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1540-7977/06/$20.002006 IEEE
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september/october 2006
61
Time
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 1
Distance Relays
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X0
Z0
R0
1.0
E =1.0 pu
E =0.8 pu
S0/Smax
Loadability of a relay is the maximum load that may be carried on the protected line such that a load greater than the
loadability limit will be indistinguishable from a fault to the
relay and will lead to a trip of the line. The loadability of a
relay is affected by the prevailing voltage at the line terminal
and also by the load power factor. When the power system is
stressed, the reactive power flows may become unusual.
When the power system is undergoing electromechanical
swings, the voltages near the electrical center of the system
may get depressed significantly. When system contingencies
are specified to confirm the appropriateness of relay characteristic settings, it is imperative that these effects on loadability be taken into account.
Loadability problems of overreaching zones of protection
have been recognized since the early days of protection.
Where a third zone as a remote backup zone is deemed to be
necessary, certain technical innovations are available to alter
its loadability limit. These innovations are more readily
implemented in modern computer relays. However, even the
electromechanical relays do have limited ability to improve
their loadability.
If the voltage and current phasors at the line terminal are
such that the loadability limit is reached, the apparent impedance seen by a distance relay must be on the relay characteristic. For simplicity of analysis, consider a rectangular
characteristic of a line relay (such as a Zone 3 setting since it
has the lowest loadability limit), where the line has negligible
resistance. If the line is exporting both active and reactive
power at a power factor angle , the apparent impedance at
this loadability lies in the first quadrant of the R-X diagram as
shown in Figure 3. For the rectangular characteristic considered here, let the intercept on the R-axis be R0 . The loadability limit S0 is given by (per unit)
0.5
E =0.6 pu
E =0.4 pu
0
30
60
Power Factor Angle ()
90
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Batteries
If only one battery is available at the substation, a system control, alarm, and data acquisition system (SCADA) alerts the
engineering or operating department to take corrective action
if the battery becomes defective. At the higher transmission
voltage levels, it is not uncommon to provide two batteries, in
which case providing backup protection for battery failure
may not be necessary. However, if only one battery is available, even with a SCADA warning it may be advisable to add
Zone 3 at the remote stations(s) if the failed battery is at a
location that is not easily reached and if maintenance personnel may not have the time to correct the problem quickly.
Relays
To cover any single relay failure, it is common practice to use
multiple relays covering the phase and ground faults. At the
higher voltages or at more critical stations, there would be
Circuit Breaker
Relay
Transducers
Battery
two sets of relays including pilot protection. One may therefore conclude that remote backup protection may be unnecessary, but care must be taken to be sure that no common-mode
failures exist within the circuitry of multiple relay sets.
Transducers
At the lower voltage levels, the transducers, current transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs) are not normally duplicated, and a failure of the potential or current
transformers could go unnoticed and result in a failure to trip.
In this instance, a Zone 3 remote backup would be desirable.
At the higher voltage levels, the current transformer secondary windings are duplicated, each serving a separate set of
relays. The potential transformers or devices are also duplicated or fused separately to maintain voltage integrity to each
set of relays.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are not duplicated, and failure of a circuit
breaker to clear a fault must be considered. Circuit breaker
failure tripping schemes are sensitive to system and station
configuration. In some cases, it is sufficient to open all local
breakers that can contribute to the fault upon detecting a
breaker failure. This may not be sufficient to clear a fault, and
a transfer trip scheme is required. This involves expenditures
for communication equipment, which may not be justified,
and a remote Zone 3 would be preferable. It is not our purpose here to catalog all possible bus arrangements, but some
examples are instructive.
As extra-high voltage (EHV) transmission systems
matured, local backup replaced remote backup, and breaker
failure schemes started to evolve as a subset of local backup
protection. At first, a separate set of relays was used to initiate the required tripping, but this quickly was replaced by a
special isolated circuit that employed all of the protective
relays that simultaneously initiated tripping the appropriate
circuit breaker(s) and started a timer. When the timer timed
out, a tripping relay opened all of the breakers that could see
the fault for which the protective relays had operated. The
timer was set just beyond the normal clearing time of the circuit breaker, usually on the order of 710 cycles.
