakessensetoconverttheirlowvolumepavedroadstoaggregatesurfaces.[30]

Othersurfaces
Pavers(orpaviours),generallyintheformofprecastconcreteblocks,areoftenusedforaestheticpurposes,or
sometimesatportfacilitiesthatseelongdurationpavementloading.Paversarerarelyusedinareasthatseehigh
speedvehicletraffic.

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Brick,cobblestone,sett,woodplank,andwoodblockpavementssuchasNicolsonpavement,wereoncecommon
inurbanareasthroughouttheworld,butfelloutoffashioninmostcountries,duetothehighcostoflaborrequired
tolayandmaintainthem,andaretypicallyonlykeptforhistoricaloraestheticreasons.Insomecountries,
however,theyarestillcommoninlocalstreets.IntheNetherlands,brickpavinghasmadesomewhatofa
comebacksincetheadoptionofamajornationwidetrafficsafetyprogramin1997.From1998through2007,more
than41,000kmofcitystreetswereconvertedtolocalaccessroadswithaspeedlimitof30km/h,forthepurpose
oftrafficcalming.[31]Onepopularmeasureistousebrickpavingthenoiseandvibrationslowsmotoristsdown.
Atthesametime,itisnotuncommonforcyclepathsalongsidearoadtohaveasmoothersurfacethantheroad
itself.[32][33]
Likewise,macadamandtarmacpavementscanstillsometimesbefoundburiedunderneathasphaltconcreteor
Portlandcementconcretepavements,butarerarelyconstructedtoday.
Therearealsoothermethodsandmaterialstocreatepavementsthathaveappearanceofbrickpavements.Thefirst
methodtocreatebricktextureistoheatanasphaltpavementandusemetalwirestoimprintabrickpatternusinga
compactortocreatestampedasphalt.Asimilarmethodistouserubberimprintingtoolstopressoverathinlayer
ofcementtocreatedecorativeconcrete.Anothermethodistouseabrickpatternstencilandapplyasurfacing
materialoverthestencil.Materialsthatcanbeappliedtogivethecolorofthebrickandskidresistancecanbein
manyforms.Anexampleistousecoloredpolymermodifiedconcreteslurrywhichcanbeappliedbyscreedingor
spraying.[34]Anothermaterialisaggregatereinforcedthermoplasticwhichcanbeheatappliedtothetoplayerof
thebrickpatternsurface.[35]Othercoatingmaterialsoverstampedasphaltarepaintsandtwopartepoxy
coating.[36]

Gallery

Concretepavers

Replacingtheoldroadwith
concreteblocksinBo'aoRoadarea,
HaikouCity,Hainan,China

Polymercementoverlayingto
changeasphaltpavementtobrick
textureandcolortocreate
decorativecrosswalk

Acousticalimplications
Roadwaysurfacingchoicesareknowntoaffecttheintensityandspectrumofsoundemanatingfromthe
tire/surfaceinteraction.[37]Initialapplicationsofthisknowledgeoccurredintheearly1970s.Roadwaysurface
typescontributedifferentialnoiseeffectsofuptofourdB,withchipsealtypeandgroovedroadsbeingtheloudest
andconcretesurfaceswithoutspacersbeingthequietest.Asphalticsurfacesperformintermediatelyrelativeto
concreteandchipseal.Thesephenomenaare,ofcourse,highlyinfluencedbyvehiclespeed.Rubberizedasphalt
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hasbeenshowntogiveamarginal35dBreductionintirepavementnoiseemissions,andamarginally
discernible13decibelreductionintotalroadnoiseemissionswhencomparedtoconventionalasphalt
applications.

Cobbles

Rectangles

Decorativewavy
patternonLaRambla.

Decorativemockbrick
pattern.

Moredecorative
brickworkpatterns.

