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A Friendly Introduction to
Differential Equations
2 M. Kaabar
A Friendly Introduction to
Differential Equations
4 M. Kaabar
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Note: If you find this book helpful and useful, and you see
an opportunity to cite it in any of your publications, I would
be very happy and appreciative of the citation. Please cite
this book as:
Kaabar, M.K.: A Friendly Introduction to Differential
Equations. Printed by CreateSpace, San Bernardino, CA
(2015)
Table of Contents
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Exercises.....49
Systems
of
Homogeneous
Equations (HLDE)
Linear
Differential
51
2.1
2.2
2.3
Exercises....65
67
3.1
Variation Method.67
3.2
Cauchy-Euler Method....74
3.3
Exercises...76
6 M. Kaabar
78
4.1
Bernoulli Method......78
4.2
Separable Method....................................85
4.3
Exact Method....................................87
4.4
4.5
4.6
Exercises.....95
96
5.1
Temperature Application........................96
5.2
5.3
Appendices
109
Determinants.......................109
Vector Spaces........116
Homogenous Systems.........135
157
Index
159
Bibliography
163
Introduction
In this book, I wrote five chapters: The Laplace
Transform, Systems of Homogenous Linear Differential
Equations (HLDE), Methods of First and Higher Orders
Differential Equations, Extended Methods of First and
Higher Orders Differential Equations, and Applications of
Differential Equations. I also added exercises at the end of
each chapter above to let students practice additional sets of
problems other than examples, and they can also check
their solutions to some of these exercises by looking at
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises section at the end of
this book. This book is a very useful for college students who
studied Calculus II, and other students who want to review
some concepts of differential equations before studying
courses such as partial differential equations, applied
mathematics, and electric circuits II. According to my
experience as a math tutor, I follow the steps of my
Professor Ayman Badawi who taught me Differential
Equations and Linear Algebra at the American University
of Sharjah, and I will start with laplace transforms as the
first chapter of this book [3]. I used what I learned from Dr.
Badawi to write the content of this book depending on his
class notes as my main reference [3]. If you have any
comments related to the contents of this book, please email
your comments to mkaabar@math.wsu.edu.
I wish to express my gratitude and appreciation to
my father, my mother, and my only lovely 13-year old
brother who is sick, and I want to spend every dollar in his
heath care. I would also like to give a special thanks to my
Professor Dr. Ayman Badawi who supported me in every
successful achievement I made, and I would like to thank
all administrators and professors of mathematics at WSU
for their educational support. In conclusion, I would
appreciate to consider this book as a milestone for
developing more math books that can serve our
mathematical society in the area of differential equations.
Mohammed K A Kaabar
8 M. Kaabar
{()} = ()
0
1
{1} =
{sin } =
{ } =
{ } = +1 where m is a
positive integer (whole
number)
{cos } = 2
+ 2
+ 2
1 {() | } = ()
{ ()} = () |
{()( )} = {( + )}
1 { ()} = ( )( )
{( )} =
{
} = ( )
{ ()}() = (1)
1 {
()
} = (1) ()
10
11
{() ()} = () ()
{ ()} =
0
() () = ()( )
()
1 {() ()} = () ()
{( )} =
12 {()} = 1
13 Assume that () is periodic with period , then:
1
{()} =
()
1
0
10 M. Kaabar
Chapter 1
The Laplace Transform
In this chapter, we start with an introduction to
Differential Equations (DEs) including linear DEs,
nonlinear DEs, independent variables, dependent
variables, and the order of DEs. Then, we define the
laplace transforms, and we give some examples of
Initial Value Problems (IVPs). In addition, we discuss
the inverse laplace transforms. We cover in the
remaining sections an important concept known as the
laplace transforms of derivatives, and we mention
some properties of laplace transforms. Finally, we
learn how to solve systems of linear equations (LEs)
using Cramers Rule.
1.1 Introductions to
Differential Equations
In this section, we are going to discuss how to
determine whether the differential equation is linear
or nonlinear, and we will find the order of differential
equations. At the end of this section, we will show the
purpose of differential equations.
11
15
2
2 + =
12 M. Kaabar
13
14 M. Kaabar
15
{()} = ()
0
{()} = ()
0
16 M. Kaabar
Step 3:
{1} = (1)
0
0 .
Thus, 0 = | =
= + (0) =
=0
1
+ .
Fact 1.2.1 { , } = .
Example 1.2.2 Using definition 1.2.1, find { 7 }.
Solution: To find { 7 } using definition 1.2.1, we need
to do the following steps:
Step 1: We write the general definition of laplace
transform as follows:
17
{()} = ()
0
Step 3:
7 }
= ( 7 )
0
0 (7 ) with lim 0 (7 ) .
0 (7 ) .
(7)
18 M. Kaabar
Integration Part
3 2
1 2
1 2
4
1 2
1 2
16
3
4
3
4
3
8
Thus, 3 2 = 3 2 2 2 + 2 2 + .
19
Integration Part
sin(4)
4 cos(4)
1
sin(4)
16
1
cos(4)
64
3
8
{()} = ()
0
20 M. Kaabar
Step 3: { 2 } = 0 ( 2 )
with lim 0 (2 ) .
0 (2 ) .
2
1
3
Thus, ( 2 ) = 2 2 3 + .
Now, we need to evaluate the above integral from 0 to as
follows:
21
0 (2 ) = 2
1
( 2
2
2
2
3
| =
=
=0
+ 3) .
1
2
2
2
lim ( 2 2 3 + 3 )
2
3
= lim (0 + 3 ) =
where > 0.
+ 2
22 M. Kaabar
+ 2
2 +(8)2
Thus, {cos(8)} =
.
2 +64
= 2 +64.
2 +(8)2
{()} = ()
0
Step 3: { } = 0 ( )
23
with lim 0 ( ) .
0 .
=
= = =
=
= ( )
=
lim = lim |
+ ( )
=0
0
Because 0 (
) =
lim ( ) .
0
Since we
(0
have0
(0)
(0)
) +
0
24 M. Kaabar
= (()() (0)) + ()
0
= (0 (0)) + ()
0
= () (0)
0
Thus, { } = () (0).
We conclude this example with the following results:
Result 1.2.2 Assume that () is a function, and () is
the laplace transform of (). Then, we have the
following:
a) { ()} = { (1) ()} = () (0).
b) { ()} = { (2) ()} = 2 () (0) (0).
c) { ()} = { (3) ()} = 3 () 2 (0) (0)
(0).
d) { (4) ()} = 4 () 3 (0) 2 (0) (0)
(0).
25
26 M. Kaabar
{cos } =
2 +2
+ 2
is an equivalent to 2+(
Since {cos 2} =
1 {
}
2 +2
2 +(2)2
2)2
= cos 2.
3
+ 2
is an equivalent to 2+(3)2
3
{ } = .
1
+8
is an equivalent to (8)
1
27
2
.
