Resistance

The resistance R of a circuit is equal to the applied direct voltage E divided by the resulting
steady current I:
R=E/I

Resistances in Series
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in series, the total resistance RS is:
RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

Voltage Division by Series Resistances

When a total voltage ES is applied across series connected resistances R1 and R2, the current IS
which flows through the series circuit is:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2)
The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
V1 = ISR1 = ESR1 / (R1 + R2)
V2 = ISR2 = ESR2 / (R1 + R2)
In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... connected in series:
IS = ES / RS = ES / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Vn = ISRn = ESRn / RS = ESRn / (R1 + R2 + R3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage drop appears across the highest resistance.

Resistances in Parallel
When resistances R1, R2, R3, ... are connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
1 / RP = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + ...
Alternatively, when conductances G1, G2, G3, ... are connected in parallel, the total conductance
GP is:
GP = G1 + G2 + G3 + ...
where Gn = 1 / Rn
For two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel, the total resistance RP is:
RP = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
RP = product / sum
The resistance R2 to be connected in parallel with resistance R1 to give a total resistance RP is:
R2 = R1RP / (R1 - RP)
R2 = product / difference

Current Division by Parallel Resistances

When a total current IP is passed through parallel connected resistances R1 and R2, the voltage
VP which appears across the parallel circuit is:
VP = IPRP = IPR1R2 / (R1 + R2)

The currents I1 and I2 which pass through the respective resistances R1 and R2 are:
I1 = VP / R1 = IPR2 / (R1 + R2)
I2 = VP / R2 = IPR1 / (R1 + R2)
In general terms, for resistances R1, R2, R3, ... (with conductances G1, G2, G3, ...) connected in
parallel:
VP = IPRP = IP / GP = IP / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
In = VP / Rn = VPGn = IPGn / GP = IPGn / (G1 + G2 + G3 + ...)
where Gn = 1 / Rn
Note that the highest current passes through the highest conductance (with the lowest
resistance).

Capacitance
When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing capacitance, current flows to accumulate charge
in the capacitance:
Q = idt = CV
Alternatively, by differentiation with respect to time:
dq/dt = i = C dv/dt
Note that the rate of change of voltage has a polarity which opposes the flow of current.
The capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charge divided by the voltage:
C = Q / V = idt / V
Alternatively, the capacitance C of a circuit is equal to the charging current divided by the rate of
change of voltage:
C = i / dv/dt = dq/dt / dv/dt = dq/dv

Capacitances in Series
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
1 / CS = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...
For two capacitances C1 and C2 connected in series, the total capacitance CS is:
CS = C1C2 / (C1 + C2)
CS = product / sum

Voltage Division by Series Capacitances

When a total voltage ES is applied to series connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QS
which accumulates in the series circuit is:
QS = iSdt = ESCS = ESC1C2 / (C1 + C2)
The voltages V1 and V2 which appear across the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:
V1 = iSdt / C1 = ESC2 / (C1 + C2)
V2 = iSdt / C2 = ESC1 / (C1 + C2)
In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in series:
QS = iSdt = ESCS = ES / (1 / CS) = ES / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Vn = iSdt / Cn = ESCS / Cn = ES / Cn(1 / CS) = ES / Cn(1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...)
Note that the highest voltage appears across the lowest capacitance.

Capacitances in Parallel
When capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... are connected in parallel, the total capacitance CP is:
CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Charge Division by Parallel Capacitances

When a voltage EP is applied to parallel connected capacitances C1 and C2, the charge QP which
accumulates in the parallel circuit is:
QP = iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2)
The charges Q1 and Q2 which accumulate in the respective capacitances C1 and C2 are:
Q1 = i1dt = EPC1
Q2 = i2dt = EPC2
In general terms, for capacitances C1, C2, C3, ... connected in parallel:
QP = iPdt = EPCP = EP(C1 + C2 + C3 + ...)
Qn = indt = EPCn
Note that the highest charge accumulates in the highest capacitance.

Inductance
When the current changes in a circuit containing inductance, the magnetic linkage changes and
induces a voltage in the inductance:
d/dt = e = L di/dt
Note that the induced voltage has a polarity which opposes the rate of change of current.
Alternatively, by integration with respect to time:
= edt = LI
The inductance L of a circuit is equal to the induced voltage divided by the rate of change of
current:
L = e / di/dt = d/dt / di/dt = d/di
Alternatively, the inductance L of a circuit is equal to the magnetic linkage divided by the current:
L=/I
Note that the magnetic linkage is equal to the product of the number of turns N and the
magnetic flux :
= N = LI

Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance M of two coupled inductances L1 and L2 is equal to the mutually induced
voltage in one inductance divided by the rate of change of current in the other inductance:
M = E2m / (di1/dt)
M = E1m / (di2/dt)
If the self induced voltages of the inductances L1 and L2 are respectively E1s and E2s for the same
rates of change of the current that produced the mutually induced voltages E1m and E2m, then:
M = (E2m / E1s)L1
M = (E1m / E2s)L2
Combining these two equations:

M = (E1mE2m / E1sE2s) (L1L2) = kM(L1L2)

where kM is the mutual coupling coefficient of the two inductances L1 and L2.
If the coupling between the two inductances L1 and L2 is perfect, then the mutual inductance M is:
M = (L1L2)

Inductances in Series
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in series, the total inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 + L3 + ...
When two coupled inductances L1 and L2 with mutual inductance M are connected in series, the
total inductance LS is:
LS = L1 + L2 2M
The plus or minus sign indicates that the coupling is either additive or subtractive, depending on
the connection polarity.

Inductances in Parallel
When uncoupled inductances L1, L2, L3, ... are connected in parallel, the total inductance LP is:
1 / LP = 1 / L1 + 1 / L2 + 1 / L3 + ...

