Electromagnetic Waves

Displacement Current- It is that current that comes into existence (in addition to
conduction current) whenever the electric field and hence the electric flux changes with
time. It is equal to 0 times the rate of change of electric flux through a given surface.

I D 0

dE
dt

Need of Displacement Current(1) An example illustrating the need for displacement current arises in connection with
capacitors with no medium between the plates.
It is found that during the charging of a capacitor a magnetic field exist in vacuum
between the plates although there is no actual transportation of charge from one plate
to another. The explanation is that a displacement current flow in vacuum and this
current produces the magnetic field in the region between the plates.
(2) To explain the Inconsistency of Amperes lawLet us consider the case of a charging parallel plate capacitor and applying the Amperes
circuital law for surfaces L and R.

B.dl 0

For surface R,

B.dl I

For surface L,

Since L and R are the surfaces of same loop so there is an

apparent contradiction in applying Amperes law in this case.
Maxwell resolves the above inconsistency by introducing
displacement current.

the

concept

of

Displacement current- The electric field between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is
given as

Q/ A
Q

0
0 A

Q 0 EA
Q 0 E
Taking the differential on the both sidesd E
dQ
0
dt
dt
d E
I D 0
dt
Thus 0

dE
is mathematically equivalent current for surface L to the conduction current I,
dt

which pierces surface R. This effective current is called as displacement current and it is

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defined as the current which appears in the region where electric field (and hence
electric flux) is changing with time.
Important properties of displacement current1. Displacement current exists whenever there is a change of electric flux.
2. It only adds to current density in Amperes circuital law. As it produces magnetic field so
it is called a current.
3. The magnitude of displacement current is equal to the rate of displacement of charge
from one plate to other plate of a capacitor.
4. Together with the conduction current, displacement current satisfies the property of
continuity.
Ampere Maxwells Law-This is the modified form of amperes circuital law and according
to this law The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is 0 times the sum
of conduction current and displacement current. i. e.

B.dl ( I
0

I D)

B.dl =

dE

I C 0

dt

Electromagnetic Waves- A wave radiated by an accelerated charge particle, propagating

through space as coupled electric and magnetic fields, oscillating perpendicularly to each
other and to the direction of propagation of the wave, is called Electromagnetic Wave.
OR
Electromagnetic waves consist of sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic fields at right
angles to each other and to the direction of propagation of wave.
Mathematical representation of electromagnetic wavesAdjacent figure shows a plane em wave of frequency and wavelength travelling along xaxis with speed c. The electric field

E Oscillates along y axis and

magnetic field B oscillates along zaxis. The electric field
written as-

can

be

E E y j E0 sin(kx t ) j E0 sin 2 vt j

x t
E E0 sin 2
T
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j (1)

Where k 2 / is the propagation constant and angular frequency,

The magnetic field vector can be written as-

B Bz k B0 sin(kx t )k B0 sin 2 vt k

x t
B B0 sin 2 k (2)
T
Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the electric field and magnetic field respectively and

E0 c B0

they related as

Thus, from equations (1) and (2) show that the variations in electric and magnetic fields are
in same phase.
Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves-

Suppose a plane EMW is travelling in +X direction.

Consider cube with sides parallel to the coordinate axis
as shown in diagram. For the situation we are
considering (i. e. no charges or on conduction currents),
the electric flux or magnetic flux through this cube is
zero. According to Gausss theorem the electric flux
through this surface is given as-

Q
D

E2

E1

E.dS 0

O
D

There is no contribution to net electric flux from the top

and bottom or from the front and back faces of the cube
because plane wave depend only on x and t.
Flux through the left face,

A
D

L E1 A

Flux through the right face

R E2 A

Net flux, R L E2 A E1 A = (E2 E1) A=0

Since A (area) cant be zero) so E1 - E2 = 0
Now there are two possibilities viz., either E1 = E2 or E1 = E2 = 0 . In case E1 = E2 , it
would mean that electric filed associated with EMW is constant. But such a constant field
cannot give rise to a wave. Therefore E1 = E2 = 0 i.e. there is no electric field in the
direction of wave propagation.
Similar reason can be applied for magnetic field.

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Thus Electric field and magnetic field associated with EM waves are transverse to
the direction of propagation.
Maxwells EquationMaxwells four equations describe the electric and magnetic
fields arising from varying distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those
fields change in time.

1.

Gauss Law for electric fields:

E.dS

(The integral of the outgoing electric field

over an area enclosing a volume equals the total charge inside.)

2. According to Gausss Theorem in magnetism, the surface integral of magnetic field over
a closed surface is always zero i.e.

B.dS =0

(No magnetic charge exists: no

dB
dt

The first term is integrated round

monopoles).
3. Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction:

E.dl
l

a closed line, usually a wire, and gives the total voltage change around the circuit, which
is generated by a varying magnetic field threading through the circuit.

4. Amperes Law plus Maxwells displacement current:

B.dl =
l

dE

I C 0
This gives
dt

the total magnetic force around a circuit in terms of the current through the circuit, plus
any varying electric field through the circuit (thats the displacement current).
Characteristic Properties of EMW-

2.

Electromagnetic waves are propagated by oscillating electric and magnetic fields

oscillating at right angles to each other i.e. accelerating charge particle is the source of
EMW.
Electromagnetic waves travel with a constant velocity of 3 x 108 m/s in vacuum.