2 +(2)2
5
5
2
{2 sin(2)} = 2 (2 +(2)2 )
and 2 +4 is an equivalent to
5
Since 2 {sin(2)} =
= 2 +4 , then by
5
1
3
2
2( )
}=
7 1
1
{ 3 }.
2
( )
2
7 3
Since 2 { 2 } = {2 2 } = 2 (
3
2
( )
) = 23 , then by using
7
7 3
2 + 2
because {sin } =
2 + 2
and {cos } =
1(3)
28 M. Kaabar
2 + 2
3!
is an equivalent to 3+1
3!
where
is
some
interval,
are
continuous
and
on
29
(3) () + 2 (2) () + + 1 () = 5 + 7
3 () = +2
everywhere ().
1 () = + 1 has a solution which is continuous on
the interval [1, ).
() = 5 + 7 has a solution which is continuous
everywhere ().
Thus, the largest interval on the is (3, ).
30 M. Kaabar
( 2 + 2 3) (2) () + +3 () = 10
Using definition 1.4.1, we also suppose the following:
2 () = ( 2 + 2 3)
1 () = 0
0 () =
1
+3
() = 10
Now, we need to determine the interval of each
coefficient above as follows:
2 () = ( 2 + 2 3) = ( 1)( + 3) has a solution
which is continuous everywhere () except = 1 and
= 3.
1
0 () = +3
everywhere () except = 3.
() = 10
has
solution
which
is
continuous
everywhere ().
Thus, the largest interval on the is (1, ).
31
() (0) + 3() = 0
()( + 3) = (0)
We substitute (0) = 3 because it is given in the
question itself.
()( + 3) = 3
3
() = (+3)
32 M. Kaabar
1.1.1 section 4.
() = 3 3 (It is written in terms of instead of
because we need it in terms of ).
Then, we will find () by finding the derivative of
what we got above (() = 3 3 ) as follows:
() = (3 3 ) = (3)(3) 3 = 9 3 .
Finally, to check our solution if it is right, we
substitute what we got from () = 3 3 and () =
9 3 in
() + 3() = 0 as follows:
9 3 + 3(3 3 ) = 9 3 + (9 3 ) = 0
Thus, our solution is correct which is () = 3 3 and
() = 9 3 .
Example 1.4.4 Solve the following Initial Value
Problem (IVP): (2) () + 3() = 0. Given (0) = 0, and
(0) = 1.
Solution: (2) () + 3() = 0 is a linear differential
equation of order 2. First, we need to find the domain
for the solution of the above differential equation in
other words we need to find for what values of the
solution of the above differential equation holds.
Therefore, we do the following:
1 (2) () + 3() = 0
Using definition 1.4.1, we also suppose the following:
33
2 () = 1
1 () = 0
0 () = 3
() = 0
The domain of solution is (, ).
Now, to find the solution of the above differential
equation, we need to take the laplace transform for
both sides as follows
{ (2) ()} + {3()} = {0}
{ (2) ()} + 3{()} = 0 because ({0} = 0).
1
( 2 + 3)
}=
(2 +3)
1
3
1 {
1
2
34 M. Kaabar
(2 +(3) )
and we use
() =
1
3
()
1
3
sin(3 )) as follows:
1
= ( sin(3 )) =
(3) cos(3 ) = cos(3 )
3
3
1
3
35
Let = 3, and () = 3 .
() = { 3 }.
3!
Hence, { 3 3 } = { 3 } | 3 = ()3+1 | 3 =
3!
()4
| 3.
4
| + 2
+ 16
36 M. Kaabar
2+2
} = 1 {
}
( 2)2 + 4
( 2)2 + 4
= 1 {
1 {
( 2) 2 + 4
2
2
+
}
2
( 2) + 4 ( 2)2 + 4
} = 1 {
2
2
1
}
+
{
}
( 2)2 + 4
( 2) 2 + 4
1 {(2)2 +4 } = 1 {1 () | 2 } + 1 {2 () | 2 }
+22
+2
2
} = 1 {
} = 1 {
}
3
3
3
( + 2)
( + 2)
( + 2)
( + 2)3
1 {
1 {
1
{
3} =
( + 2)
( + 2)
} = 1 {
+2
1
{
3}+
( + 2)
1
( + 2)
} + 1 {
2
( + 2)3
2
( + 2)3
}
}
37
1 {(+2)3 } = 1 {1 () | + 2 } + 1 {2 () | + 2 }
Thus, 1 {(+2)3 } = 2 2 2 .
1
Solution: 1 {2 4 } = 1 {(2)(+2) }.
Since the numerator has a polynomial of degree 0 ( 0 =
1), and the denominator a polynomial of degree 2, then
this means the degree of numerator is less than the
degree of denominator. Thus, in this case, we need to
use the partial fraction as follows:
1
=
+
( 2)( + 2)
( 2) ( + 2)
38 M. Kaabar
1
1
4
1
4
1
+
{ 2
}= {
}
4
( 2)
( + 2)
1 {
1
2 4
1
2
}=
}=
1
4
( 2)
}+
1
4 }
{
( + 2)
1 1
1
1
1
{
} 1 {
}
4
( 2)
4
( + 2)
Thus, 1 {2 4 } = 4 2 4 2 .
Now, we will introduce a new property from table 1.1.1
in the following two examples.
Example 1.5.6 Find { }.
Solution: By using the left side of section 9 in table
1.1.1, we obtain:
{ ()}() = (1)
()
= (1) () ()
39
()
= (1) () ()
2
)
(2 +1)2
Thus, { 2 sin()} =
40 M. Kaabar
() = 1
The domain of solution is (, ).
Now, to find the solution of the above differential
equation, we need to take the laplace transform for
both sides as follows
{ (2) ()} + {5 (1) ()} + {6()} = {1}
{ (2) ()} + 5{ (1) ()} + 6{()} =
because ({1} = ).
( 2 () (0) (0)) + 5(() (0)) + 6() =
2 () + 5() + 6() =
()( 2 + 5 + 6) =
() =
( 2
1
1
=
+ 5 + 6) ( + 3)( + 2)
() = 1 {()} = 1 {(+3)(+2)}
41
= +
+
( + 3)( + 2) ( + 3) ( + 2)
Now, we use the cover method. In the cover method,
we cover the original, say , and substitute = 0 in
1
(+3)(+2)
1
1
1
2
1
3
1 6
+
{
}= { +
}
( + 3)( + 2)
( + 3) ( + 2)
1 {
1
1
1
1
1
} = 1 { } + 1 {
}
( + 3)( + 2)
6
3
( + 3)
1
1
1 {
}
2
( + 2)
1
Thus, () = 1 {(+3)(+2)} = 6 + 3 3 2 2 .
Definition 1.5.1 Given > 0. Unit Step Function is
defined as follows: ( ) = {
0
1
0 <
<
a) ( 0) = () = 1 for every 0 .
b) ( ) = 0 for every 0 .
42 M. Kaabar
Thus, {( 3)} =
3
.
2
}.
} = ( )
0 < 2
2 <
3
1 < 4
4 < 10
Example 1.5.13 Given () = {
( + 1) 10 <
Rewrite () in terms of .
