Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

TOPIC 4
AIRFOIL
TERMINOLOGIES

B2 STEALTH BOMBER
Prepared by Mohammad Anuar Yusof
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Theory of Flight and Control

4.

Airfoil

4.1

Introduction
An airfoil (American) or Aerofoil (British), whether being a wing of an aircraft, a rotor of a
helicopter or the blade of a propeller, is a specially shaped body designed to react on the flow of
air that passes over it.
An airfoil is constructed in such a way that its shape takes advantage of the airs response to
certain physical laws. This develops two actions from the air mass: a positive pressure lifting
action from the air mass below the wing, and a negative pressure lifting action from lowered
pressure above the wing.
Different airfoils have different flight characteristics. Many thousands of airfoils have been tested
in wind tunnels and in actual flight, but no one airfoil has been found that satisfies every flight
requirement. The weight, speed, and purpose of each aircraft dictate the shape of its airfoil.
(Refer figure 1)

Figure 1: Various Aerofoil shapes

To describe the shape of an airfoil the following terminologies are crucial: (Refer figure 2)

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Figure 2: Airfoil Terminology

4.1.1 Leading Edge
The end of the airfoil that faces forward in flight is called the leading edge and is rounded.
4.1.2 Trailing Edge
The end of the airfoil that faces aft in flight is called the Trailing edge and is quite narrow and
tapered.
4.1.3 Camber
The curve surfaces that give the shape of the airfoil are called camber. The top curve surface is
called upper camber and the bottom curve surface is called lower camber.
4.1.4 Mean Camber Line
The imaginary reference line, drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge and equidistant at
all points from the upper and lower camber, is called the mean camber line.
4.1.5 Chord Line
A reference straight line is drawn through the airfoil, connecting the extremities of the leading
and trailing edges.
4.1.6 Chord
The chord is the distance from Leading Edge to the Trailing Edge measured along the chord line.

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4.2

Wing Shape (Planform)

Planform is the shape or appearance of an airfoil as viewed from above or overhead or perhaps
more appropriately, a birds eye view of the wing.
The common wing shapes found on an airplane are rectangular, elliptical, tapered, sweepback
and delta.

4.2.1 Rectangular Wing

The rectangular wing, sometimes referred to as the
Hershey Bar wing in reference to the candy bar it
resembles, is a good general purpose wing. In terms of
cost and construction, the rectangular wing is the simplest
and most economical shape in the aviation collection.
(See figure 3 & 4)
As the name implies, these wings have a constant chord
along their entire span. Since the wings chord remains the
same along its entire length, the rectangular wing requires
just one rib size.

Figure 3: Rectangular wing shape

Among the rectangular wings positive qualities is its tendency to stall first at the wing root; thus
allowing pilots a degree of aileron control at high angles of attack (AoA). However, the relatively
wide chord at the wingtip contributes little to lift while also inducing drag; thus compromising the
designs aerodynamic efficiency.

Figure 4: Rectangular wing airplane

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4.2.2 Elliptical Wing
A classic characteristic of the Supermarine Spitfire,
the elliptical wing is usually considered to be the most
efficient wing shape. (Refer figure 5 & 6)
Among its attributes is its minimal drag production for
a given aspect ratio; which makes it an outstanding choice
for high-speed maneuvering. However the design comes
with a few disadvantages.
Figure 5: Elliptical wing shape
Chief among its drawbacks is its less-than-ideal stalling tendency (the entire wing tends to stall at
roughly the same time). On top of this, construction is very challenging and costly, which explains
its relative rarity among the fixed-wing fleet.

Figure 6: Elliptical wing airplane

4.2.3

Tapered Wing
Tapered wings feature a chord that gradually decreases
from root to tip. The progressively smaller chord is
favorable in that it reduces weight, increases aspect ratio
(which lowers induced drag), and more efficiently
distributes the aerodynamic load along the wing. A
drawback of the design is that the changing chord requires
a variety of rib sizes, which in turn drives up the cost and
increases production/repair time. (Refer figure 7 & 8)
Figure 7: Taper wing shape

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Figure 8: Taper wing airplane

4.2.4

Sweepback Wing
Sweptback wings are the style you see on airliners. These
aft-sloping airfoils delay the drag rise that accompanies
supersonic airflow; therefore partially offsetting the
performance-robbing effects of wave drag. In addition,
since wing airflow moves spanwise (outward) at high
speeds, the aft-angled wings help to maintain the center
of lift behind the center of gravity a crucial consideration
for longitudinal stability. (Refer figure 9 & 10)

Figure 9: Sweepback wing shape

Swept wings have a number of negative qualities. Among them, the spanwise airflow in the
transonic range tends to make the wingtips stall before the rest of the wing; leading to poor stall
characteristics. Besides this, since the wings angle backwards rather than directly outwards,
their span is relatively short, their aspect ratio low, and their induced drag fairly high. When
combined, these factors contribute to somewhat poor low-speed qualities.

