Graphing Equations With Generalized Interval Arithmetic

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wxw
y{zM|P}~ w1@ |H wxW1bw 6~yL zM|= wx hY Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wx

65zhxx 85 }}z
| Mz =1hw 1 _ zhPPP
y{zM|H |=MqL}|PzZ_ =r [} Mz 1hw 1
q1w Pz Mw =f z W
rlQ
|= w1H } Pw wxh [ 1 1 h w*1 _z wx |= h [} Z|= wxW13 Z~ wxj1
~ | zhP|=xh w lw ~1z w | h zM| j| j~| l }z|= 1 zZ| w Z~z W1 ~ W
Z~1 h [} Mz h [ 1w P[ Mz=|=rM ~ 1w [1w M6~1}z hwJw1 }z w h
`Z~1[ z jh [} Mz lw Z~Z~1| h zJ| | hh zhj ZzM|H w w1 |=|=Z~1
[|= wh r qw JzD|=| |=x Jw [|= zhf M }~ wx w |HMh }1 w wx |= wxWQ=w Mz=|=
M ~ 1wx ~| qWh zMzhf
~ wx Z~1 Mwx }z | zM|P zM ~ wx ~% |P1x {V zZ~1z }1 w wx |= wxW8=
w JzD|=z W w ~ w x ~ w h w1 6~1 W z wx |=}zM| w wxW z z )Z~1 h
}1xh w w 6~|=~|3Pz Mx 6 z | h ww Mz=|=f|= P z w Z~ ~ wxo zJ|P_
zM wx_hW1 Zz 1 JhPY wx zM|H w1 =|Pz w |P1x z Z~1}z 1x | wYw
Z~1 w Mz=|=r|Pz w Z~_h wx qz }z w L=1 w11Llw Z~ w Z~1}z 1x) [| w
[|3#ZzM| =hf M [| h [ W1W` w fz w |`1Y}|Pz w |= 1 wxW1 |Pz
~| xh |= zM|HxP
~ wx_ |P}}z | ~ wx z w 6. h [}|Pzh bw 6~8Z~1[ 1 ~|Pz w zh w } `
|P}}z | ~ fzh` 1j .q| 1 Qw PP ~1 V .|P_ Z|=}z
x = zh w |`1z z w1_ zM|`}~ =fw [}1 wxhw q |= wxW1 .z w ` 6~1 h [}|Pz wJW
wxwxw
o&#[D# jl
rw z 3f| 1D h :}|Pz : |=Z~1zh ~ zhP|=xhY6~1 z =
PPwx f| 8{ 6~1zh ~ zhP|=xh8Z~1 zx = w P ~|=l w ~| h
hPzq z_}z hwxW1 | Mzb{jz {[|`zMz w | 6~| : lw Pfz .| K z
|=x = ~1zl w %| | hW w1 h Z }} z
| 5`w ` | ~|Hx 1Pw1[ Z| .|Pz[`: 6 }z wxM z 1 rw |
l w |=Z~ WW | 1 Pw P zP
Y1 ~ = Z~1 |Pz w = 6~ w 1 _ wx= h :&z|Hz |P_hx
~P B1 Pf#|3 |3P 5| zM| 1hPwx w M ~1}|= w 1 | Y w wx 1
h~ w w MhP| ~ | h1[}1|PzPL6~| ! w | | Q z~1z |PzM z
Z~| |P~1 w zr~ wx Zz z rfh}z M zM|= w q Z~1 Z~1z w 6~1l|P
K zl}z w w1 Z~1 hhh8 wx ZzM| w11 z z w w1
rw |=xxP5 1 Z~| Pw w MMxP1| ~1 w Zz 1 h_ Lw Mz=|=._hZ~
z w1 { w1w w |= z zM|= |=JLP|PzL1.}| ==P3
{hW z P_| JZ _ V Lz } W1Mw w w K z[|=xlzMz z | w Z|P= ! w x
}z w Z~ wx 1 _ rr~ }l6~|=5~|3Pq_hrZ~1lh} Z|H wxW1= |=x ~
~|3P{~1h}hY_ W :: 1 z hP

Uf
P |P}1 w1 {LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P [}1 whw @ |= w11L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P h|= w11 {LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P q _z wx |= oW b {LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P [} Z|P w w :LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P z hPzM| 1 L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P M w L{LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{

