French language

Francophone redirects here. It is not to be confused Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates

with Francophonie.
700 million by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.[3]
French has a long history as an international language of
commerce, diplomacy, literature, and scientic standards
and is an ocial language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union,
NATO, the WTO, the International Olympic Committee,
and the ICRC. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked
French the third most useful language for business, after
English and Standard Mandarin Chinese.[11]

French (le franais [l f s] or la langue franaise

[la l f sz]) is a Romance language of the IndoEuropean family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin
of the Roman Empire, as did languages such as Italian,
Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan and others.
French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken
Latin in Gaul, and more specically in Northern Gaul.
Its closest relatives are the other langues d'ollanguages
historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) has largely supplanted. French was also inuenced by native Celtic
languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica
and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the postRoman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances
past overseas expansion, there are numerous Frenchbased creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole. A
French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as
"Francophone" in both English and French.

1 Geographic distribution
Main article:
speakers

Geographical distribution of French

1.1 Europe

French is an ocial language in 29 countries, most of

which are members of la francophonie, the community of
French-speaking countries. It is spoken as a rst language
(in descending order of the highest number) in France,
the Canadian province of Quebec, the region of Wallonia
in Belgium, western Switzerland, Monaco, certain parts
of Canada and the United States, and by various communities elsewhere. As of 2015, 40% of the francophone
population (including L2 and partial speakers) is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa
and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia
and Oceania.[3]
French is the fourth most widely spoken mother tongue
in the European Union.[4] 1/5 of non-Francophone Europeans speak French.[5] As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward,
French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon,
Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast.[6] In 2015,
French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native
speakers,[3][7] and 190 million secondary speakers.[8] Approximately 270 million people are able to speak the
language.[9] According to a demographic projection led
by the Universit Laval and the Rseau Dmographie de
l'Agence universitaire de la francophonie, total French
speakers will number approximately 500 million people in 2025 and 650 million people by 2050.[10] The

Knowledge of French in the European Union and candidate

countries[12]

Spoken by 12% of the EU population, French is

the fourth most widely spoken mother tongue in the
European Union, after German, English and Italian; it is
also the third most widely known language of the Union,
after English and German (33% of the EU population
report knowing how to speak English, whilst 22% of Europeans understand German and 20% French).[4][13]
1

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Under the Constitution of France, French has been the

ocial language of the Republic since 1992[14] (although
the ordinance of Villers-Cotterts made it mandatory for
legal documents in 1539). France mandates the use of
French in ocial government publications, public education except in specic cases (though these dispositions are
often ignored) and legal contracts; advertisements must
bear a translation of foreign words.
In Belgium, French is the ocial language of Wallonia
(excluding a part of the East Cantons, which are Germanspeaking) and one of the two ocial languagesalong
with Dutchof the Brussels-Capital Region, where it is
spoken by the majority of the population often as their
primary language.[15]
French is one of the four ocial languages of Switzerland
(along with German, Italian and Romansh) and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie,
of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais,
Fribourg and Berne. French is the native language of
about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by
50.4%[16] of the population.

1000 mi

1000 km

Countries usually considered part of Francophone Africa.

Their population was 392 million in 2015 and it is forecast to
reach 847 million in 2050.[17]
Countries sometimes considered as Francophone Africa
Countries that are not Francophone but are Members or
Observers of the OIF

French is also an ocial language of Luxembourg,

Monaco, and Aosta Valley (Italy), while French dialects
remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands and also where the language has evolved the most in recent
years.[25][26] Some vernacular forms of French in Africa
in Andorra.
can be dicult to understand for French speakers from
other countries,[27] but written forms of the language are
very closely related to those of the rest of the French1.2 Africa
speaking world.
Main article: African French
A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population
lives in Africa. According to the 2007 report by the
Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 115 million African people spread across 31 Francophone countries can speak French as either a rst or
a second language.[6] This number does not include the
people living in non-Francophone African countries who
have learned French as a foreign language.[6] Due to the
rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050.[18] French is the fastest growing language
on the continent (in terms of either ocial or foreign
language).[19][20]
French is mostly a second language in Africa, but it has
become a rst language in some urban areas, such as
the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast[21] and in Libreville,
Gabon.[22] There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages.[23]
Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth.[24] It is

1.3 North and South America

Further information: Languages of North America,
Languages of South America, and Languages of the
Caribbean
French is the second most common language in Canada,
after English, and both are ocial languages at the federal level. It is the rst language of 9.5 million people or 29.4% and the second language for 2.07 million
or 6.4% of the entire population of Canada.[7] French
is the sole ocial language in the province of Quebec,
being the mother tongue for some 7 million people, or
almost 80.1% (2006 Census) of the province. About
95.0% of the people of Quebec speak French as either their rst or second language, and for some as
their third language. Quebec is also home to the city
of Montreal, which is the worlds 4th-largest Frenchspeaking city, by number of rst language speakers.[28]
New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only ocially
bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism is enacted
only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the
population is Francophone. French is also an ocial
language of all of the territories (Northwest Territories,

1.4

Asia

The arrt signs (French for stop) are used in Canada while
the English stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in
France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.

Nunavut, and Yukon). Out of the three, Yukon has

the most French speakers, comprising just under 4%
of the population.[29] Furthermore, while French is not
an ocial language in Ontario, the French Language
Services Act ensures that provincial services are to be
available in the language. The Act applies to areas of
the province where there are signicant Francophone
communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario. Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are
found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and the Port
au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where
the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically
spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all
other provinces. The city of Ottawa, the Canadian capital, is also eectively bilingual, as it is on the other side of
a river from Quebec, opposite the major city of Gatineau,
and is required to oer governmental services in French
as well as English.

French language spread in the United States. Counties marked

in lighter pink are those where 612% of the population speaks
French at home; medium pink, 1218%; darker pink, over 18%.
French-based creole languages are not included.