Surfacedeterioration
Aspavementsystemsprimarilyfailduetofatigue(inamannersimilartometals),
thedamagedonetopavementincreaseswiththefourthpoweroftheaxleloadof
thevehiclestravelingonit.AccordingtotheAASHORoadTest,heavilyloaded
truckscandomorethan10,000timesthedamagedonebyanormalpassengercar.
Taxratesfortrucksarehigherthanthoseforcarsinmostcountriesforthisreason,
thoughtheyarenotleviedinproportiontothedamagedone.[38]Passengercarsare
consideredtohavenopracticaleffectonapavement'sservicelife,fromafatigue
perspective.
Otherfailuremodesincludeagingandsurfaceabrasion.Asyearsgoby,thebinder
inabituminouswearingcoursegetsstifferandlessflexible.Whenitgets"old"
enough,thesurfacewillstartlosingaggregates,andmacrotexturedepthincreases
dramatically.Ifnomaintenanceactionisdonequicklyonthewearingcourse,
Deterioratingasphalt
potholeswillform.Iftheroadisstillstructurallysound,abituminoussurface
treatment,suchasachipsealorsurfacedressingcanprolongthelifeoftheroadat
lowcost.Inareaswithcoldclimate,studdedtiresmaybeallowedonpassengercars.InSwedenandFinland,
studdedpassengercartiresaccountforaverylargeshareofpavementrutting.
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Severaldesignmethodshavebeendevelopedtodeterminethethicknessandcompositionofroadsurfacesrequired
tocarrypredictedtrafficloadsforagivenperiodoftime.Pavementdesignmethodsarecontinuouslyevolving.
AmongthesearetheShellPavementdesignmethod,andtheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayand
TransportationOfficials(AASHTO)1993"GuideforDesignofPavementStructures".Anewmechanistic
empiricaldesignguidehasbeenunderdevelopmentbyNCHRP(CalledSuperpaveTechnology)since1998.A
newdesignguidecalledMechanisticEmpiricalPavementDesignGuide(MEPDG)wasdevelopedandisaboutto
beadoptedbyAASHTO.
Thephysicalpropertiesofastretchofpavementcanbetestedusingafallingweightdeflectometer.
FurtherresearchbyUniversityCollegeLondonintopavementshasledtothedevelopmentofanindoor,80sq
metreartificialpavementataresearchcentrecalledPedestrianAccessibilityandMovementEnvironment
Laboratory(PAMELA).Itisusedtosimulateeverydayscenarios,fromdifferentpavementuserstovarying
pavementconditions.[39]TherealsoexistsaresearchfacilitynearAuburnUniversity,theNCATPavementTest
Track,thatisusedtotestexperimentalasphaltpavementsfordurability.
Inadditiontorepaircosts,theconditionofaroadsurfacehaseconomiceffectsforroadusers.Rollingresistance
increasesonroughpavement,asdoeswearandtearofvehiclecomponents.Ithasbeenestimatedthatpoorroad
surfacescosttheaverageUSdriver$324peryearinvehiclerepairs,oratotalof$67billion.Also,ithasbeen
estimatedthatsmallimprovementsinroadsurfaceconditionscandecreasefuelconsumptionbetween1.8and
4.7%.[40]

Markings
Roadsurfacemarkingsareusedonpavedroadwaystoprovideguidanceandinformationtodriversand
pedestrians.Itcanbeintheformofmechanicalmarkerssuchascat'seyes,botts'dotsandrumblestrips,ornon
mechanicalmarkerssuchaspaints,thermoplastic,plasticandepoxy.

Seealso
Asphalt
Bleeding(roads)
Diamondgrindingofpavement
Ecogrid
GoodRoadsMovement
Listofroadtypesbyfeatures
Pavementmanagement
Pavement(material)