M z L{LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|H wxW |= q _z L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|H _z L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
[}1xh q _z L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|= w1 Pw :LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
B1w :LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
1 w1LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
q zM| wx z }z w LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
WM h |= q _z L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
b}zMz|= _z LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
} oW `z MwxW L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
B1w P w xh L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
MzD|=fLz w Z~_h wL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
6|= L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
Lzz L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
1 1Jw1 z }z :LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
MzD|= WJ 1MwxW :LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
q zM| wx z }z w LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|H5 Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
y zM|= wx h% JzD|=Cez w Z~h wxY{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
q1w . |= wxW L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
~zh |= h PPwx LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w |Pzq Mz=|= LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
11 Z| l MzD|H :LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
ww

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|=.zJ|= wx MzD|= {:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{

Y x w w _ 1MwxW |= w |Pzq Mz=|= YLL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
1 wxW |=r MzD|H LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
_ wx MzD|H :LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
y zM|= wx h |H w1 Pw q MzD|Hfez w 6~_h wx LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P# MzD|= 1 wxW [| w1:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
PP MzD|=5 1 1MwxW L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
PP MzD|= WJ 1MwxW :LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
PP | w L M z w }1 wxW18LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
PP 1 1 wxW1){LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
PP 1w [}1 wxhw LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
z }z zM| w1 L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
z }z w jLL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
MzD|=5 1 1MwxW | WM 1Jw1 :LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
M :LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
MzD|= h eLL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
MzD|=5 1 1MwxW | WM 1Jw1 :LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
[}` B1 wxW1LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|Pz w | L{LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|H }z Z|= w11j{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
Lh w b LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
| 1 ~` 1 ':LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
L hw [|= }| 1MwxW1LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
1 w1 h zM| wxW1)LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
1 Pz Pw1 Mz=|= LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
h .| qL hw [|= }| 1MwxW1L:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
h .| W wW h zM| wxW1 :LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
y zM|= wx h% JzD|=Cez w Z~h wx L:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
=

1
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|= w1 Pw :LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P | B1 wxW1 L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P 11 Z| B1 wxW1l:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P z w h 1 wxW1{:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P h zM|=M 1 wxW1{:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P Lz W _ h 1 w1LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P | Mwx: h6~ LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{W
11 Z| l MzD|Hfez w 6~_h wxL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
11 Z| B1 wxW1l:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
MzJ} |= w1 x 1 w |= L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
"$# ~|Pz LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
11 Z| B1 wxW1l:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
L}1 w [|H w L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
w bw 8 h L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
%!& # ~|`z LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w bw oW1 Z| B1 wxW1YLL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
wxwxw
|P}1 qlw Z~ w bw oW1 Z| B1 wxW1LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P

8W1 W1wx |=xj 1 z| Mw1!B1 wxW1 L{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P 8W1 W1wx |=xL z| Mw11 wxW1 L{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
= zl W LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 qlw Z~ 8W1 W1wxLB1 wxW1L{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~ w bw 8W1 W1wxLB1 wxW1 L{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
z wx wx1 wxW1:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
r|Pz w |= B1 wxW1YL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~|[r|`z w |= B1 wxW LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
wxMhW w11W11 wxW18{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 lw Z~|_ wxMhW w11W11 wxW LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
[}` B1 wxW1LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 qlw Z~ [}` B1 wxW1Y:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P [ W w |Pz B1 wxW1 {LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P w |Pz 1 wxW1#L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
% & # ~|`z LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P |P}1 qlw Z~|[ w |Pz 1 wxW LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
Pr|Pz w |=f w |Pz B1 wxW1q{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P |P}1 lw Z~|[r|Pz w |=f w |Pz B1 wxWLL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
8W1 W1wx |=xj 1 z| Mw1 UL z| Jw1!B1 w11[L{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w |Pzq Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxY:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
"(' ~|Pz LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
w bw 8 h L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
% &' ~|`z LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
8W1 W1wx{ wxW1:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w |Pz B1 w11 L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 lw Z~|[ w |Pz 1 wxW :LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 qlw Z~|[ w lwx [ w |Pz 1 wxW :LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
11 |` } 1 wxW1L{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P 11 |`L Dq[1 wxW1'L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
= zl W LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 lw Z~| 11 |` B1 wxWLL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 lw Z~|[ w bw oW1 |3P B1 wxW LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
z wx wx1 wxW1:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
r|Pz w |= B1 wxW1YL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~|[r|`z w |= B1 wxW LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
wxMhW w11W11 wxW18{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~|_ wxMh1 w11W1qB1 wxW L:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
[}` B1 wxW1LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~ [}` B1 wxW1Y:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P w |Pz 1 wxW1= M} h6~ L{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P) % &' ~|`z LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 qlw Z~ w |Pz 1 wxW1 :LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P w |Pz 1 wxW1 M} hZ~ L{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w
P |P}1 qlw Z~|[ w |Pz 1 wxW LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P