2
}
Thus, 1 {
= ( 2) = {
0
1
43
where = 2, and () = .
Hence, {( 2)} = 2 {( + 2)} = 2 { + 2} =
1
2 (2 + ).
() () = ()( )
0
44 M. Kaabar
{0 ()}.
1
1
2
( + 1)
1
+ 1)
( 2
45
1
{()} =
()
1
0
Since we need find the 8th period, then this means that
= 8, and we can apply what we got above as follows:
8
1
1
{()} =
() =
()
8
1
1 8
0
1
{()} =
()
1 8
0
1
=
[3 2 ]
1 8
0
1
3
= 2 2 = 8
+ |
[ |
]
8
1
=0
=2
1
3
2
=
[ ( 2 1) + ( 8 2 )]
8
1
46 M. Kaabar
0
1
( ) =
2
{0
0 < ( )
( ) < ( + )
( + )
47
W 3 = 3
[ ] [ ]
The system has a unique solution if and only if
det(W) 0. Cramers Rule tells us how to
find 1 , 2 , , as follows:
1 3 4
Let W = [1 2 1] Then, the solutions for the system of
7 4 3
linear equations are:
1 3 4
det [ 2 1]
4 3
1 =
det(W)
1 1 4
det [1 1]
7 3
2 =
det(W)
1 3 1
det [1 2 ]
7 4
3 =
det(W)
Example 1.6.1 Solve the following system of linear
equations using Cramers Rule:
21 + 72 = 13
{
101 + 32 = 4
Solution: First of all, we write 2 2 system in the form
WX = A according to definition 1.6.1.
48 M. Kaabar
2
7 1
13
][ ] = [ ]
10 3 2
4
2
7
], then
10 3
2 =
13 7
13 7
] det [
]
4 3 =
4 3 = 67
det(W)
76
76
det [
2
13
2
13
] det [
]
10 4 =
10 4 = 122
det(W)
76
76
det [
67
122
76
49
() + 2(() (0)) =
5
2
5
2
5
2 + 1
+2=
2
2
Thus, () + 2() =
2+1
2
2 3 + 4 2 4 2 8 + 8 + 4
1
=
3
( 2)(2 + 4)
2
1
50 M. Kaabar
() = 2 2 .
() = 4 2 .
Now, we can find () as follows:
() 4 2
() 4() = 0 () =
=
= 2 .
4
4
Thus, () = 2 .
1.7 Exercises
10
1. Find 1 {(4)4}.
+5
2. Find 1 {(1)2+16}.
+5
3. Find 1 {(+3)4}.
5
4. Find 1 {310}.
2
5. Find 1 {26+13}.
5
6. Find 1 {278}.
7. Solve the following Initial Value Problem (IVP):
2 () + 6() = 0. Given (0) = 4.
8. Solve the following Initial Value Problem (IVP):
() + 4() = 0. Given (0) = 2, and (0) = 0.
4
9. Find 1 {(1)2(+3)}.
4
2
0 < 3
3 <
Rewrite () in terms of .
4
13. Find 1 { 2 +4 }.
51
0 < 3
(0) = (0) = 0.
15. Solve the following Initial Value Problem (IVP):
()+7 () 8() = () where () =
{
3
2
0 < 5
5 <
(0) = (0) = 0.
16. Prove result 1.5.2.
17. Solve the following Initial Value Problem (IVP):
(3) ()+ () = ( 3). Given (0) = (0) = (0) =
0.
() () = 1 . 1
()
+ () = 4 . . 2
Given that (0) = 1, (0) = (0) = 0.
52 M. Kaabar
Chapter 2
Systems of Homogeneous
Linear Differential
Equations (HLDE)
In this chapter, we start introducing the homogeneous
linear differential equations (HLDE) with constant
coefficients. In addition, we discuss how to find the
general solution of HLDE. At the end of this chapter,
we introduce a new method called Undetermined
Coefficient Method.
of
the
homogeneous
linear
differential
53
2 + + = 0
homogeneous system): {3 + 5 + 3 + 4 = 0
+ = 0
*Definition 2.1.1 is taken from section 3.1 in my
published book titled A First Course in Linear Algebra:
54 M. Kaabar
55
2
2
1
=
=
2 + 4 2( + 2) + 2
() = 1 {()} = 1 {
= 2 .
56 M. Kaabar
57
at = 2, 2 () = 2
Hence, using result 2.1.1, the general solution for ()
is: () = 1 2 + 2 2 , for some 1 , 2 . (Note:
denotes to homogeneous). Now, we need to find
the values of 1 and 2 as follows:
at = 0,
58 M. Kaabar
59
60 M. Kaabar
at = 0, 1 () = (0) = 1
at = 0, 2 () = (0) = 1
at = 0, 3 () = (0) = 1 2
because 3 = {1, , 2 } = 0 (Note: {1, , 2 } = 0
means 1 + + 2 = 0)
In other words {1, , 2 } is the set of all linear
combinations of 1, , and 2 .
at = 2, 4 () = 2
at = 1, 5 () =
Thus, using result 2.1.1, the general solution for ()
is: () = 1 + 2 + 3 2 +4 2 + 5 , for some
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . (Note: denotes to
homogeneous).
Example 2.1.8 Given 1 () = 3 , 2 () = 3 , and
3 () = . Are 1 (), 3 (), and 3 () independent?
Solution: We cannot write 3 () as a linear
combination of 1 () and 2 () as follows:
( ) 3 + ( ) 3
Thus, 1 (), 3 (), and 3 () are independent.
Example 2.1.9 Given 1 () = (+3) , 2 () = 3 , and
3 () = . Are 1 (), 3 (), and 3 () independent?
Solution: We can write 1 () as a linear combination of
2 () and 3 () as follows:
(+3) = 3 . Thus, 1 (), 3 (), and 3 () are
dependent (not independent).
61
62 M. Kaabar
63
at = 0, we obtain: + 3 + (3)(0) = 0
+ 3 + 0 = 0
+ 3 = 0 (1)
at = 1, we obtain: + 3 + (3)(1) = 1
+ 3 + 3 = 1
4 + 3 = 1 . (2)
1
Thus, () = 9 + 3 .
Step 3: We need to find the general solution as follows:
() = () + ()
1
Thus, () = 1 3 + ( 9 + 3 ).
Example 2.2.2 Given () + 3() = 3 , (0) = 1.
Find the general solution for (). (Hint: No need to
find the value of 1)
Solution: In this example, we will have the same
homogeneous solution as we did in example 2.2.1 but
the only difference is the particular solution. We will
repeat some steps in case you did not read example
2.2.1. Since () + 3() = 3 does not have a
constant coefficient, then we need to use the
undetermined coefficients method as follows:
Step 1: We need to find the homogeneous solution by
letting () + 3() equal to zero as follows:
() + 3() = 0. Now, it is a homogeneous linear
differential equation of order 1.
64 M. Kaabar
65
3 = 3
=1
Thus, () = (1 3 ) = 3 .