Creole French is excluded.[31] New England French, essentially a variant of Canadian French, is spoken in parts
of New England. Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper
Louisiana), but is nearly extinct today.[32]

French is one of Haitis two ocial languages. It is the

principal language of writing, school instruction, and administrative use. It is spoken by all educated Haitians and
is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial
events such as weddings, graduations and church masses.
About 7080% of the countrys population have Haitian
Creole as their rst language; the rest speak French as
a rst language. The second ocial language is the recently standardized Haitian Creole, which virtually the
entire population of Haiti speaks. Haitian Creole is one
of the French-based creole languages, drawing the large
majority of its vocabulary from French, with inuences
from West African languages, as well as several European
languages. Haitian Creole is closely related to Louisiana
[33]
According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2011), French is Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles.
the fourth[30] most-spoken language in the United States French is the ocial language of both French Guiana,[34]
after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of adjacent to Brazil and Suriname in South America, and
French are considered together and all dialects of Chi- Saint Pierre and Miquelon,[35] an archipelago o the coast
nese are similarly combined. French remains the second of Newfoundland in North America.
most-spoken language in the states of Louisiana, Maine,
Vermont and New Hampshire. Louisiana is home to
many distinct dialects, collectively known as Louisiana
French. Cajun French has the largest number of speakers, 1.4 Asia
mostly living in Acadiana. According to the 2000 United
States Census, there are over 194,000 people in Louisiana See also: Romance-speaking Asia French in Asia
who speak French at home, the most of any state if

4
1.4.1

1
Southeast Asia

See also: French language in Vietnam, French language

in Laos, and French language in Cambodia
French was the ocial language of the colony of French
Indochina, comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and
Cambodia. It continues to be an administrative language
in Laos and Cambodia, although its inuence has waned
in recent years.[36] In colonial Vietnam, the elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in
French households spoke a French pidgin known as "Ty
Bi" (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade.[37] Since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unied Vietnams economy, French has gradually
been eectively displaced as the main foreign language
of choice by English. French nevertheless maintains its
colonial legacy by being spoken as a second language by
the elderly and elite populations and is presently being revived in higher education and continues to be a diplomatic
language in Vietnam.

1.5
1.5.1

Middle East

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Today, French and English are secondary languages

of Lebanon, with about 40% of the population being
Francophone and 40% Anglophone.[39] The use of English is growing in the business and media environment.
Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which
the teaching of mathematics and scientic subjects is provided in French.[40] Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One third of
high school students educated in French go on to pursue
higher education in English-speaking institutions. English is the language of business and communication, with
French being an element of social distinction, chosen for
its emotional value.[41] On social media, French was used
on Facebook by just 10% of Lebanese in 2014, far behind
English (78%).
1.5.2 Syria
Similarly to Lebanon, Syria was also a French League
of Nations-mandate area until 1943, but the French language is largely extinct in the country and is only limited
to some members of the elite and middle classes.
1.5.3 Israel

Lebanon

A signicant French-speaking community is also present

in Israel, primarily among the community of French Jews
See also: French language in Lebanon
in Israel, Moroccan Jews in Israel, Lebanese Jews and
A former French colony, Lebanon designates Arabic as
many secondary schools oer French as a foreign language.
1.5.4 United Arab Emirates and Qatar

Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of

Rechmaya in Lebanon.

the sole ocial language, while a special law regulates

cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of
Lebanons Constitution states that Arabic is the ocial
national language. A law determines the cases in which
the French language is to be used.[38] French language
in Lebanon is widely used as a second language by the
Lebanese people, and is taught in many schools as a secondary language along with Arabic and English. The language is also used on Lebanese pound bank notes, on road
signs, on Lebanese license plates, and on ocial buildings
(alongside Arabic).

The UAE has the status in the Organisation internationale

de la Francophonie as an observer state, and Qatar has the
status in the organization as an associate state. However,
in both countries French is not spoken by almost any of
the general population or migrant workers, but spoken
by a small minority of those who invest in Francophone
countries or have other nancial or family ties. Their entrance as observer and associate states respectively into
the organisation was aided a good deal by their investments into the Organisation and France itself.[42]

1.6 Oceania and Australasia

French is an ocial language of the Pacic Island nation of Vanuatu where 45% of the population can speak
French.[43] In the French special collectivity of New
Caledonia, 97% of the population can speak, read and
write French, whereas only 1% have no knowledge of
French.[44] In French Polynesia, 95% of the population
can speak, read and write French, whereas only 2% have
no knowledge of French.[45] In the French collectivity of
Wallis and Futuna, 78% of the population can speak, read

5
Swiss French
Vietnamese French
West Indian French

A 500-CFP franc (4.20; US$5.65) banknote, used in French

Polynesia, New Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna.

and write French, whereas 17% have no knowledge of

French.[46]
Dialects of the French language in the world

Dialects
3 History

Main article: Dialects of the French language

Main article: History of French
Acadian French

French is a Romance language (meaning that it is de African French including sub-branch Maghreb scended primarily from Vulgar Latin) that evolved out of
French (North African French)
the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France.
Aostan French
Belgian French
Cambodian French
Canadian French
Cajun French
Guianese French

French replaced Latin as the most important language of

diplomacy and international relations (lingua franca) in
the 17th century. It retained this role until approximately
the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by
English as the United States became the dominant global
power following the Second World War.[47][48] Stanley
Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that
the Treaty of Versailles was also written in English as
well as French was the rst diplomatic blow against the
language.[49]

Haitian French
Indian French
Jersey Legal French
Lao French

4 Current status and economic,

cultural and institutional importance

Louisiana French
Meridional French
Metropolitan French
Missouri French
New Caledonian French
Newfoundland French
New England French
Quebec French
South East Asian French

French remains one of the most important diplomatic

languages,[22] with the language being one of the ofcial languages of the United Nations, the European
Union, NATO, the International Olympic Committee,
the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, Organization of American States, the Eurovision Song Contest, the European
Space Agency, World Trade Organisation and the North
American Free Trade Agreement. It is also a working language in nonprot organisations such as the Red
Cross, Amnesty International, Mdecins sans Frontires,
and Mdecins du Monde.[50] Given the demographic
prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa,

5 PHONOLOGY

Forbes released an article in 2014 which claimed that

French could be the language of the future.[51]
French is a court language. It is one of the ocial languages of the main international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies such as the African
Court on Human and Peoples Rights, the Caribbean
Court of Justice, the Court of Justice for the Economic
Community of West African States, the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda,
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the
International Criminal Court, the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, the Court of Justice of the European
Union, and the European Court of Human Rights.[52]
In 1997, George Werber published in Language Today
a comprehensive academic study entitled The Worlds
10 most inuential languages.[53] In his article, Werber
ranked French as being the second after English most
inuential language of the world, ahead of Spanish.[53]
His criteria were not solely the numbers of native speakers, but also included the number of secondary speakers
(which tends to be specially high for French among fellow world languages); the economic power of the countries using the language; the number of major areas in
which the language is used; the number of countries using the language, and their respective population; and the
linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Werber highlighted in particular that French benets from a considerable linguistic prestige).[53] In 2008,
Werber reassessed his article, and concluded that his ndings were still correct since the situation among the top
ten remains unchanged.[53]

//, //, // and / / are present.