Substations are designed for reliability of service and flexibility of operation and to allow for equipment maintenance
with a minimum interruption of service consistent with an
economic evaluation of the costs involved versus the benefits
derived. Bus arrangements range from a single-bus, singlebreaker scheme common to low-voltage distribution stations
to the breaker-and-a half configuration that is almost universal
for EHV stations. In situations where breaker failure schemes
trip all of the breakers that can sense a fault, including transfer
trip, a Zone 3 application may not have any advantage. However, in the absence of a communication channel for technical
or economic reasons, a Zone 3 setting may be of some advantage. Nonetheless, the Zone 3 setting must encompass all possible infeeds. In the case of tapped loads, it is not always
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Electromechanical Relays
The traditional electromechanical relays have fixed zone
boundaries, and usually they are made up of circular shapes
or straight lines. Directional relays can be applied as blinders
restricting the admittance (mho) circular characteristics of
Zone 3 to high X/R values as opposed to normal load power
factor angles. As indicated above, the presence of negative
sequence current is a good indicator that a fault, not a balanced load condition, exists. Some innovations in electromechanical relays have addressed the loadability problem by
proposing the use of a figure-eight shape (a forward offset
characteristic) to increase the loadability limits of relays. This
offset mho characteristic is easily attainable with electromechanical relays and may offer one of the best and most
inexpensive solutions to the loadablity problem.
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Electronic Relays
Solid-state relays can shape their characteristics or introduce
load encroachment elements that are also attractive solutions.
Quadrilateral characteristics, which shape the protection
zones to any desired shape, are a definite improvement.
Computer Relays
Computer relays have the potential for solving many of the
problems that could not be addressed by conventional relays.
Many computer relays now offer multiple groups of settings,
so that Zone 3 settings could be adapted to changing system
configurations and the accompanying in-feed variations. It is
also possible to include a load-encroachment characteristic
which outlines an area within the relay characteristic that prevents operation for a defined load impedance. Computer
relays could also be made to block trip if a balanced condition exists and the power factor of the line current is characteristic of system loading conditions. This approach is indeed
reasonable and should provide security in the case of a heavy
load. However, one should take note of the fact that often
under unusual system conditions where significant amounts
of vars are being transmitted, the power factor may not
always be a sure indicator that a load, rather than a fault,
exists on the line. Under normal system conditions, vars and
watts are tightly coupled through the generator operating
parameters. Under system stress or fault conditions, vars and
watts may be decoupled and the 30 power factor criteria
may not apply (see Figure 3 for the effect of power factor and
voltage on loadability).
If one postulates communication between relays at a station
or with relays at remote stations, it may be possible to design
more effective logic for differentiating between a load and a
fault. Trending observed changes in line currents, correlating
changes seen by different relays, and using information received
from control centers indicative of the state of the power system
could all be integrated in computer relays with a very effective
check on the operation of backup protection systems.
Adaptive Relaying
The intelligent supervision of Zone 3 is an excellent example of adaptive relaying, with its ability to adjust its performance to match the prevailing power system conditions.
The problem of the sensitivity of the Zone 3 characteristic
to emergency load or power system instability can be solved
with the use of adaptive relaying principles. Several solutions using electromechanical or electronic relays have
IEEE power & energy magazine
65
not always the case. Known cases abound where the very act
of maintenance has induced a hidden failure mode that
remains unexposed until cascading failures begin to unfold.
Given the large number of protective devices present on a
power system, it is not possible to rule out the possibility of
hidden failures in some relays. An approach for providing
countermeasures against false trips due to hidden failures is
to identify locations in the network where hidden failures
would be particularly damaging to the power system and then
provide a computer-based relay as a supervisor of the relay
operation. In addition, a voting scheme among all the protection systems can be implemented at such critical sites.
Hidden Failures
A vexing problem for protection engineers is that of hidden
failures in the protection system. These are failures that go
undetected when the power system is in a normal state and
that contribute unnecessary trips when the system is disturbed
by faults or severe dynamic conditions. Although increased
maintenance, calibration, and frequent reviews of protective
settings would reduce the likelihood of hidden failures, this is
SIPS
SIPS is an increasingly valuable tool to initiate system corrective actions as opposed to equipment protection. Among the
many system stress scenarios that a SIPS may act upon are
transmission congestion, transient instability, voltage and frequency degradation, and thermal overloading. Many corrective actions are available to respond to these potential system
Initiating Event
Initiating Event
New Control
Elements
(a)
(b)
figure 6. (a) Brittle power system breaks up into synchronous islands when a strong disturbance occurs. (b) By using
high-power electronic devices at optimum locations, the damage due to the initiating event can be confined to a small
region, rendering the power system ductile.
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september/october 2006
collapse. This is illustrated conceptually in Figure 6. It is possible that the developing stress levels in modern power systems will compel engineers to bring some measure of
ductility to the power systems by judicious use of high-power
electronic devices.
Biographies
S.H. Horowitz received a bachelors degree in electrical engineering from the City College of New York. He is a consultant, author, and lecturer. He is a Life Fellow of the IEEE and
a member of the National Academy of Engineering.
A.G. Phadke received a B.Sc. degree from Agra University, a B.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology,
an M.S. degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology, and
a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. He is a University
Distinguished Professor (emeritus) at Virginia Tech in
Blacksburg, Virginia. He is a Life Fellow of the IEEE and a
p&e
member of the National Academy of Engineering.
IEEE power & energy magazine
67