Pr|Pz w |=f w |Pz B1 wxW1q{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|P}1 qlw Z~|[ w |Pzjr|`z w |= B1 wxW L:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P 11 |` } =B1 w11&LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
|= w1 Pw LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
x 1 w |=5 JzD|=Cez w Z~h wx{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
"* ~|`z LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w bw 8 h L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
% &* ~|Pz LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
,+ 3.
-(/
01
y:zM|P}~ lLL{LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P z w1LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P |= ~ z w1 L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
P z P z JMw P z w1L{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P 6|= L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
P b Z|= w1:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
| Mwx_ z w1 LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
11 Z| l MzD|Hfez w 6~_h wx LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w |H z w1LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w 1h w1{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
} w 1h w1L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ PP
~| 1 w P } w 1h w1[{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
1 w11w | h w1 L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
w |Pzq Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxL{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
w |H z w1LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
L}1 w wx |= w11 wxWj z w1 {LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
L}1 w wx |= w1 }z w 1h z w1LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
11 Z| l MzD|Hfez w 6~_h wx LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w |Pzq Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxL{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
l ql z wx wh LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 q=l M w1 b z wx wxhL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
L}1 w wx |= w1 | ~ w1LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
L}1 w wx |= w1 w1 oW w wxW |= L:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
qxMz |= w P U zM[|H wx L:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
qZ~1zo zM LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 w1 LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
w zM| hw1 {LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
WM h8 Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxLL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
Lz w =|= w P | h hZ~ L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
q| 1 ! 2 w |PzL Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wxL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
|P}1 z w1P{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
:f/56/f

MzD|= ~ 1w L{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
y:zM|P}~ w1 {LL:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{
zL zJ L:LL{LL:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P
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W x| 1hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhh
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h }1h 1 _z hhhhhhh3hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh
z w =|= w P | h8 w |Pz w Mz=|= hhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh P
M
N
|H w1 } Pw 1 _z hhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhh
q| 1 ! 2 w |Pz w JzD|= hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hh
O
P
w MzD|H hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3h P
z|H w Mz=|= Yhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh P
Q
w |Pz w Mz=|= #h3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhh P
R
z|HB w |Pz w MzD|H hhh3hhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh P
S
T
|= zM|= hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhh
U
zz w1P hhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhh
V
zM|H wxW |= Yhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhh
V
w zMzM|H wxW |= hhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhh
z|H Yhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhh
W
& W
~`}z z|= hhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhh
Z~zh D|= h8 PPwx zl W | w JzD|= hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhh
X
Y
|=.zM|= wLw Mz=|= hhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhh3hhhh
z|H |=.zM|H wx{w JzD|= 8hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh
Z
[
1 _z hhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhh
\
w MzD|H W _z #hhh3hhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3h P
]
w M z 8hhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhh
} PMw w P 1 _z 8hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhh
[_^
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Graphing Equations With Generalized Interval Arithmetic

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Graphing Equations With Generalized Interval Arithmetic

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V}1 wxhw r |= wxW1

~1{| |= zM|`} ~ x =l ~ w ~j|! zh w |P1x h [} Mh 1Mw1 |_~ |  V H |`[}1x

1~ {| |= zM|P} ~ wx |:Pz ~ |PzM}~`}zM |B|  | 1 q  zM|HMhjP x =lw11 z} z W h zP

Z~~ |3PLZ~1 |P_{ 1  .|PzP ~ wx ~ 1 z|PZ~1{}1|  1wx hx w

~1L zh|= wxW1 ~ |`L w fz  zJ|P} ~ W H ~ wx ~j[|3 Pw P  P W z Jw J w1 } z W h zP

~1 zJ|P} ~ hW Z| w1 |H} Pw Z~ |= |= wx

~1 zJ|P} ~ hW Z| w1 |H} Pw ~ wx ~ |H wx

8P |H |= w11{w 6z 1 M _ 1 _z wx |=z 1  V w Z~ h }1 wx |=JhY |H wxW1 UZ~1z bw x

lw Z~Z~1[z 6z wx wxW Z~ |= r swx |  h} z JMwxW8=$ Wh8D|H P ~1 zM|P} ~ = Z~1_ |= wxW8W x