Step 3: We need to find the general solution as follows:
() = () + ()
Thus, () = 1 3 + 3 .
Result 2.2.1 Suppose that you have a linear differential
equation with the least derivative, say , and this
differential equation equals to a polynomial of degree
. Then, we obtain the following:
= [ ] .
Result 2.2.2 Suppose that you have a linear differential
equation, then the general solution is always written
as: () = () + ().
Example 2.2.3 Given (4) () 7 (3) () = 2 . Describe
() but do not find it.
Solution: To describe (), we do the following:
By using result 2.2.1, we obtain the following:
= [ + + 2 ] 3 .
Example 2.2.4 Given (4) () 7 (3) () = 3. Describe
() but do not find it.
Solution: To describe (), we do the following:
By using result 2.2.1, we obtain the following:
= [] 3 = 3 .
66 M. Kaabar
2.3 Exercises
1. Given (2) () + 2 () + () = 0. Find the general
solution for (). (Hint: Use results 2.1.1 and 2.1.2,
and in this exercise, no need to find the values of
1 , and 2)
2. Given (3) () (2) () = 3. Find the general
solution for (). (Hint: No need to find the value of
1 , 2 , and 3)
3. Given (4) () (3) () = 3 2 . Find the general
solution for (). (Hint: No need to find the value of
1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 )
67
68 M. Kaabar
Chapter 3
Methods of First and
Higher Orders Differential
Equations
In this chapter, we introduce two new methods called
Variation Method and Cauchy-Euler Method in order
to solve first and higher orders differential equations.
In addition, we give several examples about these
methods, and the difference between them and the
previous methods in chapter 2.
69
()
3 ()
70 M. Kaabar
71
1 ()1 () + 2 ()2 () = 0
()
1 ()1 () + 2 ()2 () =
2 ()
1 () = 1
------ 1 () = 0
2 () = 3 ------ 2 () = 3 3
Now, we substitute what we got above in the particular
solution form as follows:
1 ()(1) + 2 ()( 3 ) = 0
1 ()(0) + 2
()(3 3
1
)=
1
1
By solving (1) and (2), 2 () = 3 3 and
1
1 () = 3 3 ( 3 ) = 3.
1
2 () = 0 3 3 .
1
1 () = 3 = 3 (ln||), > 0.
Thus, we write the particular solution as follows:
1
1
() = (ln||) + 3 ( 3 )
3
3
0
72 M. Kaabar
() = () + ()
1
Thus, () = (1 + 2 3 ) + 3 (ln||) +
73
2
1 () =
------ 1 () = 2
2 () = 4 ------ 2 () = 4 4
Now, we substitute what we got above in the particular
solution form as follows:
1 ()( 2 ) + 2 ()( 4 ) = 0
1 ()(2 2 ) + 2 ()(4 4 ) =
4
1
74 M. Kaabar
1 () = 1 =
0
4 ]
det[ 4
4 4
2
4 ]
det[ 2
2
4 4
8
8
=
=
4 6 + 2 6 2 6
1
= 2
2
By substituting 1 () in (1) to find 2 () as follows:
1
( 2 ) ( 2 ) + 2 ()( 4 ) = 0
2
1
2 () =
2
1
1 () = 2 2 = 4 2 .
1
2 () = = .
Thus, we write the particular solution as follows:
1
1
() = 2 ( 2 ) ( 4 )
4
2
Step 3: We need to find the general solution as follows:
() = () + ()
1
Thus, () = (1 2 + 2 4 ) + ( 4 2 ( 2 )
1
2
75
= ( 1) 2 in (2) + = 0 as follows:
1
( 1) 2 1 + = 0
( 1) 1 1 + 1 = 0
1 (( 1) + 1) = 0
1 ( 2 + 1) = 0
76 M. Kaabar
1 ( 2 2 + 1) = 0
1 (( 1)( 1)) = 0
Thus, = 1 and = 1. Then, we use our values to
substitute in our assumption which is = :
at = 1, 1 = 1 =
at = 1, 2 = 1 = ln()
In the above case, we multiplied by ln() because we
had a repeating for , and in Cauchy-Euler Method, we
should multiply any repeating by natural logarithm.
Thus, the general solution for () is:
() = 1 + 2 (), for some 1 and 2 .
Example 3.2.2 Given 3 (2) 2 + = 0. Find the
general solution for (). (Hint: No need to find the
values of 1and 2 )
Solution: Since 3 (2) + 2 + = 0 does not have
constant coefficients, then we need to use the CauchyEuler method by letting = , and after substitution
all terms must be of the same degree as follows:
First of all, we will find the first, second and third
derivatives as follows:
= 1
= ( 1) 2
= ( 1)( 2) 3
Now, we substitute = , = 1 , and
= ( 1) 2 in 3 (2) + 2 + = 0 as follows:
77
3 (( 1) 2 ) + 2 ( 1 ) + ( ) = 0
(( 1) +1 ) + ( +1 ) + ( +1 ) = 0
+1 ( 2 + + 1) = 0
+1 ( 2 + 1) = 0
Thus, = 1 = = 0 (1)().
Then, we use our values to substitute in our
assumption which is = :
Since we have two parts (real and imaginary), then by
using the Cauchy-Euler Method, we need to write our
solution as follows:
1 = ( ) cos( ln()
= (0) cos(1 ln()) = cos(ln())
2 = ( ) sin( ln()
= (0) sin(1 ln()) = sin(ln())
Thus, the general solution for () is:
() = 1 cos(ln()) + 2 sin(ln()), for some
1 and 2 .
3.3 Exercises
1. Given (2) + + 4 = 0. Find the general solution
for (). (Hint: No need to find the values of 1and 2 )
2. Given (2) + 5 + 7 = 0. Find the general solution
for (). (Hint: No need to find the values of 1and 2 )
3. Given 3 (3) + = 0. Find the general solution for
(). (Hint: No need to find the values of 1, 2 and 3 )
78 M. Kaabar
79
Chapter 4
Extended Methods of First
and Higher Orders
Differential Equations
In this chapter, we discuss some new methods such as
Bernulli Method, Separable Method, Exact Method,
Reduced to Separable Method and Reduction of Order
Method. We use
higher
orders
linear
and
non-linear
differential
80 M. Kaabar
1 () 2 ()
()
+
=
1 ()
1 ()
1 ()
2 ()
()
+
=
1 ()
1 ()
()
()
,
1 ()
then:
+ () = () . (1)
Thus, the solution using Integral Factor Method is
written in the following steps:
Step 1: Multiply both sides of (1) by letting
= () :
() + () () = () ()
Step 2: () + () () = [ () ] (2)
Step 3: [ () ] = () () . . (3)
Step 4: Integrate both sides of (3), we obtain:
[ () ] = (() () )
() = (() () )
Step 5: By solving for , and substituting = ()
we obtain:
= (())()
(())()
()
=
81
= () , where () = 2 () = 2 = and () =
1
()
1 ()
4 3
2
= 4
2
2 )
= 2
1
2 4
=
1
2
4
=
1
2
4 ln() +
=
1
2
= 4 2 ln() + 2
Thus, the general solution is: = 4 2 ln() + 2
for some .