Time Constants
Capacitance and resistance
The time constant of a capacitance C and a resistance R is equal to CR, and represents the time
to change the voltage on the capacitance from zero to E at a constant charging current E / R
(which produces a rate of change of voltage E / CR across the capacitance).
Similarly, the time constant CR represents the time to change the charge on the capacitance from
zero to CE at a constant charging current E / R (which produces a rate of change of voltage E /
CR across the capacitance).
If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising a discharged capacitance C and a
resistance R, then after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC
across the capacitance and the charge qC on the capacitance are:
i = (E / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ee - t / CR
vC = E - vR = E(1 - e - t / CR)
qC = CvC = CE(1 - e - t / CR)
If a capacitance C charged to voltage V is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the
current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vC across the capacitance and the
charge qC on the capacitance are:
i = (V / R)e - t / CR
vR = iR = Ve - t / CR
vC = vR = Ve - t / CR
qC = CvC = CVe - t / CR
Inductance and resistance
The time constant of an inductance L and a resistance R is equal to L / R, and represents the
time to change the current in the inductance from zero to E / R at a constant rate of change of
current E / L (which produces an induced voltage E across the inductance).
If a voltage E is applied to a series circuit comprising an inductance L and a resistance R, then
after time t the current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the
inductance and the magnetic linkage L in the inductance are:
i = (E / R)(1 - e - tR / L)

vR = iR = E(1 - e - tR / L)
vL = E - vR = Ee - tR / L
L = Li = (LE / R)(1 - e - tR / L)
If an inductance L carrying a current I is discharged through a resistance R, then after time t the
current i, the voltage vR across the resistance, the voltage vL across the inductance and the
magnetic linkage L in the inductance are:
i = Ie - tR / L
vR = iR = IRe - tR / L
vL = vR = IRe - tR / L
L = Li = LIe - tR / L
Rise Time and Fall Time
The rise time (or fall time) of a change is defined as the transition time between the 10% and 90%
levels of the total change, so for an exponential rise (or fall) of time constant T, the rise time (or
fall time) t10-90 is:
t10-90 = (ln0.9 - ln0.1)T 2.2T
The half time of a change is defined as the transition time between the initial and 50% levels of
the total change, so for an exponential change of time constant T, the half time t50 is :
t50 = (ln1.0 - ln0.5)T 0.69T
Note that for an exponential change of time constant T:
- over time interval T, a rise changes by a factor 1 - e -1 ( 0.63) of the remaining change,
- over time interval T, a fall changes by a factor e -1 ( 0.37) of the remaining change,
- after time interval 3T, less than 5% of the total change remains,
- after time interval 5T, less than 1% of the total change remains.

Power
The power P dissipated by a resistance R carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2 / R = VI = I2R
Similarly, the power P dissipated by a conductance G carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
P = V2G = VI = I2 / G
The power P transferred by a capacitance C holding a changing voltage V with charge Q is:
P = VI = CV(dv/dt) = Q(dv/dt) = Q(dq/dt) / C
The power P transferred by an inductance L carrying a changing current I with magnetic linkage
is:
P = VI = LI(di/dt) = (di/dt) = (d/dt) / L

Energy
The energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a resistance R carrying a
current I with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2t / R = VIt = I2tR
Similarly, the energy W consumed over time t due to power P dissipated in a conductance G
carrying a current I with a voltage drop V is:
W = Pt = V2tG = VIt = I2t / G
The energy W stored in a capacitance C holding voltage V with charge Q is:
W = CV2 / 2 = QV / 2 = Q2 / 2C
The energy W stored in an inductance L carrying current I with magnetic linkage is:
W = LI2 / 2 = I / 2 = 2 / 2L

Batteries
If a battery of open-circuit voltage EB has a loaded voltage VL when supplying load current IL, the
battery internal resistance RB is:
RB = (EB - VL) / IL
The load voltage VL and load current IL for a load resistance RL are:
VL = ILRL = EB - ILRB = EBRL / (RB + RL)
IL = VL / RL = (EB - VL) / RB = EB / (RB + RL)
The battery short-circuit current Isc is:
Isc = EB / RB = EBIL / (EB - VL)

Voltmeter Multiplier
The resistance RS to be connected in series with a voltmeter of full scale voltage VV and
full scale current drain IV to increase the full scale voltage to V is:
RS = (Ohm's Law
When an applied voltage E causes a current I to flow through an impedance Z, the value of the
impedance Z is equal to the voltage E divided by the current I.
Impedance = Voltage / Current
Z=E/I
Similarly, when a voltage E is applied across an impedance Z, the resulting current I through the
impedance is equal to the voltage E divided by the impedance Z.
Current = Voltage / Impedance
I=E/Z
Similarly, when a current I is passed through an impedance Z, the resulting voltage drop V across
the impedance is equal to the current I multiplied by the impedance Z.
Voltage = Current * Impedance
V = IZ
Alternatively, using admittance Y which is the reciprocal of impedance Z:
Voltage = Current / Admittance
V=I/Y

Kirchoff's Laws
Kirchoff's Current Law
The sum of all the currents flowing into any circuit node is equal to the sum of all the currents
flowing out of that node:
Iin = Iout
Similarly, the algebraic sum of all the currents at any circuit node is zero:
I = 0
Kirchoff's Voltage Law
The sum of all the voltage sources in any closed circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops in that circuit:
E = IZ
Similarly, the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed circuit is zero:
E - IZ = 0

Thvenin's Theorem

Any voltage network which may be viewed from two terminals can be replaced by a voltagesource equivalent circuit comprising a single voltage source E and a single series impedance Z.
The voltage E is the open-circuit voltage between the two terminals and the impedance Z is the
impedance of the network viewed from the terminals with all voltage sources replaced by their
internal impedances.

Norton's Theorem
Any current network which may be viewed from two terminals can be replaced by a currentsource equivalent circuit comprising a single current source I and a single shunt admittance Y.
The current I is the short-circuit current between the two terminals and the admittance Y is the
admittance of the network viewed from the terminals with all current sources replaced by their
internal admittances.