Voiced stops (i.e., /b, d, /) are typically produced
fully voiced throughout.
Voiceless stops (i.e., /p, t, k/) are unaspirated.
Nasals: The velar nasal // can occur in nal position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing. The palatal nasal // can occur
in word initial position (e.g., gnon), but it is most
frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or
word-nally (e.g., montagne).
Fricatives: French has three pairs of homorganic
fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e., labiodental /f/~/v/, dental /s/~/z/, and palato-alveolar //~//.
Notice that /s/~/z/ are dental, like the plosives /t/~/d/
and the nasal /n/.
French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies
considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts.
In general, it is described as a voiced uvular fricative,
as in [u] roue, wheel. Vowels are often lengthened before this segment. It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in nal position (e.g., fort),
or reduced to zero in some word-nal positions. For
other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an
apical trill [r] occurs in some dialects.
Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant /l/ is unvelarised in both onset (lire) and
coda position (il). In the onset, the central approximants [w], [], and [j] each correspond to a high
vowel, /u/, /y/, and /i/ respectively. There are a
few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many
cases where they are in free variation. Contrasts between /j/ and /i/ occur in nal position as in /pj/
paye, pay, vs. /pi/ pays, country.

Knowledge of French is widely considered to be a crucial skill for business owners in the United Kingdom; a
2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus
ranking French as the most-sought after foreign language
there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%).[54]
French pronunciation follows strict rules based on
spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary
5 Phonology
between dialects, but the standard rules are:
Main article: French phonology
Although there are many French regional accents, foreign
learners normally use only one variety of the language.
There are a maximum of 17 vowels in French, not
all of which are used in every dialect: /a/, //, /e/,
//, //, //, /i/, /o/, //, /y/, /u/, //, //, plus the
nasalized vowels / /, //, / / and / /. In France, the
vowels //, // and / / are tending to be replaced
by /a/, // and // in many peoples speech, but the
distinction of // and / / is present in Meridional
French. In Quebec and Belgian French, the vowels

nal consonants: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n, p and g are normally silent. (A
consonant is considered nal when no vowel follows it even if one or more consonants follow it.)
The nal letters f, k, q, and l, however, are normally
pronounced. The nal c is sometimes pronounced
like in bac, sac, roc but can also be silent like in
blanc or estomac. The nal r is usually silent when
it follows an e in a word of two or more syllables, but
it is pronounced in some words (hiver, super, cancer
etc.).
When the following word begins with a vowel,
however, a silent consonant may once again

6.2

Orthography
be pronounced, to provide a liaison or link
between the two words. Some liaisons are
mandatory, for example the s in les amants
or vous avez; some are optional, depending
on dialect and register, for example, the rst
s in deux cents euros or euros irlandais; and
some are forbidden, for example, the s in beaucoup d'hommes aiment. The t of et is never
pronounced and the silent nal consonant of a
noun is only pronounced in the plural and in
set phrases like pied--terre.

7
French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve
obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period,
without a corresponding change in spelling. Moreover,
some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography (as with some English words such as debt):
Old French doit > French doigt nger (Latin digitus)
Old French pie > French pied foot [Latin pes
(stem: ped-)]

Doubling a nal n and adding a silent e at the

end of a word (e.g., chien chienne) makes
it clearly pronounced. Doubling a nal l and As a result, it can be dicult to predict the spelling of
adding a silent e (e.g., gentil gentille) adds a a word based on the sound. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a
[j] sound if the l is preceded by the letter i.
vowel (see Liaison (French)). For example, the following
words end in a vowel sound: pied, aller, les, nit,
elision or vowel dropping: Some monosyllabic funcbeaux.
The same words followed by a vowel, however,
tion words ending in a or e, such as je and que, drop
may
sound
the consonants, as they do in these examples:
their nal vowel when placed before a word that bebeaux-arts,
les amis, pied--terre.
gins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus).
The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe.
(e.g., *je ai is instead pronounced and spelled
j'ai). This gives, for example, the same pronunciation for l'homme qu'il a vu (the man whom he saw)
and l'homme qui l'a vu (the man who saw him).
However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced dierently; in the rst sentence the syllable
break is as qu'il-a, while the second breaks as quil'a. It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the
second example (l'homme qui l'a vu) is more emphasized on l'a vu.

6
6.1

Writing system
Alphabet

Main articles: French alphabet and French braille

French is written with the 26 letters of the basic
Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels
(circumex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis)
and the cedilla appearing in "".
There are two ligatures, "" and "", but they are not
usually used now because of the French ocial keyboard.
Yet, they cannot be changed for oe and ae in formal
and literary texts. "" is sometimes replaced with ""
(from Latin loanwords, like tnia not tnia).