3.

The speed of EMW in vacuum is given by

1.

0 0

and in a medium v

Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.

Electromagnetic waves can show interference or diffraction.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
Electromagnetic waves may be polarized. Electromagnetic waves need no medium for
propagation.
8. The energy from the sun is received by the earth through electromagnetic waves.
9. The optical effect of EMW is due to electric field vector.
10. The wavelength () and the frequency (v) of electromagnetic wave is related as c = =
/k. where k is propagation constant and k=2/.
4.
5.
6.
7.

11. Electromagnetic radiations act as waves as well as photons (particle) having no mass.
12. The frequency of the waves remains same when they change medium during
transmission.

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13. Electromagnetic waves are waves of fields and not of matter as are waves on water or
rope.
14. Electromagnetic waves carry momentum and exert the force and hence a pressure on
the surface at which they incident. The electromagnetic waves transport linear
momentum as they travel through space:

U
c

15. The electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this energy is
shared equally by electric and magnetic fields. The average energy density of e. m.

B02
1
2
wave is u uE uB 0 E0

2
0
Electromagnetic SpectrumThe orderly arrangement of electromagnetic wave according to their wavelength of
frequency is called as the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Different Parts of EM Spectrum and their main uses(1) Radio waves. Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires, and are used in radio and television communication systems.
Frequency range of radio waves is generally from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz

(2) Microwaves. Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), have frequencies in the

gigahertz (GHz) range. They are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons,
magnetrons and Gunn diodes).
Main uses
(i) RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)- Radar is used for aircraft navigation. Because of
smaller wavelengths, radar can be directed as a beam signal in any direction. Radar also
provides basis to determine the speeds of fast moving objects like tennis serves and
automobiles etc.
(ii) Microwave OvensThe frequency of the microwaves is matched with the resonant
frequency of water molecules which transfers energy from the microwaves to the water
molecules as Kinetic Energy. This raises the temperature of the food containing water.
Metal containers are not used in microwave ovens due to following reasons:
(a) Danger of getting a shock from accumulated electric charges.
(b) Metals may also melt from the intense heating.
Porcelain containers are used-because its molecules vibrate with much smaller frequencies
and thus cannot absorb microwaves. Hence they do not get heated up.

(3) Infrared Waves (Heat Waves). Infrared waves get produced by molecules of hot
bodies and are also referred to as heat waves.
Main uses(i) In physical therapy - for giving warmth to the aficted part of the body (IR bulbs).
(ii) In maintaining earth warm through the greenhouse effect (detailed out a little later).
(m) Infra-red detectors are used in satellites for military purposes as well as to observe
growths of crops.
(iv) LEDs emit infrared radiations. They are used in remote control switches as in TV sets.

(4) Visible Waves (Light Waves):- It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the
human eye. It has the frequency range from about 4 x 1014 Hz to about 7 x1014 Hz or a
wave-length range of about 700 400 nm. Our eyes are sensitive to this range of
wavelengths.

(5) Ultraviolet Waves (UV Waves) - UV rays range from about 4 x 10-7 m (400 nm) to 6
x 10-10 m (0.6 nm). UV radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies. Most of
the U.V. radiation from sun is absorbed in the ozone layer in the atmosphere. UV light has
harmful effects on humans.
Exposure to UV radiation causes the production of more melanin in the body, resulting in
the tanning of the skin.

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UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot get tan or sunburn through
glass window.
Welders wear special glasses or face masks with glass windows to protect their eyes from
large amount of UV produced by welding arcs. .
Main Uses (i) LASIK (Laser Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis) Eye Surgery. Since UV radiation has very
short wavelength, they can be focused for high precision surgical applications.
(ii) UV lamps are use/d to kill germs in water purifiers and for food-preservation.
(iii) Treatment of skin complaints.
(iv) Fluorescent lighting.
(v) Burglar alarms.
(vi) Automatic counting in industry.

(7) X-Rays- Higher than UV frequencies lies the X-ray region. It covers wavelengths from
about 10-8 m (10 nm) down to 10-13 m (104 nm). The common way to generate X-rays is
to bombard a metal target by high energy electrons.
Main uses(i) To find out fractures in bones, position of bones, impacted teeth etc.
(ii) Radiography (iii) Radiology. (iv) Detecting flaws in metals. (v) Diffraction to nd crystal
structure. (vi) Detection of art forgeries.
Note: Over-exposure of X-rays can be harmful.

(8) Gamma RaysGamma rays lie in the upper most frequency range of the e.m. spectrum. They have wave
lengths from about 10-10m to less than 10-14m. They are produced in nuclear reactions
and also emitted by radioactive nuclei.
Main uses (i) To carry out nuclear reactions.
(ii) They have the highest frequencies, hence highest penetrating power.
(m) To detect flaws in metal castings.
(iv) Sterilization.
(v) Medicinal uses e.g. Cancer treatment.

(9) Role of ozone layerE.M. radiations having UV and higher frequencies cause genetic damage to living cells. The
ozone layer blocks the passage of UV radiations and effectively protects us from the harmful
portions of solar radiations.

(10) Greenhouse effect- Energy from sun heats the earth. As earth's surface temperature
remains low, the radiations being emitted by earth are mostly in the infrared region. These
radiations do not escape earth whose atmosphere plus low lying clouds reect them back.
This keeps earth's surface warm. This is called greenhouse effect.

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