Thvenin and Norton Equivalence

The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Thvenin model are:
Voc = E
Isc = E / Z
Vload = E - IloadZ
Iload = E / (Z + Zload)
The open circuit, short circuit and load conditions of the Norton model are:
Voc = I / Y
Isc = I
Vload = I / (Y + Yload)
Iload = I - VloadY
Thvenin model from Norton model
Voltage = Current / Admittance
E=I/Y
Impedance = 1 / Admittance
Z = Y -1
Norton model from Thvenin model
Current = Voltage / Impedance
I=E/Z
Admittance = 1 / Impedance
Y = Z -1
When performing network reduction for a Thvenin or Norton model, note that:
- nodes with zero voltage difference may be short-circuited with no effect on the network current
distribution,
- branches carrying zero current may be open-circuited with no effect on the network voltage
distribution.

Superposition Theorem
In a network with multiple voltage sources, the current in any branch is the sum of the currents
which would flow in that branch due to each voltage source acting alone with all other voltage
sources replaced by their internal impedances.

Reciprocity Theorem
If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a current I to flow in another
branch of the network, then the same voltage source E acting in the second branch would cause
an identical current I to flow in the first branch.

Compensation Theorem
If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I flows is changed by a finite
amount Z, then the change in the currents in all other branches of the network may be
calculated by inserting a voltage source of -IZ into that branch with all other voltage sources
replaced by their internal impedances.

Millman's Theorem (Parallel Generator Theorem)

If any number of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... meet at a common point P, and the voltages from
another point N to the free ends of these admittances are E1, E2, E3, ... then the voltage between
points P and N is:
VPN = (E1Y1 + E2Y2 + E3Y3 + ...) / (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ...)
VPN = EY / Y
The short-circuit currents available between points P and N due to each of the voltages E1, E2, E3,
... acting through the respective admitances Y1, Y2, Y3, ... are E1Y1, E2Y2, E3Y3, ... so the voltage
between points P and N may be expressed as:
VPN = Isc / Y

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

When the impedance of a load connected to a power source is varied from open-circuit to shortcircuit, the power absorbed by the load has a maximum value at a load impedance which is
dependent on the impedance of the power source.
Note that power is zero for an open-circuit (zero current) and for a short-circuit (zero voltage).
Voltage Source
When a load resistance RL is connected to a voltage source ES with series resistance RS,
maximum power transfer occurs when RL is equal to RS.
Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load resistance RL, load voltage VL, load current IL
and load power PL are:
R L = RS
VL = E S / 2
IL = VL / RL = ES / 2RS
PL = VL2 / RL = ES2 / 4RS
Current Source
When a load conductance GL is connected to a current source IS with shunt conductance GS,
maximum power transfer occurs when GL is equal to GS.
Under maximum power transfer conditions, the load conductance GL, load current IL, load voltage
VL and load power PL are:
GL = GS
IL = IS / 2
VL = IL / GL = IS / 2GS
PL = IL2 / GL = IS2 / 4GS
Complex Impedances
When a load impedance ZL is connected to an alternating voltage source ES with series
impedance ZS, maximum power transfer to the load occurs when the load impedance ZL is equal
to ZS*, the complex conjugate of the source impedance ZS.

If ZL comprises resistance RL and reactance XL, and ZS comprises resistance RS and reactance
XS, maximum power transfer occurs when RL and RS are equal and XL and XS are equal in
magnitude but of opposite sign (one inductive and the other capacitive).

Kennelly's Star-Delta Transformation

A star network of three impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at common node N can
be transformed into a delta network of three impedances ZAB, ZBC and ZCA by the following
equations:
ZAB = ZAN + ZBN + (ZANZBN / ZCN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZCN
ZBC = ZBN + ZCN + (ZBNZCN / ZAN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZAN
ZCA = ZCN + ZAN + (ZCNZAN / ZBN) = (ZANZBN + ZBNZCN + ZCNZAN) / ZBN
Similarly, using admittances:
YAB = YANYBN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YBC = YBNYCN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
YCA = YCNYAN / (YAN + YBN + YCN)
In general terms:
Zdelta = (sum of Zstar pair products) / (opposite Zstar)
Ydelta = (adjacent Ystar pair product) / (sum of Ystar)

Kennelly's Delta-Star Transformation

A delta network of three impedances ZAB, ZBC and ZCA can be transformed into a star network of
three impedances ZAN, ZBN and ZCN connected together at common node N by the following
equations:
ZAN = ZCAZAB / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZBN = ZABZBC / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
ZCN = ZBCZCA / (ZAB + ZBC + ZCA)
Similarly, using admittances:
YAN = YCA + YAB + (YCAYAB / YBC) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YBC
YBN = YAB + YBC + (YABYBC / YCA) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YCA
YCN = YBC + YCA + (YBCYCA / YAB) = (YABYBC + YBCYCA + YCAYAB) / YAB
In general terms:
Zstar = (adjacent Zdelta pair product) / (sum of Zdelta)
Ystar = (sum of Ydelta pair products) / (opposite Ydelta)
V - VV) / IV
The power P dissipated by the resistance RS with voltage drop (V - VV) carrying current IV is:
P = (V - VV)2 / RS = (V - VV)IV = IV2RS

Ammeter Shunt
The resistance RP to be connected in parallel with an ammeter of full scale current IA and full
scale voltage drop VA to increase the full scale current to I is:
RP = VA / (I - IA)
The power P dissipated by the resistance RP with voltage drop VA carrying current (I - IA) is:
P = VA2 / RP = VA(I - IA) = (I - IA)2RP

Impedance
The impedance Z of a resistance R in series with a reactance X is:
Z = R + jX
Rectangular and polar forms of impedance Z:
Z = R + jX = (R2 + X2)tan-1(X / R) = |Z|f = |Z|cosf + j|Z|sinf
Addition of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 + Z2 = (R1 + jX1) + (R2 + jX2) = (R1 + R2) + j(X1 + X2)
Subtraction of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 - Z2 = (R1 + jX1) - (R2 + jX2) = (R1 - R2) + j(X1 - X2)
Multiplication of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 * Z2 = |Z1|f1 * |Z2|f2 = ( |Z1| * |Z2| )(f1 + f2)
Division of impedances Z1 and Z2:
Z1 / Z2 = |Z1|f1 / |Z2|f2 = ( |Z1| / |Z2| )(f1 - f2)
In summary:
- use the rectangular form for addition and subtraction,
- use the polar form for multiplication and division.