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Figure 10: Sweepback wing airplane

4.2.5

Delta Wing
Delta wings are the configuration of choice for military fighters. As with swept airfoils, the
deltas rearward sweep prevents the wings leading edge from
encountering the supersonic shockwave produced at the
aircrafts nose. This design effectively lowers the speed of
airflow over the wings to subsonic levels; even though the
plane itself might be exceeding the speed of sound. (Refer
figure 11 & 12)
The solid planform of the delta also provides a noticeably
larger wing area (thereby facilitating lift production) than the
pure sweptback design, which lowers wing loading and,
therefore, increases maneuverability.
Figure 11: Delta wing shape
The straight trailing edge also makes the configuration stronger than sweptback wings and
relatively easy to build. Additionally, the solid structure of the wing permits increased fuel &
equipment storage over what swept wings can offer.

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Figure 12: Delta wing airpalne

4.3

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is that chord on a wing where, mathematically seen, all
aerodynamic and gravitational forces act upon, i.e. the chord through the geometrical center of
the wing. It is used for aerodynamic calculations and as reference for center-of-gravity
calculations.
For a rectangular wing of a constant aerofoil section dimensions, MAC is just the chord.
If the wing is elliptical, taper, swept or Delta, the MAC can be determined geometrically as
follows: (Refer figure 13)

find the center of the chord at the wing root.

find the center if the chord at the wing tip.
connect both centers by a line (X).
add Tip Chord (T) to Root Chord (R) in the aft direction.
add (R) to (T) in the front direction.
connect both new ends by a line (Y).
the MAC is found in the point where this line intersects with the line found in step 3.

If the wing is pointed at the tip and has a straight trailing edge (delta wing) the MAC will be 2/3
of (R).

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Figure 13: Determining MAC geometrically

Another way to determine MAC is by using the chord of an imaginary rectangular wing that has
the same aerodynamic characteristics as the actual wing. In effect, this imaginary wing replaces
the more complicated plan form of the actual wing for calculation purposes and can be used in
relation to the aircraft. (Refer figure 14)

Figure 14: Determining MAC using imaginary rectangular wing

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4.3.1

Center of Gravity (CG) Range

When loading an aircraft, it is not just a matter of how much is loaded into the aircraft, but
where you put it as well. The location of the CG is critical to aircraft stability and elevator
effectiveness. Loading an aircraft in such a way that a nose heavy situation is likely to happen
will make it less easy to handle inflight, especially when commencing take-off or landing. If the
aircraft is tail heavy, there is a risk of tip-over and will most certainly cause structural damage to
the aircraft itself. This means that improper balance of the load carried by the aircraft could
result in serious control problems and unsafe situations both on the ground as in flight.
From the statements above it is quite easy to understand that the CG has to be located between
defined limits in order to fly safely and legally. These limits can be expressed as a percentage of
the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).
Usually for a single- or two-seat aircraft, the
most forward position would be aft of 15% MAC
and the most aft position would be forward of
3035% MAC.
Thus, the allowable CG range in a light aircraft
shouldn't exceed 20% MAC. The linear
distance between the fore and aft limits is
perhaps 15 to 20 cm. (Refer figure 15)
Figure 15: CG range of light aircraft

For aircraft utilizing other than the rectangular wing configuration, the CG range has to lie
between the limits of MAC distance (usually 25% to 30% MAC) in order for the aircraft to be
balanced.
The concept of MAC is used by aircraft designers when they determine stability characteristics of
the aircraft. (Refer figure 16)

Figure 16: MAC concept to determine CG range.

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4.4

Fineness Ratio
The ratio of length to breadth (or diameter) of a streamlined shape is called the fineness ratio
of this body. For best results it should be approx. 4 to 1, but it actually depends on the design
airspeed. The higher the speed, the greater should be the fineness ratio. However, experiments
show that there is not much variation in the drag for a large range of fineness ratios. (Refer
figure 17)

Figure 17: Fineness ratio

4.5

Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is the ratio of the length or span of a wing to its width or chord. With all other
details being equal, an increase in aspect ratio decreases the drag, especially at high angles of
attack. A glider, for example, is a highperformance sailplane with high--aspect wings so it can
operate at relatively slow airspeeds and high angles of attack. (Refer figure 18)

Aspect Ratio = Wing Span

Chord
Aspect Ratio = Wing Span Square
Wing Area

Figure 18: Aspect ratio

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A high aspect ratio indicates long, narrow wings. A low aspect ratio indicates short, wide wings.
(Refer figure 19)

Figure 19: Variation of Aspect ratio

4.5.1

High Aspect Ratio Wing

Generally, high aspect ratio wings give slightly more lift and enable sustained, endurance flight.
Long narrow wings give a plane more stability but the trade-off is that this type of plane wont
be very maneuverable.
The wings also have less drag than shorter wider wings due to less wing tip area to create an
induced drag. Having less induced drag means less fuel consumption for the planes so they can
keep their speed for a longer time.