Pavement(material)
Plasticarmour
Roadconstruction
Roadslipperiness
Sealcoat

Notes
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2008.
2.Anon(June1991)."Highwayconstruction/Groundinsulation"(PDF).Styropor:Technicalinformation.Retrieved
29January2010.
3."WarmMixAsphaltTechnologiesandResearch".FederalHighwayAdministration.29October2008.Retrieved4August
2010.
4."Hot,Warm,LukeWarmandColdMixAsphalt"(PDF).CornellLocalRoadsProgram.June2009.Retrieved4August
2010.
5.Gerbrandt,RonTimMakahoniukCathyLynnBorbelyCurtisBerthelot(2000)."Guidelinesmustbefollowedstrictly
Noexceptions"(PDF).EffectofColdinplacerecyclingontheHeavyweightTruckingIndustry.6thInternational
ConferenceonHeavyVehicleWeightsandDimensionProceedings.Retrieved25January2009.
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6.DavidJones(2012).AdvancesinPavementDesignthroughFullscaleAcceleratedPavementTesting.CRCPress.
7."ConcretePavementRestoration"(PDF).Retrieved7April2012.
8."ConcretePavementRehabilitationGuideforDiamondGrinding".Retrieved7April2012.
9.OhioHistoricalMarker(http://www.cityprofile.com/ohio/photos/4358bellefontainecourt_avenue2.html)
10.Lee,B.J.Lee,H.(2004)."PositionInvariantNeuralNetworkforDigitalPavementCrackAnalysis".ComputerAided
CivilandInfrastructureEngineering.19:105118.doi:10.1111/j.14678667.2004.00341.x.
11.Kulsea,BillShawver,TomKach,Carol(1980).MakingMichiganMove:AHistoryofMichiganHighwaysandthe
MichiganDepartmentofTransportation.Lansing,Michigan:MichiganDepartmentofTransportation.OCLC8169232.
12.Khazanovich,L.Lederle,R.Tompkins,D.Harvey,J.T.Signore,J.(2012)."GuidelinesfortheRehabilitationof
ConcretePavementsUsingAsphaltOverlays(FHWATPF5(149)FinalReport)".
13.MoghadasNejad,FereidoonNoory,AlirezaToolabi,SaeedFallah,Shahab(8August2014)."Effectofusing
geosyntheticsonreflectivecrackprevention".InternationalJournalofPavementEngineering.16(6):477487.
doi:10.1080/10298436.2014.943128.
14.Lavin,Patrick(2003).AsphaltPavements:APracticalGuidetoDesign,ProductionandMaintenanceforEngineersand
Architects.CRCPress.ISBN9780203453292.
15.RubblizingwithBituminousConcreteOverlay10Years'ExperienceinIllinois,IllinoisDepartmentofTransportation,
April2002,http://www.dot.state.il.us/materials/research/pdf/137.pdf
16."AsphaltPavingPrinciples".www.clrp.cornell.edu.CornellLocalRoadsProgram.March2004.Retrieved20161005.
17.Budd,Godfrey."Anendtosummerhighwayconstructiondelays?".www.albertaconstructionmagazine.com.Retrieved
20161005.
18.SprayedSeal(http://www.lgam.info/sprayedseal),LocalGovernment&MunicipalKnowledgeBase,accessed29
January2010
19.Gransberg,DouglasD.James,DavidM.B.(2005).ChipSealBestPractices(DigitisedonlinebyGooglebooks).National
CooperativeHighway.TransportationResearchBoard.pp.1320.ISBN9780309097444.Retrieved25February2009.
20.Lazic,ZvjezdanRonGerbrandt(2004)."FeasibilityofAlternativesaltstoragestructuresinSaskatchewanNeilburgcase
study"(PDF).Measuringperformanceindicatorsfordecisionmakinginwintermaintenanceoperations.2004Annual
conferenceoftheTransportationAssociationofCanada.SaskatchewanHighwaysandTransportation.Archivedfromthe
original(pdf)on18March2009.Retrieved25February2009.
21."HighwaysandInfrastructureGovernmentofSaskatchewan".Archivedfromtheoriginalon8February2008.
Retrieved15April2008.
22.Manins,Rosie(28February2009)."Newdustsuppressionmethod".OtagoDailyTimes.Retrieved5November2011.
23.Anon(July1998)."BronzeAgemetalledroadnearOxford".BritishArchaeology:News.CouncilforBritish
Archaeology(36).Retrieved29January2010.
24.Anon."Roadmetal".MerriamWebsteronlinedictionary.MerriamWebsterinc.Retrieved29January2010.
25.Anon."Metal".Onlineetymologicaldictionary.2001DouglasHarper.Retrieved29January2010.
26.Anon."MetalledRoad".WorldWebOnline.WordWebSoftware.Retrieved29January2010.
27."SurfacingAggregate"(PDF).Productbrochure.Afrisam.comSouthAfrica.2008.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on
18March2009.Retrieved25January2009.
28.Oeser,MarkusSabineWerkmeisterAlvaroGonzalesDavidAlabaster(2008)."Experimentalandnumericalsimulation
ofloadingimpactonmodifiedgranularpavements"(PDF).8thWorldCongressonComputationalMechanics5th
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Externallinks
PaveShareConcretePaverEducation(http://www.paveshare.org)
"Pavements"websiteoftheUSDepartmentofTransportation's
FederalHighwayAdministration(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavemen
t/index.cfm)

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mediarelatedtoPavements.

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