6.2

Orthography

Main articles: French orthography and Reforms of

French orthography

On the other hand, a given spelling usually leads to a predictable sound. In particular, a given vowel combination
or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme.
French writing, as with any language, is aected by the
spoken language. In Old French, the plural for animal
was animals. The /als/ sequence was unstable and was
turned into a diphthong /aus/. This change was then
reected in the orthography: animaus. The us ending,
very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copyists
(monks) by the letter x, resulting in a written form animax. As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of au turned into /o/ so that the u was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern
French animaux (pronounced rst /animos/ before the nal /s/ was dropped in contemporary French). The same
is true for cheval pluralized as chevaux and many others. In addition, castel pl. castels became chteau pl.
chteaux.
Nasal: n and m. When n or m follows a vowel or
diphthong, the n or m becomes silent and causes
the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e., pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so
as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the n or m is doubled, or
immediately followed by a vowel. The prexes enand em- are always nasalized. The rules are more
complex than this but may vary between dialects.
Digraphs: French uses not only diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs,
but also specic combinations of vowels, sometimes
with following consonants, to show which sound is
intended.
Gemination: Within words, double consonants are
generally not pronounced as geminates in modern

8 VOCABULARY
French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or
All other accents are used only to distinTV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very
guish similar words, as in the case of disrened elocution they may still occur). For example,
tinguishing the adverbs l and o (there,
illusion is pronounced [ilyzj ] and not [ilyzj ]. But
where) from the article la (the femgemination does occur between words. For examinine singular) and the conjunction ou
ple, une info (a news item or a piece of informa(or), respectively.
tion) is pronounced [ynfo], whereas une nympho
(a nymphomaniac) is pronounced [ynfo].
Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest.[55][56][57][58]
Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation,
sometimes to distinguish similar words, and some- In 1990, a reform accepted some changes.
times based on etymology alone.
Accents that aect pronunciation
The acute accent (l'accent aigu) (e.g.,
coleschool) means that the vowel is
pronounced /e/ instead of the default //.
The grave accent (l'accent grave) (e.g.,
lvepupil) means that the vowel is pronounced // instead of the default //.
The circumex (l'accent circonexe)
(e.g. fortforest) shows that an e is pronounced // and that an is pronounced
/o/. In standard French, it also signies
a pronunciation of // for the letter ,
but this dierentiation is disappearing. In
the mid-18th century, the circumex was
used in place of s after a vowel, where that
letter s was not pronounced. Thus, forest
became fort and hospital became hpital.
The diaeresis (le trma) (e.g., naf
naive, NolChristmas) as in English,
species that this vowel is pronounced
separately from the preceding one, not
combined, and is not a schwa.
The cedilla (la cdille) (e.g., garon
boy) means that the letter is pronounced
/s/ in front of the back vowels a, o and u (c
is otherwise /k/ before a back vowel). C is
always pronounced /s/ in front of the front
vowels e, i, and y, thus is never found in
front of front vowels.

7 Grammar
Main article: French grammar
French grammar shares several notable features with
most other Romance languages, including
the loss of Latin declensions
only two grammatical genders
the development of grammatical articles from Latin
demonstratives
new tenses formed from auxiliaries
French declarative word order is subjectverbobject although a pronoun object precedes the verb. Some types
of sentences allow for or require dierent word orders, in
particular inversion of the subject and verb like Parlezvous franais ?" when asking a question rather than just
Vous parlez franais ?" Both questions mean the same
thing; however, a rising inection is always used on both
of them whenever asking a question, especially on the
second one. Specically, the rst translates into Do you
speak French?" while the second one is literally just You
speak French?" To avoid inversion while asking a question, 'Est-ce que' (literally 'is it that') may be placed in the
beginning of the sentence. Parlez-vous franais ?" may
become Est-ce que vous parlez franais ?"

Accents with no pronunciation eect

The circumex does not aect the pronunciation of the letters i or u , nor, in
most dialects, a. It usually indicates that
an s came after it long ago, as in le (isle,
compare with English island). The explanation is that some words share the same
orthography, so the circumex is put here
to mark the dierence between the two
words. For example, dites (you say) / dtes
(you said), or even du (of the) / d (past
for the verb devoir = must, have to, owe;
in this case, the circumex disappears in
the plural and the feminine).

8 Vocabulary
The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin
or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. In many
cases a single etymological root appears in French in a
popular or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin,
and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin.
The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned
adjective:
brother: frre / fraternel from Latin frater /
fraternalis

8.1

Numerals

nger: doigt / digital from Latin digitus / digitalis

faith: foi / dle from Latin des / delis
eye: il / oculaire from Latin oculus / ocularis

9
112 from Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from
other Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Slavic languages
and Baltic languages, 10 from Basque and 144 (about 3%)
from other languages.[59]

However a historical tendency to gallicise Latin roots can One study analyzing the degree of dierentiation of
be identied, whereas English conversely leans towards a Romance languages in comparison to Latin estimated
that among the languages analyzed French has the
more direct incorporation of the Latin:
greatest distance from Latin.[60] Lexical similarity is
89% with Italian, 80% with Sardinian, 78% with
rayonnement / radiation
Rhaeto-Romance, and 75% with Romanian, Spanish and
Portuguese.[61][62][61]
teindre / extinguish
noyau / nucleus
surhomme / superman
ensoleillement / insolation
There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:

8.1 Numerals
The French counting system is partially vigesimal: twenty
(vingt) is used as a base number in the names of numbers
from 80 to 99.

The French word for 80 is quatre-vingts, literally four

twenties, and the word for 75 is soixante-quinze, literally
thing/cause: chose / cause from Latin causa
sixty-fteen. This reform arose after the French Revolution to unify the dierent counting systems (mostly
cold: froid / frigide from Latin frigidum
vigesimal near the coast, because of Celtic (via Breton)
It can be dicult to identify the Latin source of na- and Viking inuences).
tive French words, because in the evolution from Vulgar This system is comparable to the archaic English use of
Latin, unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the score, as in fourscore and seven (87), or threescore and
remaining vowels and consonants underwent signicant ten (70).
modications.
In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers
More recently the linguistic policy of the French language from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20,
academies of France and Quebec has been to provide e.g. vint et doze (twenty and twelve) for 32, dous vinz et diz
French equivalents to (mainly English) imported words, (two twenties and ten) for 50, uitante for 80, or nonante
either by using existing vocabulary, extending its meaning for 90.[63]
or deriving a new word according to French morphologBelgian French, Swiss French, Aostan French[64] and the
ical rules. The result is often two (or more) co-existing
French used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
terms for describing the same phenomenon, with varying
Rwanda and Burundi are dierent in this respect.
rates of success for the French equivalent.
In Belgium, Switzerland and in the Aosta Valley, 70 and
90
are septante and nonante. In Switzerland, depend mercatique / marketing
ing on the local dialect, 80 can be quatre-vingts (Geneva,
Neuchtel, Jura) or huitante (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg).
nance fantme / shadow banking
Octante had been used in Switzerland in the past, but
bloc-notes / notepad
is now considered archaic,[65] while in the Aosta Valley
80 is huitante.[64] In Belgium and in its former African
ailire / wingsuit
colonies, however, quatre-vingts is universally used.
tiers-lieu / coworking
It should also be noted that French, like most European
It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words
found in a typical dictionary such as the Petit Larousse or
Micro-Robert Plus (35,000 words) are of foreign origin
(where Greek and Latin learned words are not seen as foreign). About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come
from English and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient
Germanic languages, 481 from other Gallo-Romance
languages, 215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from
Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch,