Example 4.1.2 Given ( + 1) + = 5. Find the
general solution for (). (Hint: Use integral factor
method and no need to find the value of )
82 M. Kaabar
() =
()
5
=
1 () ( + 1)
Hence, = () =
(+1)
= ln(+1) = ( + 1)
( + 1) (
+ 1)
=
( + 1)
=
5
( + 1)
5 +
( + 1)
+
( + 1) ( + 1)
5
83
= (1 )11
= (1 )
. . (1)
=
(2)
1
+ () = () as follows:
(
)
(
)
+ () 1 = () 1 . . . (3)
1
1
Step 6: Divide (3) by 1 as follows:
1
() (1) () (1)
+
=
1
1
1
1
1
+ ()(1 ) = ()(1 )
+ ()(1 ) 1 = ()(1 )
+ ()(1 ) 1 = ()(1 ) 0
+ ()(1 ) 1 = ()(1 )
+ ()(1 ) = ()(1 )
84 M. Kaabar
+ (1 )() = (1 )()
= (1) = (13) = 2 =
, and = 2 3
1
1
( 3
) + 3 2 ( ) = (6 2 ) (
) . (1)
2
=
+
1
1
2 3
2 3
1
+ (2)3 ( ) 3 = (2)6 . (2)
85
Then, we substitute =
in (2) as follows:
+ (2)3() 3 = (2)6
+ (2)313 = (2)6
+ (2)3 = (2)6
6 = 12 . . . (4)
()
62
2
= 3
()
(12)
3 (12)
=
2
3
2
2 3 (6)
3
=
=
86 M. Kaabar
2 3 +
3
2 3
2
3
2
3
= 2+
= 2 + 3
2
2
1
()
1
2 + 3 2
for some .
equation: = (+3)
Solution: By using definition 4.2.1, we need to rewrite
the above equation in a way that each term is
separated from the other term as follows:
87
3
( + 3)
=
=
. (1)
1
( + 3)
3
Now, we need to do a cross multiplication for (1) as
follows:
1
1
3
( + 3)
1
1
= 0 . (2)
3
( + 3)
1
1
) = 0
3
( + 3)
1
1
( 3 ) (
) =
( + 3)
1
( 3 ) (
) =
( + 3)
1
2 ln(|( + 3)|) =
2
Thus, the general solution is :
1
2 ln(|( + 3)|) =
2
Example 4.2.2 Solve the following differential
equation: = 3+2
Solution: By using definition 4.2.1, we need to rewrite
the above equation in a way that each term is
separated from the other term as follows:
88 M. Kaabar
2
3+2
3
2
=
= = 3 . (1)
= . (1)
89
Thus, = = 2 = .
Thus, = =
90 M. Kaabar
( 3 +3 2 3 2 +)
(3 2 +6+)
91
= ( + + ) where , 0.
sin(5+)
equation: = (5+)2sin(5+) 5.
92 M. Kaabar
=5+
(1)
sin(5+)
= (5+)2sin(5+) 5 as follows:
sin()
5=
5
() 2sin()
sin()
=
(3)
() 2sin()
Now, we can use the separable method to solve (3) as
follows:
By using definition 4.2.1, we need to rewrite (3) in a
way that each term is separated from the other term
as follows:
sin()
1
=
=
. . (4)
() 2sin() () 2sin()
sin()
Now, we need to do a cross multiplication for (4) as
follows:
() 2sin()
= 1
sin()
() 2sin()
1 = 0 (5)
sin()
Then, we integrate both sides of (5) as follows:
() 2sin()
(
1) = 0
sin()
93
() 2sin()
) (1) =
sin()
() 2 sin()
(
) =
sin()
sin()
()
(
2) =
sin()
ln(|sin()|) 2 = . . . (6)
Now, we substitute = 5 + in (6) as follows:
ln(|sin(5 + )|) 2(5 + ) =
Thus, the general solution is :
ln(|sin(5 + )|) 2(5 + ) =
94 M. Kaabar
( + 1) (2)
()
0
()
=
( + 1)
( + 1) ( + 1)
1
(2) () +
(2)
()
()
=0
( + 1)
1
() = 0 (1)
( + 1)
1
()
1 2 ()
1
In our example, 2 () = 1
1
ln(+1)
1
(+1)
(1)2
=
1
= ln(+1) = ( + 1) = 2 2 + .
() = 1 + 2 (2 2 + ), for some 1 , 2 .
Example 4.5.1 Given the following differential
equation: (2) () + ( + 1) () (2 + 1) = 7 ,
and 1 () = is a solution to the associated
homogenous part. Find ()? (Hint: Find first
2 (), and then write ())
Solution: By using definition 4.5.1, To find 2 (), the
differential equation must be equal to zero and must
95
( + 1)
2 + 1
1 (2) () +
()
= 0 . (1)
Now, let () =
(+1)
as follows:
(2) () + () ()
2 + 1
=0
()
1 2 ()
In example 4.5.1, 2 () =
1
(1+)
( )2
ln()
3
Therefore, 2 () = 0
, then it
() = 1 + 2 ( 0
1 , 2 .
96 M. Kaabar
), for some
4.6 Exercises
1. Given ( + 1) + =
(+1)4
2
1+ 2
= 3 (+5)
sin(5 + )
=
5
(5 + ) 2sin(5 + )
8. Given the following differential equation:
( + 1) (2) () () = 10, and 1 () = 1 is a solution
to the associated homogenous part. Find ()?
97
Chapter 5
Applications of Differential
Equations
In this chapter, we give examples of three different
applications of differential equations: temperature,
growth and decay, and water tank. In each section, we
give one example of each of the above applications, and
we discuss how to use what we have learned previously
in this book to solve each problem.
98 M. Kaabar
= ( 0 ) . . (1)
where is a constant.
From (1), we can write as follows:
= 0
= 0 . (2)
From this example, it is given the following:
(0) = 144, (10) = 136, and 0 = 104
From (2), 0 is constant, and the dependent variable
is , while the independent variable is the time .
By substituting 0 = 104 in (2), we obtain:
= 104 . (3)
Since (3) is a first order linear differential equation,
then by using definition 4.1.1, we need to use the
99
()
(104)
() =
(104)
() =
104 +
104
() =
+
() = 104 +
() = 104 + . (4)
The general solution is: () = 104 + for some
.
Now, we need to find by substituting (0) = 144 in
(4) as follows:
(0) = 104 + (0)
144 = 104 + 0
144 = 104 + (1)
144 = 104 +
= 144 104 = 40
Thus, () = 104 + 40 . . . . (5)
100 M. Kaabar
32
= 0.8 . (6)
40
(0.8)
= 0.0223 . . (7)
10
3
= 0.075 . . (9)
40
101
(0.075)
116.16 minutes
0.0223
102 M. Kaabar
= () . . . . . (1)
where is a constant.
