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Remote
Validation
Testing
Monitoring &
Field Service
Characterize fibre
Fibre cuts
Damaged
Field
connector
Operations Clean fibres
Dispersion
Return loss
Span loss
Fibre routing
Clean fibres
Commission eqpt,
Optical channel
equalization
OSNR
BER testing
Remotely monitor
traffic quality at
traffic handoff sites
Troubleshoot faults
OTDR
Required ORL
Span loss
Test
Equipment PMD, CD
Video Scope
Gigabit Ethernet
Protocol Analyzer
ATM
Digital Wrapper
Sonet/SDH
OSA
Protocol
Analyzer
STS1,
OC3/12/48/192,
10/100M & 1G
Ethernet
Remote
monitoring
capability
OTDR
OSA
Variable Optical
Attenuator
BERT
Video Scope
ORL
What is often found in practice is that the technicians performing these tests have to
carry around a wide range of sophisticated equipment. Obviously this equipment has
to be of the highest technical standards:
Compliance to internationally accepted test methods
High accuracy and repeatability
Additionally, the equipment has to confirm to some practical and commercial
requirements too:
For field operation: portability, weight, ruggedness, battery operation
Ease of use for the technician
Speed of testing
Ease of data download and concatenated reporting
Capex and Opex considerations
Hence for networks destined for 10Gbps and higher transmission, signal dispersion
levels are critical and accurate measurement is crucial. Similarly, for specific DWDM
topologies, an understanding of the 4-wave mixing effects is also crucial to be sure of
error-free transmission. For a deeper understanding, the reader is suggested to consult
EXFOs Guide to WDM technology (author Dr. Andr Girard).
EXFOs product range
EXFOs product offer revolves around the FTB-400 modular mainframe. This is a PC
based instrument, which is capable of housing a range of physical, optical and
protocol layer test cards. Asides the obvious CAPEX savings with a modular
approach, there are many hidden OPEX savings inherent in the system: removing
the need for an engineers PC, reduced calibration costs, flexibility from module
portability between mainframes, ability to rent specific modules for short term
projects, multitasking for time efficiency, local report generation etc etc. Many of our
peers now have me-too products, but due to the EXFO product maturity, none match
up to the flexibility, number of test modules, reliability and feature rich environment
of the FTB-400. One of the purposes of this document will also be to highlight the
technical and practical advantages of the EXFO product range.
Make/Model
Quantity
EXFO FTB-400
EXFO FOT-930
OTDR
EXFO, FTB-7000D
PMD Analyzer
EXFO, FTB-5500B
CD Analyzer
EXFO FTB-5800
EXFO FTB-5240B
10
EXFO IQS-2400
11
EXFO IQS-2600
12
Broadband Coupler
EXFO IQS-9601-03B06
13
Controller
EXFO IQS-505P/510P 1
14
EDFA
IQS-6100
15
FVA-60B
16
Polarization OTDR
POTDR-1100
Phenomena
Attenuation
An optical fibre can be characterized by the parameters that limit its performance as a
communication medium. Fibre attenuation or loss is one of the main performance
limitations. Attenuation is defined as one way drop in power level between any two
points chosen along the fibre. It is an important consideration in the system design
since attenuation plays a major role in determining the maximum transmission
distance between a transmitter and receiver. Typical ITU G.652 single mode fibres
have an attenuation coefficient around 0.2dB/km at 1550 nm. Attenuation is higher at
other wavelengths.
10
Attenuation
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Wavelength
1.5
1.6
Fibre has three basic loss mechanisms: scattering, absorption and radiation losses.
Scattering is the process by which light is redirected in all directions upon
incidence on SiO2 molecules by spontaneous emission following absorption
and on imperfections (defects and impurities) within the fibre matrix. Loss
occurs because light is no longer travelling in one direction. Imperfections,
such as non-uniform density and composition, are inherent in the
manufacturing process and the related scattering (called Rayleigh scattering)
represents the lower limit of attenuation in the fibre. Scattering is a strong
function of a wavelength; it is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength.
Source
Impurity
Ray of
light
Cladding
Source
SiO2
Ray of light
Radiation losses are the third loss mechanism. These losses are caused by
perturbations in the fibre geometry, both at microscopic and macroscopic
levels. These phenomena are referred to as microbending and macrobending.
Microbending losses result from small bumps at the core-cladding interface
that cause parts of the signal to reflect at angles that do not allow total internal
reflection for the light propagation. Macrobending losses are due to bends in
the fibre that are large relative to the fibre diameter. They are more sensitive to
longer wavelengths: 1625 nm is typically a wavelength of choice to test for
macrobending.