languages, uses a space to separate thousands[66] where

English uses a comma or (more recently) a space. The
comma is used in French numbers as a decimal point:
2,5 = deux virgule cinq.
8.1.1 Units
Cardinal numbers in French, from 1 to 20, are as follows:
One: un/une / / (m) ~ /yn/ (f)

10

8 VOCABULARY

Two: deux /d/

8.1.3 Hundreds

Three: trois /tw/

Cardinal numbers in French, by hundreds from 100 to

2000, are as follows:

Four: quatre /kat/

Five: cinq /sk/

One hundred: cent /s (t)/

Six: six /sis/

Two hundred: deux cents

Seven: sept /st/

Three hundred: trois cents, (Archaism: quinzevingts)

Eight: huit /it/

Nine: neuf[lower-alpha 1] /nf/

Four hundred: quatre cents

Ten: dix /dis/

Five hundred: cinq cents

Eleven: onze / z/

Six hundred: six cents

Twelve: douze /duz/

Thirteen: treize /tz/

Seven hundred: sept cents

Fourteen: quatorze /katz/

Eight hundred: huit cents

Fifteen: quinze /kz/

Nine hundred: neuf cents

Sixteen: seize /sz/

One thousand: mille[lower-alpha 6]

Seventeen: dix-sept /disst/

One thousand one hundred: onze cents or mille

cent [lower-alpha 7]

Eighteen: dix-huit /dizit/

Nineteen: dix-neuf /diznf/

One thousand two hundred: douze cents or mille

deux cents[lower-alpha 7]

Twenty: vingt /v/

After Twenty, numbers use base ten logic (vingt et un,
vingt-deux, vingt-trois...)
8.1.2

One thousand four hundred: quatorze cents or mille

quatre cents[lower-alpha 7]

Tens

Cardinal numbers in French, by tens from 10 to 100, are

as follows:
Ten: dix /dis/
Twenty: vingt /v/

One thousand ve hundred: quinze cents or mille

cinq cents[lower-alpha 7]
One thousand six hundred: seize cents or mille six
cents[lower-alpha 7]
One thousand seven hundred: dix-sept cents or mille
sept cents

Thirty: trente /t t/

One thousand eight hundred: dix-huit cents or mille

huit cents

Forty: quarante /ka. t/

Fifty: cinquante /s.k t/

One thousand nine hundred: dix-neuf cents or mille

neuf cents

Sixty: soixante /swa.s t/

Seventy:
soixante-dix
septante[lower-alpha 2] /sp.t t/

One thousand three hundred: treize cents or mille

trois cents[lower-alpha 7]

/swa.s t.dis/

or

Two thousand: deux mille

Eighty:
quatre-vingts
/ka.t.v/,
After deux mille (2000), only the second option is used
huitante[lower-alpha 3] /i.t t/ or octante[lower-alpha 4] (deux mille cent, deux mille deux cents, deux mille trois
/k.t t/
cents...)
Ninety:
quatre-vingt-dix /ka.t.v.dis/ or The words vingt and cent take the plural -s only when they
nonante[lower-alpha 5] /n.n t/
are the last word of the number: quatre-vingts (eighty)
and quatre-vingt-un (eighty-one), cinq cents (ve hundred) and cinq cent trente (ve hundred and thirty). When
After One hundred, numbers use base ten logic (cent dix, a number using vingt or cent is used as an ordinal numeral
cent vingt, cent trente...)
adjective, the words vingt or cent stay unchanged.[71]
One hundred: cent /s (t)/

11
8.1.4

Scales[lower-alpha 8]

Cardinal numbers in French, by exponentiation points,

from 100 to 1020 , are as follows:
One: un/une / / (m) ~ /yn/ (f)
Ten: dix /dis/
One hundred: cent /s (t)/
One thousand: mille /mil/

[6] Formerly singular of the now invariable mille, mil is now

only used in formal documents to write dates between
mil un (1001) and mil neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf
(1999).[68]
[7] While both styles are correct and concurrently used, numbers above mille and under deux mille are usually counted
by hundreds from onze cents up to seize cent quatre-vingtdix-neuf and are then indierently counted both styles[69]
in informal language while the count by adding hundreds
to one thousand, like in mille cent, mille six cents, is
favoured in written language, especially in juridical, administrative and scientic works.[70]

Ten thousand: dix mille

Hundred thousand: cent mille

[8] Nota Bene that English use the short scale while French
use the long scale.

One million: un million /mi.lj /

Ten million: dix millions

9 Words

Hundred million: cent millions

One billion: un milliard
Ten billion: dix milliards
Hundred billion: cent milliards
One trillion: un billion /bi.lj /
Ten trillion: dix billions

10 See also
Alliance Franaise
Francophonie
Franais fondamental

Hundred trillion: cent billions

Francization

One quadrillion: un billiard

French language in the United States

Ten quadrillion: dix billiards

French language in Canada

Hundred quadrillion: cent billiards

One quintillion: un trillion
Ten quintillion: dix trillions
Hundred quintillion: cent trillions
Notes

French AZERTY keyboard

French poetry
French proverbs
Language education
List of countries where French is an ocial language

[1] It has been suggested that Nine and New homophonographs are related and that it would be an unusual preservation of the octal number system speculated to be formerly used in proto-Indo-European language, though the
evidence supporting this is slim.[67]
[2] Septante is used in Belgium and in Switzerland. Its use is
dated in Eastern France and archaic elsewhere in France.
[3] Huitante is used in Vaud, Valais, Fribourg, archaic in
France.
[4] Octante is used, but dated, in Romandie and in Southern
France. Its use is archaic in other parts of France.
[5] Nonante is used in Belgium, Switzerland and, dated, in
Eastern France, archaic in other parts of France.