From (1), we can write as follows:
= () . (2)
From this example, it is given the following:
(0) = 28,686, and (1) = 32,000.
From (2), the dependent variable is , while the
independent variable is the time .
To solve (1), we need to use separable method as
follows:
By using definition 4.2.1, we need to rewrite (1) in a
way that each term is separated from the other term
as follows:
103
= () =
1 . (3)
2
Now, we need to do a cross multiplication for (3) as
follows:
1
( 2 ) =
1
( 2 ) = 0 . . (4)
Then, we integrate both sides of (4) as follows:
1
(( 2 ) ) = 0
1
( 2 ) () =
1
2 2 =
Thus, the general solution is :
1
2 2 = . (5)
for some .
Then, we rewrite (5) as follows:
1
2 2 = +
1
2 =
+
. . . (6)
2
104 M. Kaabar
Thus, () = (
) . . . . (8)
105
338.74 + (63,661.26)(2018)
(2018) = (
)
2
(2018) 4.126 1015 students
Thus, the number of WSU students will be
approximately 4.126 1015 students in 2018.
106 M. Kaabar
()
(1)
+ (( ))
107
()
()
=
. , (2)
350 + ((5 3)) 350 + 2
= 0.2 ()
()
= 0.2 (5) (
) (2) . (3)
350 + 2
From (3), the dependent variable is , while the
independent variable is the time . Then, we rewrite
(3) as follows:
()
() = 0.2 (5) (
) (2)
350 + 2
()
() = 1 (2) (
)
350 + 2
2
() + (
) () = 1 . . . (4)
350 + 2
Since (4) is a first order linear differential equation,
then by using definition 4.1.1, we need to use the
integral factor method by letting = () , where
2
() = (350+2) and () = 1.
2
108 M. Kaabar
() =
() =
()
(350 + 2) (1)
(350 + 2)
() =
(350 + 2)
(350 + 2)
350 + 2 +
() =
(350 + 2)
350
2
() = (
+
+
) . . . . . (5)
(350 + 2) (350 + 2) (350 + 2)
The general solution is:
2
350
(0) = (
+
+
)
(350 + 2(0)) (350 + 2(0)) (350 + 2(0))
)
(350 + 2(0))
5=(
)
350
= (5)(350) = 1750
5 = (0 + 0 +
350
1750
109
110 M. Kaabar
Appendices
Review of Linear Algebra
Appendix A: Determinants*
*The materials of appendix A are taken from section
1.7 in my published book titled A First Course in
111
112 M. Kaabar
1
A = [3
1
0 2
1 1]
2 4
1 2
2+2
(1) 22 det [
]
1 4
For 32 , since 32 is in the third row and second
column, then we virtually remove the third row and
second column.
1 0 2
A = [3 1 1]
1 2 4
1 2
(1)3+2 32 det [
]
3 1
Step 3: Add all of them together as follows:
3
det(A) = (1)1+2 12 det [
1
1
1 2
] + (1)2+2 22 det [
]
4
1 4
1 2
+ (1)3+2 32 det [
]
3 1
3 1
1 2
det(A) = (1)3 (0)det [
] + (1)4 (1)det [
]
1 4
1 4
1 2
+ (1)5 (2)det [
]
3 1
3 1
1 2
det(A) = (1)(0)det [
] + (1)(1)det [
]
1 4
1 4
1 2
+ (1)(2)det [
]
3 1
det(A) = (1)(0)(12 1) + (1)(1)(4 2) + (1)(2)(1
6)
det(A) = 0 + 2 + 14 = 16.
Thus, the determinant of A is 16.
Result A.1 Let A M (). Then, A is invertible
(non-singular) if and only if det(A) 0.
113
1
22
[
21
det()
12
11 ]
1
22
[
21
11 22 12 21
12
11 ]
114 M. Kaabar
1
1 5 2
5 2
23]
A1 =
[
]=
[
] = [23
4
3
det() 4 3
23 4 3
23 23
Result A.2 Let A M () be a triangular matrix. Then,
det(A) = multiplication of the numbers on the main
diagonal of A.
There are three types of triangular matrix:
a) Upper Triangular Matrix: it has all zeros on the
left side of the diagonal of matrix.
1
(i.e. A = [0
0
7 3
2 5] is an Upper Triangular Matrix).
0 4
0 0
2 0] is a Diagonal Matrix).
0 4
0 0
2 0] is a Diagonal Matrix).
9 4
115
constant ).
1
i.e. A = [0
2
2 3
1 2
4 1] 3R2 -- [0 12
0 1
2 0
3
3] = B
1
det(A) = .
3
2 3
4 1] Ri +Rk -- Rk
0 1
1 2 3
[0 12 3] = B
2 0 1
116 M. Kaabar
117
det(A1 ) = det(A).
Since AA1 = I , then det(AA1 ) = det( ) = 1.
det(AA1 ) = det(A) det(A1 ) = 1.
1
118 M. Kaabar
119
120 M. Kaabar
121
122 M. Kaabar
123
124 M. Kaabar
6
8]
8
1
2 + 3 3 [0
0
Matrix.
2 4 6
0 4 8] This is a Semi-Reduced
0 0 0
125
126 M. Kaabar
127
128 M. Kaabar
129
1 1 0
[0 4 1] This is a Semi-Reduced Matrix.
0 0 0
Since there is a zero-row in the Semi-Reduced Matrix,
then these elements are dependent because we can
write at least one of them as a linear combination of
the others. Only two points survived in the SemiReduced Matrix. Thus, dim() = 2.
Part b: is a plane that passes through the origin
(0,0,0). Since dim() = 2, then any two independent
points in will form a basis for . Hence, the following
are some possible bases for :
Basis for is {(1, 1,0), (2,2,1)}.
Another basis for is {(1, 1,0), (0,4,1)}.
Result B.4.6 It is always true that || = ().
Example B.4.4 Given the following:
= {(1,2,0,0), (1, 2,3,0), (2,0,3,0)}.
Find a basis for .
Solution: We have infinite set of points, and lives
inside 4 . Lets assume the following:
1 = (1,2,0,0)
2 = (1, 2,3,0)
3 = (2,0,3,0)
We check if 1 , 2 and 3 are dependent elements.
Using what we have learned so far from section 2.3
and example 2.4.3: We need to write these vectors as a
matrix.
130 M. Kaabar
1 2 0 0
[ 1 2 3 0] Each point is a row-operation. We
2 0 3 0
need to reduce this matrix to Semi-Reduced Matrix.
Now, we apply the Row-Reduction Method to get the
Semi-Reduced Matrix as follows:
1 2 0 0 +
1 2 0 0
1
2
2
[ 1 2 3 0]
[
0 3 0]
21 + 3 3 0
2 0 3 0
0 4 3 0
1 2 0
2 + 3 3 [ 0
0 3
0 4 0
Matrix.
0
0] This is a Semi-Reduced
0
131
1
0
0
1
(1, 2, 1)
(0,1,0)
132 M. Kaabar
= {(2 , 3 + , 2, + + )|, , }.