4.5.2

Low Aspect Ratio Wing

Shorter wider-winged planes have a bigger wing tip edge, which means more induced drag. This
means they go slower unless they have extra power to counteract the drag. More fuel would be
needed to keep them at a constant speed.
The less stable wing area means the low aspect ratio wing is more maneuverable than the high
aspect ratio wing.

4.5.3

Moderate Aspect Ratio Wing

The airplane performance of the moderate aspect ratio wing is a trade-off between the high
aspect ratio and low aspect ratio wing airplane. It is a general-purpose wing.

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4.6

Relative Airflow
Relative airflow is a term used to describe the
direction of the airflow with respect to the wing.
It is sometimes called relative wind.
If a wing is moving forward and downward, the
relative airflow is upward and backward. If the wing
is moving forward horizontally, the relative airflow
moves backward horizontally. The flight path and
the relative airflow are, therefore, always parallel
but travel in opposite directions.(Refer figure 20)
Relative airflow is created by the motion of the
airplane through the air. It is also created by the
motion of air past a stationary body or by a
combination of both. Therefore, on a take-off roll,
an airplane is subject to the relative airflow created
by its motion along the ground and also by the
moving mass of air (wind). In flight, however, only
the motion of the airplane produces a relative
airflow. The direction and speed of the wind have
no effect on relative airflow.
Figure 20: Relative airflow

4.7

Angle of Attack
The angle of attack (AOA) is the angle between the
Chord line of an airfoil and the direction of the air
that strikes the airfoil. (Refer figure 21)
Any increase in the angle of attack increases the lift
of the airfoil. The angle of attack can be increased
until the designed airfoil specific critical AOA is
reached. This critical AOA is typically between 15
to 20. At any further increase beyond this point,
the air ceases to flow smoothly over the top of the
wing and the wing stalls.
Figure 21: Angle of Attack

4.8

Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the angle formed by the wing chord line and the aircraft longitudinal
axis. The wing chord line extends from the leading edge of the wing to the trailing edge of the
wing. The longitudinal axis is an imaginary line that extends from the nose of the aircraft to the
tail. (Refer figure 22)

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The angle of incidence is measured by the angle at which the wing is attached to the fuselage
and in general, the angle of incidence is fixed and cannot be changed by the pilot. The angle of
incidence is usually set at a small positive angle in order to allow the fuselage to maintain level
during normal cruising flight. The angle of incidence varies on different aircraft but is normally
set from minimum of 2 to maximum of 6.

Figure 22: Angle of incidence

4.9

Wash In and Wash out Wing

Wash in and wash out are terms referring to the angle of incidence of the wing tip versus the
wing root. Wash in is a twist in the wing that increases its angle of incidence near the tip or the
angle of incidence is greater at the wing tip and decreases across the span, becoming lowest at
the wing root (Refer figure 23). Wash out is a twist that decreases the angle of incidence near
the wing tip or the angle of incidence is greater at the wing root and decreases across the span,
becoming lowest at the wing tip (sReferfigure 24) .

Figure 23: Wash-in wing

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Figure 24: Wash-out wing

The twisting of the wing tip typically occurs as a result of aerodynamic forces on wings that lack
torsional rigidity, such as highly swept wings. Swept-back wings experience a wash out and a
decrease of lift at their tips, whereby forward-swept wings experience a wash in and an increase
of lift.
The wing tip twisting can also be a corrective rigging measure on a small strut-braced aircraft
that flies with a heavy wing. By shortening the length of the rear strut the twist of the wing can
be changed to increase the wash in, in order to generate additional lift on this wing.
4.10

Airfoil Profile
Airfoils are divided into three classes: high lift, general
purpose, and high speed. (Refer figure 25)
High-lift aerofoil sections are normally used on sailplanes
and aircraft with short field operations where lift is of
primary importance. They have a low fineness ratio,
a pronounced camber, and well-rounded leading
edges.
High-speed sections are used for high-speed aircraft.
They produce little drag but very low lift. They have a
very high fineness ratio, no or lesser camber and sharp
leading edges. Their maximum thickness is about 50%
chord point.
General-purpose airfoil sections employ a medium
fineness ratio, less camber, and sharper leading edges
than high lift airfoil.
Figure 25: Airfoil profile

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