List of English words of French origin

List of French loanwords in Persian
List of French words and phrases used by English
speakers
Ocial bilingualism in Canada
Francophobia
Francophilia
Varieties of French

12

11

11

Notes and references

[1] Ethnologue: French. Retrieved 14 November 2016.

[2] Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath,
Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). Standard French.
Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science
of Human History.
[3] The status of French in the world. Retrieved 23 April
2015.
[4] European Commission (June 2012), Europeans and their
Languages (PDF), Special Eurobarometer 386, Europa,
p. 5, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-06,
retrieved 7 September 2014
[5] Why Learn French.
[6] (French) La Francophonie dans le monde 20062007
published by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Nathan, Paris, 2007.
[7] Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie?".
[8] The Worlds Most Widely Spoken Languages.
[9] French language is on the up, report reveals.
[10] Agora: La francophonie de demain. Retrieved 13 June
2011.
[11] Lauerman, John (30 August 2011). Mandarin Chinese Most Useful Business Language After English.
Bloomberg Business. New York. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. French, spoken by 68 million
people worldwide and the ocial language of 27 countries, was ranked second [to Mandarin].
[12] EUROPA, data for EU25, published before 2007 enlargement.
[13] Language knowledge in Europe.
[14] Novoa, Cristina; Moghaddam, Fathali M. (2014).
Applied Perspectives: Policies for Managing Cultural
Diversity. In Benet-Martnez, Vernica; Hong, YingYi. The Oxford Handbook of Multicultural Identity. Oxford Library of Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 468. ISBN 978-0-19-979669-4. LCCN
2014006430. OCLC 871965715. It is important to note,
however, that not all countries have an ocial language.
Until 1992, France had discouraged the use of regional
languages ... in schools and businesses, but had stopped
short of making an ocial language declaration. In 1992,
the government ratied ... a constitutional amendment
that made French the sole ocial language of the Republic ...
[15] Van Parijs, Philippe, Professor of economic and social
ethics at the UCLouvain, Visiting Professor at Harvard
University and the KULeuven. Belgiums new linguistic challenge (pdf 0.7 MB). KVS Express (supplement to
newspaper De Morgen) MarchApril 2006: Article from
original source (pdf 4.9 MB) pages 3436 republished
by the Belgian Federal Government Service (ministry) of

NOTES AND REFERENCES

Economy Directorategeneral Statistics Belgium. Retrieved 5 May 2007. The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimates of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed
in detail.
[16] Le franais et les langues ...
Google Books.
Books.google.com. 1 January 2007. ISBN 978-2-87747881-6. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
[17] United Nations. World Population Prospects: The 2015
Revision (XLS). Retrieved 2015-08-23.
[18] French language growing, especially in Africa Francophonie RFI. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
[19] Agora: La francophonie de demain. Retrieved 201106-13.
[20] Bulletin de liaison du rseau dmographie (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-14.
[21] (French) Le franais Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard by Katja Ploog, CNRS Editions,
Paris, 2002.
[22] L'amnagement linguistique dans le monde. CEFAN
(Chaire pour le dveloppement de la recherche sur la culture dexpression franaise en Amrique du Nord, Universit Laval (in French). Jacques Leclerc. Retrieved May
19, 2013.
[23] (French) En Afrique, il est impossible de parler d'une
forme unique du franais mais...
[24] France-Diplomatie Furthermore, the demographic
growth of Southern hemisphere countries leads us to
anticipate a new increase in the overall number of French
speakers.
[25] (French) Le franais, langue en volution. Dans beaucoup de pays francophones, surtout sur le continent
africain, une proportion importante de la population ne
parle pas couramment le franais (mme sil est souvent la langue ocielle du pays). Ce qui signie qu'au
fur et mesure que les nouvelles gnrations vont
l'cole, le nombre de francophones augmente : on estime qu'en 2015, ceux-ci seront deux fois plus nombreux
qu'aujourd'hui."
[26] (French) c) Le sabir franco-africain: C'est la varit du
franais la plus uctuante. Le sabir franco-africain est
instable et htrogne sous toutes ses formes. Il existe
des noncs o les mots sont franais mais leur ordre
reste celui de la langue africaine. En somme, autant les
langues africaines sont envahies par les structures et les
mots franais, autant la langue franaise se mtamorphose
en Afrique, donnant naissance plusieurs varits.
[27] (French) Rpublique centrafricaine: Il existe une autre varit de franais, beaucoup plus rpandue et plus permissive : le franais local. C'est un franais trs inuenc par
les langues centrafricaines, surtout par le sango. Cette varit est parle par les classes non instruites, qui n'ont pu
terminer leur scolarit. Ils utilisent ce qu'ils connaissent
du franais avec des emprunts massifs aux langues locales.
Cette varit peut causer des problmes de comprhension

13

avec les francophones des autres pays, car les interfrences

linguistiques, d'ordre lexical et smantique, sont trs importantes. (One example of a variety of African French
that is dicult to understand for European French speakers).
[28] What are the largest French-speaking cities in the world?
| Tourist Maker. Retrieved 2016-10-06.
[29] Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Ocial
Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) (2006 Census)". 2.statcan.ca. December 7, 2010. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
[30] Language Use in the United States: 2011, American
Community Survey Reports, Camille Ryan, Issued August 2013
[31] U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 3 Language Spoken at Home: 2000.
[32] Ammon, Ulrich; International Sociological Association
(1989). Status and Function of Languages and Language
Varieties. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 306308. ISBN 089925-356-3. Retrieved 14 November 2011.