Is a subspace of 4 ?
Solution: We have infinite set of points, and lives
inside 4 . We try write each coordinate of as a linear
combination of the free variables , and .
2 = + +
3
5
0
0
0
1
2
0
4
1 ] Note: is a number.
3
133
{1 , 2 , 3 , 4 } = 4 .
Example B.4.8 Form a basis for 4 that contains the
following two independent points:
(0,2,1,4) and (0, 2,3, 10).
Solution: We need to add two more points to the given
one so that all four points are independent. Lets
assume the following:
1 = (0,2,1,4)
2 = (0, 2,3, 10)
3 = (0,0,4, 6) This is a random point.
4 = (0,0,0,1000) This is a random point.
Then, we need to write these vectors as a matrix.
0
2 1
4
[0 2 3 10 ] Each point is a row-operation. We
0
0 4 6
0
0 0 1000
need to reduce this matrix to Semi-Reduced Matrix.
Now, we apply the Row-Reduction Method to get the
Semi-Reduced Matrix as follows:
0
2 1
4
0
0
2
3
10
[
] 1 + 2 2 [3
0
0 4 6
0
0
0 0 1000
0
2
0
0
0
1
4
5
30]
4 6
0 1000
134 M. Kaabar
135
1
1 1 1
[1 1 0 0] Each point is a row-operation. We
0
0 1 1
need to reduce this matrix to Semi-Reduced Matrix.
Now, we apply the Row-Reduction Method to get the
Semi-Reduced Matrix as follows:
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
[1 1 0 0] 1 + 2 2 [0 0 1
0
0 1 1
0 0 1
1
2 + 3 3 [0
0
Matrix.
1
1]
1
1 1 1
0 1 1] This is a Semi-Reduced
0 0 0
136 M. Kaabar
Appendix C: Homogenous
Systems*
*The materials of appendix C are taken from chapter 3
in my published book titled A First Course in Linear
137
[ ] [0]
coefficient. Then, the set of all solutions in this system
is a subspace of .
Proof of Result C.1.3 We assume that 1 =
(1 , 2 , , ) and 1 = (, 2 , , ) are two
solutions to the above system. We will show that +
138 M. Kaabar
0
2
0
3 = 0 and 3 = 0
[ ] [0]
[ ] [0]
1
1
0
2
2
0
Now, using algebra: + = 3 + 3 = 0
[ ]
[ ] [0]
By taking as a common factor, we obtain:
1
1
0
2
2
0
3 + 3 = 0
]
[
]
[
)
0]
(
1 + 1
0
2 + 2
0
3 + 3 = 0
[ + ] [0]
Thus, + is a solution.
Fact C.1.1 If 1 = (1 , 2 , , ) is a solution, and
, then = (1 , 2 , , ) is a solution.
Fact C.1.2 The only system where the solutions form a
vector space is the homogeneous system.
Definition C.1.2 Null Space of a matrix, say is a set
of all solutions to the homogeneous system, and it is
denoted by () or ().
139
1 2 0
1 2 0
0 0 1
1
2 ].
0
a. Find ().
b. Find (()).
c. Rewrite () as .
d. Find ().
e. Find ().
Solution: Part a: To find the null space of , we need to
find the solution of as follows:
Step 1: Write the above matrix as an AugmentedMatrix, and make all constants terms zeros.
1
(0
0
140 M. Kaabar
1 2 0 1 0
1 2 0 2 |0)
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 2 |0) 2 + 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 4 0 10
(0 1 2 0 2|0) This is a Completely-Reduced
0 0 0 1 00
Matrix.
Step 3: Read the solution for the above system of linear
equations after using Row-Operation.
1 + 43 + 5 = 0
2 + 23 + 25 = 0
4 = 0
Free variables are 3 and 5 .
Assuming that 3 , 5 . Then, the solution of the
above homogeneous system is as follows:
1 = 43 5
2 = 23 25
4 = 0
Thus, according to definition 3.1.2,
() = {(43 5 , 23 25 , 3 , 0, 5 )|3, 5 }.
Part b: It is always true that
(()) = (()) =
Here, (()) = 2.
141
5
0
1
(4, 2,1,0,0)
(1, 2,0,0,1)
142 M. Kaabar
1
1 1 1
1 1 0 2].
0
0 0 0
a. Find ().
b. Find ().
c. Find ().
Solution: Part a: To find the row space of , we need to
change matrix to the Semi-Reduced Matrix as
follows:
1
1
1 1
[1 1 1 0
0
0
0 0
1 + 1 1 1 1 1
2] 1 + 2 2 [0 0 0 1 3]
3
3
0 1
0 0 0 0 0
143
1 1
[0 0
0 0
1 1 1
0 1 3] Semi-Reduced Matrix
0 0 0
1
1
1 1
[1 1 1 0
0
0
0 0
1
2] Matrix
0
start
this
section
with
an introduction
to
144 M. Kaabar
(i.e. [
1 2 3
] is equivalent to (1,2,3,0,1,1) ).
0 1 1
facts,
we
introduce
= < .
The algebraic expression of polynomials is in the
following from: + 1 1 + + 1 1 + 0
, 1 and 1 are coefficients.
and 1 are exponents that must be positive
integers whole numbers.
0 is a constant term.
The degree of polynomial is determined by the highest
power (exponent).
We list the following examples of polynomials:
2 = < 2 (i.e.
3 + 2 2 , 0 2 , 10 2 , 3 2 but
3 2 ).
4 = < 4 (i.e.
31 2 + 4 4 ).
If () = 3, then (()) = 0.
+ 3 is not a polynomial.
145
146 M. Kaabar
147
= 1 2 2 + 1 3 3 + + 1 + 2 2 + + .
= (1 2 +2 )2 + (1 3 + 3 )3 + + (1 + ) +
01 . Thus, none of them is a linear combination of the
others which means that they are linearly
independent. This is a contradiction. Therefore, our
assumption that 1 , 2 , , and were linearly
dependent is false. Hence, 1 , 2 , , and are linearly
independent.
Result C.2.5 Assume 1 , 2 , , are independent and
{1 , 2 , , }. Then, there exists unique
number 1 , 2 , , such that = 1 1 + 2 2 + +
.
Linear Transformation:
Definition C.2.1 : where is a domain and
is a co-domain. is a linear transformation if for every
1 , 2 and , we have the following:
(1 + 2 ) = (1 ) + (2 ).
Example C.2.2 Given : 2 3 where 2 is a domain
and 3 is a co-domain. ((1 , 2 )) = (31 + 2 , 2 , 1 ).
a. Find ((1,1)).
b. Find ((1,0)).
c. Show that is a linear transformation.
Solution: Part a: Since ((1 , 2 )) = (31 + 2 , 2 , 1 ),
then 1 = 2 = 1. Thus, ((1,1)) = (3(1) + 1,1, 1) =
(4,1, 1).
Part b: Since ((1 , 2 )) = (31 + 2 , 2 , 1 ), then 1 =
1 and 2 = 0. Thus, ((1,0)) = (3(1) + 0,0, 1) =
(3,0, 1).