Admittance
An impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X can be
converted to an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a
susceptance B:
Y = Z -1 = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / (R2 + X2) - jX / (R2 + X2) =
G - jB
G = R / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2
B = X / (R2 + X2) = X / |Z|2
Using the polar form of impedance Z:
Y = 1 / |Z|f = |Z| -1-f = |Y|-f = |Y|cosf - j|Y|sinf
Conversely, an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a
susceptance B can be converted to an impedance Z comprising a resistance R in
series with a reactance X:
Z = Y -1 = 1 / (G - jB) = (G + jB) / (G2 + B2) = G / (G2 + B2) + jB / (G2 + B2)
= R + jX
R = G / (G2 + B2) = G / |Y|2
X = B / (G2 + B2) = B / |Y|2
Using the polar form of admittance Y:
Z = 1 / |Y|-f = |Y| -1f = |Z|f = |Z|cosf + j|Z|sinf
The total impedance ZS of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3,... connected in series is:
ZS = Z1 + Z1 + Z1 +...
The total admittance YP of admittances Y1, Y2, Y3,... connected in parallel is:
YP = Y1 + Y1 + Y1 +...

In summary:
- use impedances when operating on series circuits,
- use admittances when operating on parallel circuits.

Reactance
Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance XL of an inductance L at angular frequency w and frequency
f is:
XL = wL = 2pfL
For a sinusoidal current i of amplitude I and angular frequency w:
i = I sinwt
If sinusoidal current i is passed through an inductance L, the voltage e across the
inductance is:
e = L di/dt = wLI coswt = XLI coswt
The current through an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90.
Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance XC of a capacitance C at angular frequency w and
frequency f is:
XC = 1 / wC = 1 / 2pfC
For a sinusoidal voltage v of amplitude V and angular frequency w:
v = V sinwt
If sinusoidal voltage v is applied across a capacitance C, the current i through the
capacitance is:
i = C dv/dt = wCV coswt = V coswt / XC
The current through a capacitance leads the voltage across it by 90.

Resonance
Series Resonance
A series circuit comprising an inductance L, a resistance R and a capacitance C has
an impedance ZS of:
ZS = R + j(XL - XC)
where XL = wL and XC = 1 / wC
At resonance, the imaginary part of ZS is zero:
XC = XL
ZSr = R
wr = (1 / LC) = 2pfr
Parallel resonance
A parallel circuit comprising an inductance L with a series resistance R, connected in
parallel with a capacitance C, has an admittance YP of:
YP = 1 / (R + jXL) + 1 / (- jXC) = (R / (R2 + XL2)) - j(XL / (R2 + XL2) - 1 / XC)
where XL = wL and XC = 1 / wC
At resonance, the imaginary part of YP is zero:
XC = (R2 + XL2) / XL = XL + R2 / XL = XL(1 + R2 / XL2)
ZPr = YPr-1 = (R2 + XL2) / R = XLXC / R = L / CR
wr = (1 / LC - R2 / L2) = 2pfr
Note that for the same values of L, R and C, the parallel resonance frequency is
lower than the series resonance frequency, but if the ratio R / L is small then the
parallel resonance frequency is close to the series resonance frequency.

Reactive Loads and Power Factor

Resistance and Series Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and series reactance X
is:
Z = R + jX = |Z|f
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R2 + X2) = R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2
When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Z, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(R / |Z|2 - jX / |Z|2) = VR / |Z|2 - jVX / |Z|2 = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VR / |Z|2 = |I|cosf
IQ = VX / |Z|2 = |I|sinf
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = V2 / |Z| = |I|2|Z|
P = VIP = IP2|Z|2 / R = V2R / |Z|2 = |I|2R
Q = VIQ = IQ2|Z|2 / X = V2X / |Z|2 = |I|2X
The power factor cosf and reactive factor sinf are:
cosf = IP / |I| = P / S = R / |Z|
sinf = IQ / |I| = Q / S = X / |Z|
Resistance and Shunt Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and shunt reactance X is
found from:
1 / Z = 1 / R + 1 / jX
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y comprising conductance G and shunt
susceptance B:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / R - j / X = G - jB = |Y|-f
When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Y, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(G - jB) = VG - jVB = IP - jIQ
The active current IP and the reactive current IQ are:
IP = VG = V / R = |I|cosf
IQ = VB = V / X = |I|sinf
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = |I|2 / |Y| = V2|Y|
P = VIP = IP2 / G = |I|2G / |Y|2 = V2G
Q = VIQ = IQ2 / B = |I|2B / |Y|2 = V2B
The power factor cosf and reactive factor sinf are:
cosf = IP / |I| = P / S = G / |Y|
sinf = IQ / |I| = Q / S = B / |Y|

Complex Power
When a voltage V causes a current I to flow through a reactive load Z, the complex
power S is:
S = VI* where I* is the conjugate of the complex current I.
Inductive Load
Z = R + jXL

I = IP - jIQ
cosf = R / |Z| (lagging)
I* = IP + jIQ
S = P + jQ
An inductive load is a sink of lagging VArs (a source of leading VArs).
Capacitive Load
Z = R - jXC
I = IP + jIQ
cosf = R / |Z| (leading)
I* = IP - jIQ
S = P - jQ
A capacitive load is a source of lagging VArs (a sink of leading VArs).