W z w JzD|=L|Pz w Z~ h wx | h zMz Mx |PzMz w h 1 [|3}1| h [}1xhM hW 1 wW z

1Mw1!w Mz=|=5|Pz w 6~ _h wx {[|3 |P[}1x:Z~1 w MzD|H j l ` h [} w1 r j l s P| K x =l

| w ~ |` h [}1xhM h1 1 w W z h [} Jh zM|`} ~ Z~1rZz zM|`} ~q w rlw Z~ w W z h [} Mh

~ wx ~ |`}1Mz wx |P 1 1 _ z 5} z w  w1 | wxx ~ |= wx | W _z- |=Z~1z@Z~ | 

x | wxe1 h [w wx |=M_P z

z wxW1 w w Z|= wxW= Z~1 w M z rw Z~1| = |q Z|= w Pz = x w }1 w |H wxW w wxMwxW[wx B h

q P [|=x h } Mz ~ |3P~ |Pz |Pz[ h wx |=Mh } z zJ w1 `z 1wx }zM|= wxW1_W%w M z

wx |~ zM} ~ wx z ] V!5  z z Pz  Z~ wxl1 1 ~ = Z~ |=

~1 w `z wxj1 Z|=l | 1 z wxj1 |H = h w Z~18 1 w |H z = |zM|= wxW |H 1 Z~1

~1 w Pz = 6~1 M |`z w1 }zM|= z wx Z~1 M |Pz{z 1 }zM|= z ~ w ~ |= wx  Z~1 =lw1.

j ## ## v ## v# ## v# v ## v# v' ## v# v '# ## v# v '# x ## v# v'# x 3 l

8 hx w1 } ~1 1 _ 1Wlw Z~z|= W _ z [wx[ PzM w x w P | hw  Mx h [} w1lw Z~

Z~1{z|H W _z |Pz H M  w h| | Z h = Z~1 h }1h 1 _ z 3

}1h 1 _ z |PzPz 1 V w hx w1M _j} ~1 1 _  | ~1 |P_ w x w |Pz `

1~ z |  |PzL|=x w | B1w J Z [| wH Z~1 w M z

1~ z |  |Pz w M z ~1 Z 1ZzM| w1 } z  w Z~1lz wx ~P # hW 1 ~ w Z~1 hw [|=B}1|

1~ z{|`z { } hw |= W _ z |  ~ wx ~j[|3 1 Lh} z J hj| |P PP 1w1 W _z

=  P =W = `D PP=PP PP`W3P =P PP`D`PP= x

| 1 H Z~1 w h | _z Z x 1W = Z~1_Z~ zh[=|Pz w h w _= |= w wxW |Pz[| MM1hw |= w PP| L ~ =

~1Q |= w1 } Pw 1 _ z M 1 h*[|  1w K zM[|Hoz WJ 1MwxW1 | 

b }zMz|= W _ z 1 1 MhP & W 3 |Pz| Mw w |`zhWJ 1MwxW[H z|= 1 _ z 11 W` b } zMz|H

xw 1 [|8z|= W _zh# B1w J Mw [|= |  wB1w w |PzPz 1 V w } z  w1#1W`V Z|  .|Pz

1~ LZ~ zh K zM = |= w1 } Pw z W  w1 |Pzqh|`[}1x = } L wxW r ~1  |[z|= 1 z w

~1 } }zL W  =w Mz=|= rwx 1 Mh` ^ ~ w x 1 M 6~1{ = zb W 

wx | !wJ zM} ~ wx ) h h  2 r6N.s | Z h = Z~1 w MzD|= |  N # |P} } w1 JILK [ [ w

)A$dafj 1`aH!A(C!cedaf8 CqH/>=JADHq-

y{zM|P}~ w1@ |H wxW1bw 6~yL zM|= wx hY Mz=|=fLz w Z~_h wx

|=.zJ|= wx MzD|= {:LL{L{LL:LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{

|P}1 qlw Z~ w bw oW1 Z| B1 wxW1LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P