148 M. Kaabar
= (31 + 2 , 2 , 1 ) + (31 + 2 , 2 , 1 )
= (31 + 2 + 31 + 2 , 2 + 2 , 1 1 )
Thus, is a linear transformation.
Result C.2.6 Given : . Then,
((1 , 2 , 3 , , )) = Each coordinate is a linear
combination of the .
Example C.2.3 Given : 3 4 where 3 is a domain
and 4 is a co-domain.
a. If ((1 , 2 , 3 )) = (33 + 61 , 102 , 13, 3 ), is
a linear transformation?
b. If ((1 , 2 , 3 )) = (33 + 61 , 102 , 0, 3 ), is
a linear transformation?
Solution: Part a: Since 13 is not a linear combination of
1 , 2 and 3 . Thus, is not a linear transformation.
Part b: Since 0 is a linear combination of 1 , 2 and 3 .
Thus, is a linear transformation.
149
150 M. Kaabar
2 0
2 0 1
] + 2 2 [
]
0 1
1 1 2 1
151
152 M. Kaabar
((1 , 2 , 3 )) = (51 , 22 + 3 , 1 , 0)
a. Find the Standard Matrix Representation.
b. Find ((3,2,1)).
c. Find ().
d. Find ().
Solution: Part a: According to definition 3.3.1, the
Standard Matrix Representation, lets call it , here is
4 3. We know from section 3.2 that the standard
basis for domain (here is 3 ) is {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)}.
We assume the following:
1 = (1,0,0)
2 = (0,1,0)
3 = (0,0,1)
Now, we substitute each point of the standard basis for
domain in ((1 , 2 , 3 )) = (51 , 22 + 3 , 1 , 0) as
follows:
((1,0,0)) = (5,0, 1,0)
((0,1,0)) = (0,2,0,0)
((0,0,1)) = (0,1,0,0)
1
153
1
Part b: Since ((1 , 2 , 3 )) = [2 ] , then
3
5 0 0 3
((3,2,1)) = [ 0 2 1] [2]
1 0 0
1
0 0 0
0
0
5
15
((3,2,1)) = 3 [ 0 ] + 2 [2] + 1 [1] = [ 5 ]
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
15
[ 5 ] is equivalent to (15,5, 3,0). This lives in the
3
0
co-domain. Thus, ((3,2,1)) = (15,5, 3,0).
Part c: According to definition 3.3.2, () is a set of
all points in the domain that have image= (0,0,0,0).
Hence, ((1 , 2 , 3 )) = (0,0,0,0). This means the
0
1
following: [2 ] = [0]
0
3
0
0
5 0 0 1
[ 0 2 1] [2 ] = [0]
0
1 0 0
3
0
0 0 0
Since () = (), then we need to find () as
follows:
1 0 00
5 0 0 0
1
( 0 2 1|0) 1 ( 0 2 1|0) 1 + 3 3
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
5
0 0 00
0 0 00
154 M. Kaabar
1 0 00
1 0 0 0
1
0
2
1
0
(
| ) (0 1 0.5|0) This is a Completely0 0 00 2 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 00
0 0 0 0
Reduced Matrix. Now, we need to read the above
matrix as follows:
1 = 0
1
2 + 3 = 0
2
0=0
0=0
To write the solution, we need to assume that
3 ( ).
1
Hence, 1 = 0 and 2 = 2 3 .
1
() = {(0, 2 3 , 3 )|3 }.
By letting 3 = 1, we obtain:
() = = 1, and
1
= {(0, 2 , 1)}
1
(0
0
0
0 0 0
1 0.5|0) Completely-Reduced Matrix
0 0 0
0 0 0
155
5
(0
1
0
0
2
0
0
00
1|0) Orignial Matrix
00
00
156 M. Kaabar
Solution:
1
=1
Part a: (2 1) = 0 (2 1) = 2 |
= 0.
=0
Part b: To find (), we set equation of = 0, and
() = 0 + 1 2 .
1
=1
Thus, (()) = 0 (0 + 1 ) = 0 + 21 2 |
=0
=0
1
0 + 0 = 0
2
0 = 21
Hence, () = {
1
2
157
158 M. Kaabar
Answers to Odd-Numbered
Exercises
1.7 Exercises
10
1. 1 {(4)4} =
+5
10 4 3
6
1
3. 1 {(+3)4} = 2 2 3 + 6 3 3
2
5. 1 {2 6+13} = 3 sin(2)
7. () = 43
4
9. 1 {(1)2(+3)} = 4 + + 4 3
11. {( 2)3 } =
62
13. 1 { 2 +4 } = ( 4)cos(2 8)
3
17. () = 1 {2 (2 +1)}
2
2.3 Exercises
1. () = 1 + 2 for some 1 , 2
3. () = (1 + 2 + 3 2 + 4 ) + (0 + 1 +
2 2 ) 3 for some 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 0 , 1 , 2
159
5. () = (1 + 2 + 3 ) + 0.05 sin(2) +
0.1cos(2) for some 1 , 2 , 3
7. It is impossible to describe ()
3.3 Exercises
1
1. () = 2 [1 cos (
15
)
2
15
)]for
2
+ 2 sin (
some 1 , 2
3
3. () = 1 + 2 2 cos ( 2 ln()) +
3
4.6 Exercises
3
1. () = ( + 1)3 + ( + 1) 3
3. 1 () 1 () = for some
5. 5 5 3 + 3 = for some
7. ln|sin(5 + )| 2(5 + ) = for some
160 M. Kaabar
Index
A
Applications of Differential Equations, 96
B
Basis, 123
Bernoulli Method, 78
C
Cauchy-Euler Method, 74
Constant Coefficients, 51
Cramers Rule, 46
161
Determinants, 109
Differential Equations, 9
Dimension of Vector Spaces, 119
E
Exact Method, 87
G
Growth and Decay Applications, 100
H
Homogenous Linear Differential Equations (HLDE), 51
I
Initial Value Problems (IVP), 27
Inverse Laplace Transforms, 24
K
Kernel and Range, 150
L
Laplace Transforms, 9
Linear Equations, 45
Linear Independence, 120
Linear Transformations, 142
162 M. Kaabar
N
Null Space and Rank, 135
P
Properties of Laplace Transforms, 33
R
Reduced to Separable Method, 90
Reduction of Order Method, 92
S
Separable Method, 85
Subspace, 123
T
Temperature Application, 96
U
Undetermined Coefficients Method, 60
V
Variation Method, 67
163
164 M. Kaabar
Bibliography
[1] Kaabar, M.K.: A First Course in Linear Algebra:
Study Guide for the Undergraduate Linear Algebra
Course. CreateSpace, Charleston, SC (2014)
[2] Quick Facts. http://about.wsu.edu/about/facts.aspx
(2015). Accessed 01 Jan 2015
[3] Badawi, A.R: Differential Equations Class Notes in
Spring 2010. American University of Sharjah, Sharjah,
UAE (2010).
165