Three Phase Power

For a balanced star connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vstar = Vline / 3
Istar = Iline
Zstar = Vstar / Istar = Vline / 3Iline
Sstar = 3VstarIstar = 3VlineIline = Vline2 / Zstar = 3Iline2Zstar
For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage Vline and line current Iline:
Vdelta = Vline
Idelta = Iline / 3
Zdelta = Vdelta / Idelta = 3Vline / Iline
Sdelta = 3VdeltaIdelta = 3VlineIline = 3Vline2 / Zdelta = Iline2Zdelta
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are related by:
S2 = P2 + Q2
P = Scosf
Q = Ssinf
where cosf is the power factor and sinf is the reactive factor
Note that for equivalence between balanced star and delta connected loads:
Zdelta = 3Zstar

Per-unit System
For each system parameter, per-unit value is equal to the actual value divided by a
base value:
Epu = E / Ebase
Ipu = I / Ibase
Zpu = Z / Zbase
Select rated values as base values, usually rated power in MVA and rated phase
voltage in kV:
Sbase = Srated = 3ElineIline
Ebase = Ephase = Eline/ 3
The base values for line current in kA and per-phase star impedance in ohms/phase
are:
Ibase = Sbase / 3Ebase ( = Sbase / 3Eline)
Zbase = Ebase / Ibase = 3Ebase2 / Sbase ( = Eline2 / Sbase)

Note that selecting the base values for any two of Sbase, Ebase, Ibase or Zbase fixes the
base values of all four. Note also that Ohm's Law is satisfied by each of the sets of
actual, base and per-unit values for voltage, current and impedance.
Transformers
The primary and secondary MVA ratings of a transformer are equal, but the voltages
and currents in the primary (subscript 1) and the secondary (subscript 2) are usually
different:
3E1lineI1line = S = 3E2lineI2line
Converting to base (per-phase star) values:
3E1baseI1base = Sbase = 3E2baseI2base
E1base / E2base = I2base / I1base
Z1base / Z2base = (E1base / E2base)2
The impedance Z21pu referred to the primary side, equivalent to an impedance Z2pu on
the secondary side, is:
Z21pu = Z2pu(E1base / E2base)2
The impedance Z12pu referred to the secondary side, equivalent to an impedance Z1pu
on the primary side, is:
Z12pu = Z1pu(E2base / E1base)2
Note that per-unit and percentage values are related by:
Zpu = Z% / 100

Symmetrical Components
In any three phase system, the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic may be expressed as the
phasor sum of:
- a set of balanced positive phase sequence currents Ia1, Ib1 and Ic1 (phase sequence
a-b-c),
- a set of balanced negative phase sequence currents Ia2, Ib2 and Ic2 (phase
sequence a-c-b),
- a set of identical zero phase sequence currents Ia0, Ib0 and Ic0 (cophasal, no phase
sequence).
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are calculated from the line
currents using:
Ia1 = (Ia + hIb + h2Ic) / 3
Ia2 = (Ia + h2Ib + hIc) / 3
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic) / 3
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are combined to give the line
currents using:
Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0
Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 = h2Ia1 + hIa2 + Ia0
Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 = hIa1 + h2Ia2 + Ia0
The residual current Ir is equal to the total zero sequence current:
Ir = Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 = 3Ia0 = Ia + Ib + Ic = Ie
which is measured using three current transformers with parallel connected
secondaries.
Ie is the earth fault current of the system.
Similarly, for phase-to-earth voltages Vae, Vbe and Vce, the residual voltage Vr is
equal to the total zero sequence voltage:
Vr = Va0 + Vb0 + Vc0 = 3Va0 = Vae + Vbe + Vce = 3Vne
which is measured using an earthed-star / open-delta connected voltage transformer.
Vne is the neutral displacement voltage of the system.

The h-operator
The h-operator (1120) is the complex cube root of unity:
h = - 1 / 2 + j3 / 2 = 1120 = 1-240
h2 = - 1 / 2 - j3 / 2 = 1240 = 1-120
Some useful properties of h are:
1 + h + h2 = 0
h + h2 = - 1 = 1180
h - h2 = j3 = 390
h2 - h = - j3 = 3-90

Fault Calculations
The different types of short-circuit fault which occur on a power system are:
- single phase to earth,
- double phase,
- double phase to earth,
- three phase,
- three phase to earth.
For each type of short-circuit fault occurring on an unloaded system:
- the first column states the phase voltage and line current conditions at the fault,
- the second column states the phase 'a' sequence current and voltage conditions at
the fault,
- the third column provides formulae for the phase 'a' sequence currents at the fault,
- the fourth column provides formulae for the fault current and the resulting line
currents.
By convention, the faulted phases are selected for fault symmetry with respect to
reference phase 'a'.
I f = fault current
Ie = earth fault current
Ea = normal phase voltage at the fault location
Z1 = positive phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z2 = negative phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z0 = zero phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Single phase to earth - fault from phase 'a' to earth:
Va = 0
Ib = Ic
=0
I f = Ia
= Ie

Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = Ia

Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + I f = 3Ia0 = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 +
/3
Z0)
Z0) = Ie
Va1 + Va2 + Va0 =
Ia2 = Ia1
Ia = I f = 3Ea / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
0
Ia0 = Ia1

Double phase - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c':

Vb = Vc
Ia = 0
I f = Ib = - Ic

Ia1 + Ia2 = 0
Ia0 = 0
Va1 = Va2

Ia1 = Ea / (Z1 +
Z2)
Ia2 = - Ia1
Ia0 = 0

I f = - j3Ia1 = - j3Ea / (Z1

+ Z2)
Ib = I f = - j3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)
Ic = - I f = j3Ea / (Z1 + Z2)

Double phase to earth - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c' to earth:
Vb = Vc = 0
Ia = 0
I f = Ib + Ic

Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0

=0
Va1 = Va2 = Va0

Ia1 = Ea / Znet
Ia2 = - Ia1Z0 / (Z2
+ Z0)