[46] INSEE, Government of France. Tableau Pop_06_1 :

Population selon le sexe, la connaissance du franais et
l'ge dcennal (XLS) (in French). Retrieved 3 October
2009.
[47] The Worlds 10 Most Inuential Languages Top Languages. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
[48] The French language today: a linguistic introductionGoogle Books Retrieved 27 June 2011
[49] Meisler, Stanley. Seduction Still Works : Frencha
Language in Decline. Los Angeles Times. March 1, 1986.
p. 2. Retrieved on May 18, 2013.
[50] The French Ministry of Foreign aairs.
FranceDiplomatie - Ministry of Foreign Aairs and International
Development. France Diplomatie :: Ministry of Foreign
Aairs and International Development.
[51] Want To Know The Language Of The Future? The Data
Suggests It Could Be...French, Forbes, March 21, 2014

[33] Ministre de l'ducation nationale

[52] On the Linguistic Design of Multinational CourtsThe

French Capture, forthcoming in 14 INTL J. CONST. L.
(2016), Mathilde Cohen

[34] French Guiana History, Language and Culture at World

Travel Guide

[53] The Worlds 10 most inuential languages, George Werber, 1997, Language Today, retrieved on scribd.com

[35] Saint Pierre and Miquelon at CIA World Factbook

[54] Foreign languages 'shortfall' for business, CBI says, Judith

Burns, BBC News, 22 June 2014

[36] French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms,

International Herald Tribune, 16 October 1993: In both
Cambodia and Laos, French remains the ocial second
language of government.

[55] (French) Fontik.fr writing system proposal.

[56] (French) Ortofasil writing system proposal.

[37] The role of English in Vietnams foreign language policy:

A brief history. The role of English in Vietnams foreign
language policy: A brief history.

[57] (French) Alfograf writing system proposal.

[38] Prof. Dr. Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. Article 11 of the

Lebanese Constitution. Servat.unibe.ch. Retrieved 17
January 2013.

[59] Walter & Walter 1998.

[39] OIF 2014, p. 217.

[40] OIF 2014, p. 218.
[41] OIF 2014, p. 358.
[42]
[43] Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.
Estimation du nombre de francophones dans le monde1
(PDF). Retrieved 3 October 2009.
[44] INSEE, Government of France. P9-1 Population de 14
ans et plus selon la connaissance du franais, le sexe, par
commune, zone et par province de rsidence (XLS) (in
French). Retrieved 3 October 2009.
[45] Institut Statistique de Polynsie Franaise (ISPF).
Recensement 2007 Langues : Chires cls (in
French). Archived from the original on 8 September
2009. Retrieved 3 October 2009.

[58] (French) Ortograf.net writing system proposal.

[60] Pei, Mario (1949). Story of Language. ISBN 03-9700400-1.

[61] Ethnologue report for language code:ita (Italy) Gordon,
Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of
the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version
[62] Brincat (2005)
[63] Einhorn, E. (1974). Old French: A Concise Handbook.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p.
110. ISBN 0-521-09838-6.
[64] Jean-Pierre Martin, Description lexicale du franais parl
en Valle d'Aoste, d. Musumeci, Quart, 1984.
[65] Septante, octante (huitante), nonante. langue-fr.net (in
French).. See also the English Wikipedia article on Welsh
language, especially the section Counting system and its
note on the inuence of Celtic in the French counting system.

14

[66] Questions de langue: Nombres (criture, lecture, accord)" (in French). Acadmie franaise. Archived from
the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 15 November
2015. Dans un souci de lisibilit, on spare les milliers
par une espace inscable dans les nombres exprimant une
quantit : 1 000 m, 342 234 euros, 1 234 C, etc.
En revanche, dans les nombres ayant fonction de numrotage (pages, dates, articles de code), les chires ne sont jamais spars : page 1254 of the 1992 edition, article 1246
of the Civil Code.
La virgule (et non le point comme chez les anglosaxons)
spare la partie entire de la partie dcimale : vaut environ 3,14 ; 14,5 est la moiti de 29.
[67] Winter, Werner (1991). Some thoughts about IndoEuropean numerals. In Gvozdanovi, Jadranka. IndoEuropean numerals. Trends in Linguistics. 57. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 1314. ISBN 3-11-011322-8.
Retrieved 2013-06-09.
[68] Questions de langue: 'An deux mil' ou 'an deux mille'?"
(in French). Acadmie franaise. Archived from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 15 November 2015.
LAcadmie nadmet (et ne privilgie) la variante mil de
mille, dans les dates, que lorsque le numral au singulier
est suivi dun ou plusieurs autres nombres.
[69] Lexique des rgles typographiques en usage l'imprimerie
nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris: Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 41. ISBN 978-2-7433-04829. Au-del de mille, on compte habituellement : onze,
douze, treize, quatorze, quinze, seize cents plutt que :
mille cent, mille deux cents, mille trois cents... mais on
emploiera indiremment : dix-sept cents ou mille sept
cents...
[70] Questions de langue: Nombres (criture, lecture, accord)" (in French). Acadmie franaise. Archived from
the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 15 November
2015. Pour les dates (et les nombres en gnral) entre 1000
et 2000, il y a concurrence entre deux lectures : mille six
cent trentecinq ou seize cent trentecinq.
Aucune de ces formes ne peut tre considre comme fautive. Cependant, dans lusage courant, on dit plutt onze
cents, douze cents, etc. : onze cents francs, seize cents
euros, tandis que dans la langue crite, et notamment dans
un texte juridique, administratif ou scientique, on prfrera les formes : mille cent, mille deux cents, etc.
[71] Questions de langue: Nombres (criture, lecture, accord)" (in French). Acadmie franaise. Archived from
the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 15 November
2015. Vingt et cent se terminent par un s quand ils sont
prcds dun nombre qui les multiplie, mais ils restent
invariables sils sont suivis dun autre nombre ou de mille.
On dira ainsi : deux cents euros mais deux cent vingt euros
; quatrevingts hommes mais quatrevingtdeux hommes.
Ils restent galement invariables lorsquils sont employs
comme adjectifs numraux ordinaux : page deux cent ;
page quatrevingt ; lan mille neuf cent.
En revanche, vingt et cent varient devant millier, million, milliard, qui sont des noms et non des adjectifs
numraux : deux cents millions dannes ; trois cents milliers dhabitants.