P |P}1 qlw Z~|[ w |Pz 1 wxW LL{LL:LL{LL{L:LL{LL:LL{ P

zhL=|Pz w |P1x L= | = z z }}zq W hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3h

lw Z~ =w Mz=|= hhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3

wxqhW1 |3PL =)hhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhh

wxqhW1 |3P } hhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh

zM|`}~ } hw . |= wxW hhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhhhhhh3hhhhhhhh3h P

t$ &%

#

t$ t "

t=v t

u t

t t=u

t % t "

t$ t "

t=v t

~1{|P P wxW xj| 11w P }|`z wx |Pz

| | JZ w1 |= wxW lw Z~j| Jw }1 zM|P}~

Y W xj6~1 .zM| |_ w P hW w1 6~1{} Pw

yL|= zhh z 6~1Mh w = }1 M w1 } `w wxW 6~1M| ~1z| 8 ~`#| w

} w1{ur s zM|=M Z~1 |P[}1x

W w11w1!W zl}z W h z_Pz JPW6~1 |P_ zJ|P}~ wx zJ|=Mhf

d\!e#V a X!b$cet]}^ ur

bMw1W zbz wx ~1z6|P1xP {| | w }1 bZ~1} Pw b ~ wx ~ { 1= |= w W z |= wxW

Y 8~|` ` h1 1 w Z~1j w ~ wx ~ hW Z~18} Pw w Z~ 1 |Pz 1w1 w ~| [ | w xh

bMw1 Pz_| w wxW1wK zM }| h |P[}1x _=_ r / r ss z fz Z x [w 6~1 K x Dbw1

V}1 wxhw r |= wxW1

~1{| |= zM|`}~ x =l ~ w ~j|!zh w |P1x h [} Mh 1Mw1 |_~| V H |`[}1x

1~ {| |= zM|P}~ wx |:Pz ~|PzM}~`}zM |B| | 1 q zM|HMhjP x =lw11 z}z W h zP

Z~~|3PLZ~1 |P_{ 1 .|PzP ~ wx ~ 1 z|PZ~1{}1| 1wx hx w

~1L zh|= wxW1 ~|`L w fz zJ|P}~ W H ~ wx ~j[|3 Pw P P W z Jw J w1 }z W h zP

~1 zJ|P}~ hW Z| w1 |H} Pw Z~|= |= wx

~1 zJ|P}~ hW Z| w1 |H} Pw ~ wx ~ |H wx

8P |H |= w11{w 6z 1 M _ 1 _z wx |=z 1 V w Z~ h }1 wx |=JhY |H wxW1 UZ~1z bw x

lw Z~Z~1[z 6z wx wxW Z~|= r swx | h}z JMwxW8=$ Wh8D|H P ~1 zM|P}~ = Z~1_ |= wxW8W x

W z w JzD|=L|Pz w Z~h wx | h zMz Mx |PzMz w h 1 [|3}1| h [}1xhM hW 1 wW z

1Mw1!w Mz=|=5|Pz w 6~_h wx {[|3 |P[}1x:Z~1 w MzD|H j l ` h [} w1 r j l s P| K x =l

| w ~|` h [}1xhM h1 1 w W z h [} Jh zM|`}~ Z~1rZz zM|`}~q w rlw Z~ w W z h [} Mh

~ wx ~|`}1Mz wx |P 1 1 _z 5}z w w1 | wxx ~|= wx | W _z- |=Z~1z@Z~|

x | wxe1 h [w wx |=M_P z

z wxW1 w w Z|= wxW= Z~1 w M z rw Z~1| = |q Z|= w Pz = x w }1 w |H wxW w wxMwxW[wx B h

q P [|=x h } Mz ~|3P~|Pz |Pz[h wx |=Mh }z zJ w1 `z 1wx }zM|= wxW1_W%w M z

wx |~ zM}~ wx z ] V!5 zz Pz Z~ wxl1 1 ~ = Z~|=

~1 w `z wxj1 Z|=l | 1 z wxj1 |H = h w Z~18 1 w |H z = |zM|= wxW |H 1 Z~1

~1 w Pz = 6~1 M |`z w1 }zM|= z wx Z~1 M |Pz{z 1 }zM|= z ~ w ~ |= wx Z~1 =lw1.