I f = 3Ia0 = - 3EaZ2 / Szz = Ie

Ib = I f / 2 - j3Ea(Z2 / 2 +
Z0) / Szz

Ia0 = - Ia1Z2 / (Z2

+ Z0)

= Ie

Ic = I f / 2 + j3Ea(Z2 / 2 +
Z0) / Szz

Znet = Z1 + Z2Z0 / (Z2 + Z0) and Szz = Z1Z2 + Z2Z0 + Z0Z1 = (Z2 + Z0)Znet
Three phase (and three phase to earth) - fault from phase 'a' to phase 'b' to
phase 'c' (to earth):
Va = Vb = Vc (=
0)
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
(= Ie)
I f = Ia = hIb =
h2Ic

Va0 = Va (=
Ia1 = Ea / Z1
0)
Ia2 = 0
Va1 = Va2 = 0
Ia0 = 0

I f = Ia1 = Ea / Z1 = Ia
Ib = Eb / Z1
Ic = Ec / Z1

The values of Z1, Z2 and Z0 are each determined from the respective positive,
negative and zero sequence impedance networks by network reduction to a single
impedance.
Note that the single phase fault current is greater than the three phase fault current
if Z0 is less than (2Z1 - Z2).
Note also that if the system is earthed through an impedance Zn (carrying current
3I0) then an impedance 3Zn (carrying current I0) must be included in the zero
sequence impedance network.

Three Phase Fault Level

The symmetrical three phase short-circuit current Isc of a power system with no-load
line and phase voltages Eline and Ephase and source impedance ZS per-phase star is:
Isc = Ephase / ZS = Eline / 3ZS
The three phase fault level Ssc of the power system is:
Ssc = 3Isc2ZS = 3EphaseIsc = 3Ephase2 / ZS = Eline2 / ZS
Note that if the X / R ratio of the source impedance ZS (comprising resistance RS
and reactance XS) is sufficiently large, then ZS XS.
Transformers
If a transformer of rating ST (taken as base) and per-unit impedance ZTpu is fed from
a source with unlimited fault level (infinite busbars), then the per-unit secondary
short-circuit current I2pu and fault level S2pu are:
I2pu = E2pu / ZTpu = 1.0 / ZTpu
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / ZTpu
If the source fault level is limited to SS by per-unit source impedance ZSpu (to the
same base as ZTpu), then the secondary short-circuit current I2pu and fault level S2pu
are reduced to:
I2pu = E2pu / (ZTpu + ZSpu) = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
S2pu = I2pu = 1.0 / (ZTpu + ZSpu)
where ZSpu = ST / SS

Thermal Short-time Rating

If a conductor which is rated to carry full load current Iload continuously is rated to
carry a maximum fault current Ilimit for a time tlimit, then a lower fault current Ifault
can be carried for a longer time tfault according to:
( Ilimit - Iload )2 tlimit = ( Ifault - Iload )2 tfault

Rearranging for Ifault and tfault:

Ifault = ( Ilimit - Iload ) ( tlimit / tfault ) + Iload
tfault = tlimit ( Ilimit - Iload )2 / ( Ifault - Iload )2
If Iload is small compared with Ilimit and Ifault, then:
Ilimit2 tlimit Ifault2 tfault
Ifault Ilimit ( tlimit / tfault )
tfault tlimit ( Ilimit / Ifault )2
Note that if the current Ifault is reduced by a factor of two, then the time tfault is
increased by a factor of four.

Instrument Transformers
Voltage Transformer
For a voltage transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary voltage VP and rated
secondary voltage VS, the maximum secondary current ISmax, maximum secondary
burden conductance GBmax and maximum primary current IPmax are:
ISmax = S / VS
GBmax = ISmax / VS = S / VS2
IPmax = S / VP = ISmaxVS / VP
Current Transformer
For a measurement current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary
current IP and rated secondary current IS, the maximum secondary voltage VSmax,
maximum secondary burden resistance RBmax and maximum primary voltage VPmax
are:
VSmax = S / IS
RBmax = VSmax / IS = S / IS2
VPmax = S / IP = VSmaxIS / IP
For a protection current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary current IP,
rated secondary current IS and rated accuracy limit factor F, the rated secondary
reference voltage VSF, maximum secondary burden resistance RBmax and equivalent
primary reference voltage VPF are:
VSF = SF / IS
RBmax = VSF / ISF = S / IS2
VPF = SF / IP = VSFIS / IP
Impedance Measurement
If the primary voltage Vpri and the primary current Ipri are measured at a point in a
system, then the primary impedance Zpri at that point is:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri
If the measured voltage is the secondary voltage Vsec of a voltage transformer of
primary/secondary ratio NV and the measured current is the secondary current Isec of
a current transformer of primary/secondary ratio NI, then the primary impedance Zpri
is related to the secondary impedance Zsec by:
Zpri = Vpri / Ipri = VsecNV / IsecNI = ZsecNV / NI = ZsecNZ
where NZ = NV / NI
If the no-load (source) voltage Epri is also measured at the point, then the source
impedance ZTpri to the point is:
ZTpri = (Epri - Vpri) / Ipri = (Esec - Vsec)NV / IsecNI = ZTsecNV / NI = ZTsecNZ