13

EXTERNAL LINKS

[72] Ne. Dire, Ne pas dire. Acadmie franaise. 3 November 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2014. On nglige trop souvent
de faire entendre ladverbe ne, en faisant de pas lunique
marque de ngation : Je veux pas, je sais pas. Cette habitude, rpandue dans le langage parl, est une vritable
faute.
[73] Pas. Trsor de la langue franaise informatis. Analyse et traitement informatique de la langue franaise. Retrieved 30 May 2014. Pop. ou trs fam. [Avec suppression de ne]

12 Further reading
Nadeau, Jen-Benot, and Julie Barlow (2006). The
Story of French. First U.S. ed. New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-34183-0

13 External links
13.1 Organizations
Fondation Alliance franaise: an international organization for the promotion of French language and
culture (French)
Agence de promotion du FLE: Agency for promoting French as a foreign language

13.2 Courses and tutorials

Franais interactif: interactive French program,
University of Texas at Austin
French Language Course, historic online course,
oldest online course
Texs French Grammar, University of Texas at
Austin
Free online French grammar
French lessons at Wikiotics: podcasts, vocabulary
quizzes, and more

13.3 Online dictionaries

Oxford Dictionaries French Dictionary
Collins Online EnglishFrench Dictionary
Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales:
monolingual dictionaries (including the Trsor de la
langue franaise), language corpora, etc.
For other unilingual dictionaries, see fr:Dictionnaire.

13.4

13.4

Vocabulary

Vocabulary

Swadesh list in English and French

13.4.1

Numbers

Smith, Paul. French, Numbers. Numberphile.

Brady Haran.
13.4.2

Books

(French) La langue franaise dans le monde

2010(Full book freely accessible)
13.4.3

Articles

"The status of French in the world. Ministry of Foreign Aairs (France)

15

16

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

French language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language?oldid=753808940 Contributors: Paul Drye, Tbc~enwiki, The

Epopt, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Scipius, Danny, Unukorno, PierreAbbat,
William Avery, SimonP, FvdP, Perique des Palottes, Heron, Montrealais, Olivier, Renata, Leandrod, Steverapaport, Bdesham, Michael
Hardy, DopeshJustin, Norm, Gabbe, Chuck SMITH, Stephen C. Carlson, Mic, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Vinodmp, Delirium, Minesweeper,
Ppareit, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Snoyes, Cferrero, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, Julesd, Bogdangiusca, Stefan-S,
Cadr, Kwekubo, Dpol, Big iron, SeeSchloss, Junesun, Jiang, Samuel~enwiki, Tobias Conradi, Alex S, Guaka, Adam Bishop, Timwi,
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File:Arret.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Arret.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Arret.jpg Original artist: Kaihsu Tai
File:Bienvenue_a_Rechmaya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Bienvenue_a_Rechmaya.jpg License:
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Original artist: (V. Undritz for VOA)
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File:Dialects_of_the_french_language.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Dialects_of_the_french_
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Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractristiques du
Drapeau Algrien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp.
File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg
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File:Flag_of_Benin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Benin.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe
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Original artist: ?

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File:Flag_of_Chad.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Flag_of_Chad.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Quelle Fonto: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/td.html Original artist: SKopp & others (see upload log)
File:Flag_of_Cte_d'Ivoire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jon Harald Sby
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File:Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Equatorial_Guinea.svg
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File:Flag_of_French_Guiana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_French_Guiana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Madden
File:Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Gabon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Flag_of_Gabon.svg License: Public domain
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File:Flag_of_Guadeloupe_(local).svg
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%28local%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: drawing by Pierre Gay, uploader User:Denelson83
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File:Flag_of_Haiti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Haiti.svg License: Public domain
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of the now deletied versions) Madden, Vzb83, Denelson83, Chanheigeorge, Zscout370 and Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Jersey.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Flag_of_Jersey.svg License: Public domain
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File:Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Francophonie 1987.png. Original artist: Denelson83
File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modication done to the colours based on
information at Vexilla mundi.
File:Flag_of_Louisiana.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Flag_of_Louisiana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: From the xrmap ag collection 2.7. Original artist: User:....
File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www.
legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Madagascar.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Madagascar.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Maine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_Maine.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mali.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Mali.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Martinique.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Flag_of_Martinique.svg License: CC0
Contributors: Dessin de Pierre Gay pour Flags of the World Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Flag_of_Mauritania.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mauritius.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Mayotte_(local).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Flag_of_Mayotte_%28local%29.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: from the xrmap ag collection 2.9. Original artist: from the xrmap ag collection 2.9.
File:Flag_of_Monaco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Flag_of_Monaco.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License:
domain Contributors: Flag of the Kingdom of Morocco

Public

<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://81.192.52.100/BO/AR/1915/BO_135_ar.PDF'>Moroccan royal decree (17

November 1915), BO-135-ar page 6</a>
Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

The burnt orange color in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or
CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pantone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is
plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF.
Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p.
File:Flag_of_Rwanda.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Flag_of_Rwanda.svg License: Public domain
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vector image was created with Inkscape by Zscout370, and then manually edited.
File:Flag_of_Saint-Pierre_and_Miquelon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Flag_of_Saint-Pierre_
and_Miquelon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: courtesy an e-mail from the author of xrmap. Modications by Denelson83 Original
artist: User:....
File:Flag_of_Saint_Barthelemy_(local).svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Flag_of_Saint_
Barthelemy_%28local%29.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: FOTW was used as a reference for the size of the arms in the
white eld. Original artist: The arms are from User:Manassas's Image:Blason St Barthlmy TOM entire.svg.
File:Flag_of_Senegal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Original upload from Openclipart : Senegal. However, the current source code for this SVG le has almost nothing in
common with the original upload. Original artist: Original upload by Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: PDF Colors Construction sheet Original artist: User:Marc Mongenet
Credits:
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File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM
File:Flag_of_Valle_d'Aosta.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Flag_of_Valle_d%27Aosta.svg License: Public domain Contributors: legge regionale della Valle d'Aosta del 16 marzo 2006, n. 6 Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Vanuatu.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Wallis_and_Futuna.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Flag_of_Wallis_and_Futuna.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg Source:
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File:Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Flag_of_the_Comoros.svg License:
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File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Flag_of_
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File:Flag_of_the_Seychelles.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Seychelles.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: [1], for the RGB approximations [2] Original artist: User:Vxb83
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File:French_in_the_United_States.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/French_in_the_United_States.
png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work; base map is Image:Map of USA with county outlines (black & white).png, data is
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File:Globe_of_letters.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg License: LGPL Contributors:
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class='image'><img
alt=''
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width='120'
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