8 hx w1 }~1 1 _ 1Wlw Z~z|= W _z [wx[ PzM w x w P | hw Mx h [} w1lw Z~

Z~1{z|H W _z |Pz H M w h| | Z h = Z~1 h }1h 1 _z 3

}1h 1 _z |PzPz 1 V w hx w1M _j}~1 1 _ | ~1 |P_ w x w |Pz `

1~ z | |PzL|=x w | B1w J Z [| wH Z~1 w M z

1~ z | |Pz w M z ~1 Z 1ZzM| w1 }z w Z~1lz wx ~P # hW 1 ~ w Z~1 hw [|=B}1|

1~ z{|`z { } hw |= W _z | ~ wx ~j[|3 1 Lh}z J hj| |P PP 1w1 W _z

= P =W = `D PP=PP PP`W3P =P PP`D`PP= x

| 1 H Z~1 w h| _z Z x 1W = Z~1_Z~zh[=|Pz w h w _= |= w wxW |Pz[| MM1hw |= w PP| L ~ =

~1Q |= w1 } Pw 1 _z M 1 h*[| 1w K zM[|Hoz WJ 1MwxW1 |

b }zMz|= W _z 1 1 MhP & W 3 |Pz| Mw w |`zhWJ 1MwxW[H z|= 1 _z 11W` b}zMz|H

xw 1 [|8z|= W _zh# B1w J Mw [|= | wB1w w |PzPz 1 V w }z w1#1W`V Z| .|Pz

1~ LZ~zh K zM = |= w1 } Pw z W w1 |Pzqh|`[}1x = }L wxW r ~1 |[z|= 1 z w

~1 }}zL W =w Mz=|= rwx 1 Mh` ^ ~ w x 1 M 6~1{ = zb W

wx | !wJ zM}~ wx )h h 2 r6N.s | Z h = Z~1 w MzD|= | N # |P}} w1 JILK [ [ w

1~ _ wx |:ZzM| 1K zM|= wxW |= }zM|H z ~ wx ~QZzM| 1 zJ 1 _z M w w Mz=|= 1

~1|Pz W wx_hW1Mw zh D|Pz PzLZ~1! [| w= ~ wx }z }z w 1w D|=x Z~1

W | P`w_ | _Z~ W1 ~P H | |Pz Mw [}1x W _z M Pw P W z z wxPw |= zM|P_ zM |

1 z | Z~1 zx w11 _z MQ w 1 Mh[` ^] ^`_ r W & sC z QJ] ^`_ ~1 Z M z w }13 _(u

} wx z[|3 M1 Z~1[Z~1 w 1w wxW JMWhw |=J[Z~1 w Mz=|= lw Z~Z~1 P h h =

~1 wxW1IS | S |Pz MwxW1w. | w 6~1 B1w wxWQ=fw Mz=|=hWJ 1MwxW | 1 LZ~1z

=| 6~1zqZ~| j1Jw1 w |Pz: W qK zbZ~1 w MzD|H |=.zM|= wx 1 [|3j 1 hf ~1 |H.zM|= wx

1 _z[|3_ M z w M _hZ~ w1_lw Z~ hPzM|HB}|PzM|`_hMz hPzM|=f}|PzJ|P_hMz [|3[ w M zJ|=Mh

| ~}|PzJ|P_hMz | | w } Mx8D|Pz z z _W P

q =lw11 wxW1blw Z~ zq M z w }1 w P{} = z| | !w Mz=|=f W lwx 6~1 P wxW1 | _ z

q6~ W1 ~8Z~1[|= P z w Z~ zh z h|! M z w }1 wxW= Z~1_ wx ~`M { W } PMMw 1x W Z~1[zM| 1 =

Mz=|= 1 wxW | w1

!w JzD|= h 2 P p P p = | |Pz 1 w1 ~| Z~1 w MzD|= w1 1Jw1 }z }z w

~1 1 _z M \ Fr|\ jl qm r|\ sslw x5 1 h w Z~1L B1w wxW1 Z~|= K x = @ h ` =

H Z~1 |`z w |= M B h w }|`z

B Z~1:D|= = U r s ~1{ w11 \ jl | \ jl zM| xx~| x B hY | w1

Mz=|= 1 wxW | w1

B Z~1{ | w!= r s

Y{[|3[}1 hPzM|HB [| w M z w }1 wxW 1 wxW1blw Z~ w | Mw1 x 1 _z MQ ~1 1 z