Power Factor Correction

If an inductive load with an active power demand P has an uncorrected power factor
of cosf1 lagging, and is required to have a corrected power factor of cosf2 lagging,
the uncorrected and corrected reactive power demands, Q1 and Q2, are:
Q1 = P tanf1
Q2 = P tanf2
where tanfn = (1 / cos2fn - 1)
The leading (capacitive) reactive power demand QC which must be connected across
the load is:
QC = Q1 - Q2 = P (tanf1 - tanf2)
The uncorrected and corrected apparent power demands, S1 and S2, are related by:
S1cosf1 = P = S2cosf2
Comparing corrected and uncorrected load currents and apparent power demands:
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosf1 / cosf2
If the load is required to have a corrected power factor of unity, Q2 is zero and:
QC = Q1 = P tanf1
I2 / I1 = S2 / S1 = cosf1 = P / S1
Shunt Capacitors
For star-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cstar on a three phase
system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand QCstar
and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCstar = Vline2 / XCstar = 2pfCstarVline2
Iline = QCstar / 3Vline = Vline / 3XCstar
Cstar = QCstar / 2pfVline2
For delta-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance Cdelta on a three phase
system of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand
QCdelta and the leading reactive line current Iline are:
QCdelta = 3Vline2 / XCdelta = 6pfCdeltaVline2
Iline = QCdelta / 3Vline = 3Vline / XCdelta
Cdelta = QCdelta / 6pfVline2
Note that for the same leading reactive power QC:
XCdelta = 3XCstar
Cdelta = Cstar / 3
Series Capacitors
For series line capacitors each of capacitance Cseries carrying line current Iline on a
three phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line capacitor
and the total leading reactive power demand QCseries of the set of three line capacitors
are:
Vdrop = IlineXCseries = Iline / 2pfCseries
QCseries = 3Vdrop2 / XCseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline2XCseries = 3Iline2 / 2pfCseries
Cseries = 3Iline2 / 2pfQCseries
Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line capacitors is
based on the line voltage Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = 3VlineIline

Reactors
Shunt Reactors
For star-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Lstar on a three phase system
of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand QLstar and
the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLstar = Vline2 / XLstar = Vline2 / 2pfLstar

Iline = QLstar / 3Vline = Vline / 3XLstar

Lstar = Vline2 / 2pfQLstar
For delta-connected shunt reactors each of inductance Ldelta on a three phase system
of line voltage Vline and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand QLdelta and
the lagging reactive line current Iline are:
QLdelta = 3Vline2 / XLdelta = 3Vline2 / 2pfLdelta
Iline = QLdelta / 3Vline = 3Vline / XLdelta
Ldelta = 3Vline2 / 2pfQLdelta
Note that for the same lagging reactive power QL:
XLdelta = 3XLstar
Ldelta = 3Lstar
Series Reactors
For series line reactors each of inductance Lseries carrying line current Iline on a three
phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop Vdrop across each line reactor and the
total lagging reactive power demand QLseries of the set of three line reactors are:
Vdrop = IlineXLseries = 2pfLseriesIline
QLseries = 3Vdrop2 / XLseries = 3VdropIline = 3Iline2XLseries = 6pfLseriesIline2
Lseries = QLseries / 6pfIline2
Note that the apparent power rating Srating of the set of three series line reactors is
based on the line voltage Vline and not the voltage drop Vdrop:
Srating = 3VlineIline

Harmonic Resonance
If a node in a power system operating at frequency f has a inductive source
reactance XL per phase and has power factor correction with a capacitive reactance
XC per phase, the source inductance L and the correction capacitance C are:
L = XL / w
C = 1 / wXC
where w = 2pf
The series resonance angular frequency wr of an inductance L with a capacitance C
is:
wr = (1 / LC) = w(XC / XL)
The three phase fault level Ssc at the node for no-load phase voltage E and source
impedance Z per-phase star is:
Ssc = 3E2 / |Z| = 3E2 / |R + jXL|
If the ratio XL / R of the source impedance Z is sufficiently large, |Z| XL so that:
Ssc 3E2 / XL
The reactive power rating QC of the power factor correction capacitors for a
capacitive reactance XC per phase at phase voltage E is:
QC = 3E2 / XC
The harmonic number fr / f of the series resonance of XL with XC is:
fr / f = wr / w = (XC / XL) (Ssc / QC)
Note that the ratio XL / XC which results in a harmonic number fr / f is:
XL / XC = 1 / ( fr / f )2
so for fr / f to be equal to the geometric mean of the third and fifth harmonics:
fr / f = 15 = 3.873
XL / XC = 1 / 15 = 0.067

Transformers
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across N1 primary turns and
secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across (N1 + N2) primary
turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1
Note that the winding current is I1 through the N1 section and (I2 - I1) through the N2 section.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary current I1, rated
secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated primary current
I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal transformer with N1
primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
The secondary circuit impedance Z2 referred to the primary circuit for an ideal transformer with N1
primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z21 = Z2(N1 / N2)2
The voltage regulation V2 of a transformer is the rise in secondary voltage which occurs when
rated load is disconnected from the secondary with rated voltage applied to the primary. For a
transformer with a secondary voltage E2 unloaded and V2 at rated load, the per-unit voltage
regulation V2pu is:
V2pu = (E2 - V2) / V2
Note that the per-unit base voltage is usually V2 and not E2.
Open Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary open-circuited is energised at rated primary voltage, then the
input power represents the iron loss of the transformer.
The per-phase star values of the shunt magnetising admittance Ym, conductance Gm and
susceptance Bm of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the open-circuit test results for
the per-phase primary voltage V1oc, per-phase primary current I1oc and input power Poc using:
Ym = I1oc / V1oc
Gm = mV1oc2 / Poc
Bm = (Ym2 - Gm2)
Short Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary short-circuited is energised at a reduced primary voltage which
causes rated secondary current to flow through the short-circuit, then the input power represents
the full load copper loss of the transformer.
The per-phase star values referred to the primary of the total series impedance Zs1, resistance Rs1
and reactance Xs1 of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the short-circuit test results for
the per-phase primary voltage V1sc, per-phase primary current I1sc and input power Psc using:
Zs1 = V1sc / I1sc = Z1 + Z2(N12 / N22)
Rs1 = Psc / mI1sc2 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Xs1 = (Zs12 - Rs12) = X1 + X2(N12 / N22)
where Z1, R1 and X1 are primary values and Z2, R2 and X2 are secondary values
Winding Resistance Test
The resistance of each winding is measured using a small direct current. If a voltage Vdc causes

current Idc to flow, then the resistance R is:

R = Vdc / Idc
Note that if a winding is delta connected and the resistance between any two phases is Rdelta then
the equivalent star resistance Rstar is:
Rstar = Rdelta / 3
The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may be used to calculate the separate
primary and secondary copper losses P1Cu and P2Cu:
P1Cu = I12R1
P2Cu = I22R2
Note that if the primary and secondary copper losses are equal, then the primary and secondary
resistances R1 and R2 are related by:
R1 / R2 = I22 / I12 = N12 / N22
The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may also be used to check the total
series resistance referred to the primary, Rs1, calculated from the short circuit test results:
Rs1 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Voltage Transformer
For a voltage transformer of voltampere rating S and rated secondary voltage E2, the maximum
secondary current I2max, maximum secondary circuit conductance GCmax and maximum external
burden conductance GBmaxare:
I2max = S / E2
GCmax = I2max / E2 = S / E22
GBmax GCmax
Current Transformer
For a current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated secondary current I2 and secondary
winding resistance is R2, the maximum secondary induced voltage E2max, maximum secondary
circuit resistance RCmax and maximum external burden resistance RBmax are:
E2max = S / I2
RCmax = E2max / I2 = S / I22
RBmax = RCmax - R2

Induction Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p
pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
s = 2fs / p = 2ns / 60
The per-unit slip s of an induction machine of synchronous rotational speed ns running at
rotational speed nm is:
s = (ns - nm) / ns
Rearranging for rotational speed nm:
nm = (1 - s)ns
Using angular speed instead of rotational speed n:
m = (1 - s) s
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / m = 60PM / 2nm
For an induction machine with Ns stator turns and Nr rotor turns running at slip s on a supply of
voltage Es and frequency fs, the rotor induced voltage and frequency Er and fr are:
Er = sEsNr / Ns
fr = sfs
For a rotor current Ir, the equivalent stator current Irs is:
Irs = IrNr / Ns
Note that the rotor / stator ratios are Ns / Nr for current, sNr / Ns for voltage and s for frequency.

For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance Xr, the rotor
impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed s running at angular speed m and slip
s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm for a gross output
torque Tm are related by:
Pt = sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
An induction machine can be operated as a generator, a motor or a brake:
- for negative slip (speed above synchronous) the machine is a generator,
- for positive slip between 0 and 1 (speed below synchronous) the machine is a motor,
- for positive slip greater than 1 (speed negative) the machine is a brake,
In all cases the magnetizing current (at lagging power factor) is provided by the supply system.
No Load Test
If an induction machine with its rotor unloaded is energised at rated voltage, then the input power
represents the sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss of the machine.
Locked Rotor Test
If an induction machine with its rotor locked is energised at a reduced voltage which causes rated
current input, then the input power represents the sum of the full load copper loss and stray loss
of the machine.
Stator Resistance Test
The resistance of the stator winding is measured using a small direct current.

Synchronous Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed s of a machine with p
pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
s = 2fs / p
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = sTm
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / s = PMp / 2fs = 60PM / 2ns
Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Synchronous Motor
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and synchronous
impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Note that the field excitation of a parallelled synchronous machine determines its power factor:
- an under-excited machine operates with a leading power factor,

- an over-excited machine operates with a lagging power factor.

The field excitation of an isolated synchronous generator determines its output voltage.

Direct Current Machines

Shunt Generator
For a shunt generator with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature
resistance Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea - IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt generator:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt generator is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Shunt Motor
For a shunt motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia and armature resistance
Ra, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa
The field current I f for a field resistance R f is:
If = V / Rf
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f = km
T = k fIa = kmIa
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a shunt motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to speed,
- torque is proportional to armature current.
The airgap power Pe for a shunt motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia
Series Motor
For a series motor with armature induced voltage Ea, armature current Ia, armature resistance Ra
and field resistance R f, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Ea + IaRa + IaR f = Ea + Ia(Ra + R f)
The field current is equal to the armature current.
The armature induced voltage Ea and torque T with magnetic flux at angular speed are:
Ea = k f Ia = km Ia
T = k fIa2 = kmIa2
where k f and km are design coefficients of the machine.
Note that for a series motor:
- induced voltage is proportional to both speed and armature current,
- torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
- armature current is inversely proportional to speed for a constant induced voltage.
The airgap power Pe for a series motor is:
Pe = T = EaIa = km Ia2

Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency of an energy conversion process with input power Pin, output power Pout
and power loss Ploss is:
= Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / = Ploss / (1 - )
Pout = Pin - Ploss = Pin = Ploss / (1 - )
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - )Pin = (1 - )Pout /
For an electrical machine with output power Pout (proportional to output current) and power loss
Ploss comprising a fixed loss Pfix (independent of output current) plus a variable loss Pvar
(proportional to square of output current) the efficiency is a maximum when Pvar is equal to Pfix.
For a transformer, Pfix is the iron loss and Pvar is the copper loss.
For an induction machine, Pfix is the iron loss plus the mechanical loss and Pvar is the copper loss
plus the stray loss.

Temperature Rise
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature, and the
relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating temperatures. For a linear
relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at temperature 1 and R2 at temperature 2, then:
R1 / ( 1 - 0) = R2 / ( 2 - 0) = (R2 - R1) / ( 2 - 1)
where 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
R2 / R1 = ( 2 - 0) / ( 1 - 0)
The average temperature rise of a winding under load may be estimated from measured
values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature 1 (usually ambient temperature) and the
hot winding resistance R2 at temperature 2, using:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 - 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance Rpu relative to R1:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ( 2 - 1) / ( 1 - 0) = / ( 1 - 0)
Note that the resistance values are measured using a small direct current to avoid heating and
inductive effects.
Copper Windings
The value of 0 for copper is - 234.5 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / ( 1 - 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 C is 0.00393 per degC.
Aluminium Windings
The value of 0 for aluminium is - 228 C, so that:
= 2 - 1 = ( 1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If 1 is 20 C and is 1 degC:
Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = / ( 1 - 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 C is 0.00403 per degC.