Loss
Different phenomena cause signal power loss in fibre-optic links. Fibre related
factors such as differences in the index of refraction and other physical characteristics
between two connected fibres, attenuation in a single fibre, and fibre breaks or faults
can diminish signal power level to a point below detector sensitivity. Connectorrelated factors such as connector mismatches and misalignments can cause high
attenuation levels and total communication loss. System factors, such as insertion
loss, optical return loss, and splice loss can also affect transmission. It is important to
measure loss in a fibre optic link and then determine the causes of unexpected high
losses. The two most common phenomena are:
Splice points where sections of fibre are joined in the field
Connectors at the terminations of the fibre, ODF, inside plant etc.
Fusion splice representation. Typical loss values are <0.2dB per splice
FC
SC
ST
Biconic
D4
DIN
E2000
EC/RACE
HMS-10/A
VFO/DF
Typical loss values vary by connector type and manufacturer. Here is an example:
Source: Molex
-40dB
-70dB
It is recommended that link ORL values are measured directly, either on a dedicated
tester or on a multitester, but not evaluated through an OTDR reading.
Dispersion
Dispersion is broad class of phenomena that hinders system performance. It refers to
the broadening of light pulses in the time domain as they travel through a fibre due to
the fact that the components constituting the signal do not travel at the same relative
velocity in the fibre. This spreading limits the information-carrying capacity of the
fibre. The effects of dispersion are best exemplified by the use of receiver eye
diagrams.
Together, the material and waveguide dispersion yield what is called the chromatic
dispersion of the fiber:
Perturbation
1% core ell.
1 g/cm lateral stress
10-cm radius bend
1 turn/m twist
Birefringence
5.00E-08
7.00E-08
5.00E-08
2.30E-07
DGD
1.5 ps/km
0.23 ps/km
0.17 ps/km
0 ps/km
PMD cannot be easily overcome due to its statistical nature. Indeed, PMD arises from
the statistical combination of various small polarization-dependent refractive index
effects distributed along a long single-mode fibre, which can change according to
local environmental conditions. Because of this, PMD does not add linearly in a
network, but adds quadratically. PMD in the fibres and in some components becomes
a limiting factor for transmission systems reaching rates of 10 GBps and beyond.
PMD is proportionally sensitive with link distances, bit rates and may render CD
statistical with higher order PMD at very high bit rates. PMD is extremely difficult to
compensate for.
Non-Linear effects
Four-wave mixing is one of the most disruptive non-linear effects in DWDM systems.
When the intensity of the laser signal reaches a critical level and the signals are in
phase, ghost signals (similar to harmonic generation) appear, some of which may fall
within the true channels. The number of these ghost channels is given by: N2x(N-1)/2
where N is the number of signal channels. Thus 24 ghost channels appear in a 4channel system. Interference of this magnitude can be catastrophic at the receiver end.
Four-wave mixing is sensitive to an increase in the power density (thus channel power
and fibre core diameter), a decrease of the channel spacing (especially with even
channel spacing), and chromatic dispersion (zero dispersion means that signals are in
phase). In this sense, it is particularly serious in system using G.653 dispersion shifted
fibres. It is less important with G.655 non-zero dispersion-shifted fibres, depending of
the effective area (small area fibres are highly subject to four-wave mixing). The
longer the two signals remain in phase with each other the greater the interaction.
Chromatic dispersion will reduce the distance the signals are in phase and reduce
four-wave mixing effects. One way this is balanced is to use dispersion management
schemes that ensure the overall average chromatic dispersion is very low but varies
positively and negatively along the route but is never zero at the operating
wavelengths. It must however be reminded that PMD may always disturbed any
compensation mechanism as well as other non-linear effects such as self-phase and
cross-phase modulations. A high resolution Optical Spectrum Analyzer can help
identify the presence of 4-wave mixing:
An OSA based on double-pass grating can provide high optical rejection ratio, narrow
resolution bandwidth and high dynamic range, all attributes requires for 4-wave
mixing observation. In addition to the OSA, one requires 2 high-power sources (one
tunable) with little wavelength spacing.
To monitor 4 wave mixing effect, the test OSA unit should have the following
specifications (or better):
Optical Rejection Ratio: > 45 dB @ 0.2 nm
Resolution bandwidth: 40 pm
Dynamic range: -75 dBm to 15 dBm
Wavelength accuracy: 15 pm
Specifications
Attribute
Parameter
G.652
A
1260-1360 nm
1310 nm Max
1550 nm Max
0.5
G.655
0.4
0.25
(Link 1550)
0.275
(Link 1530-1565)
0.35
0.22
0.35
0.3
0.4
0.35 (Link)
0.4
0.4
1300
1500
1430
1324
1600
1665
0.093
0.085
D (ps/nmkm)
+17 (1550)
+3.5 Max.
(1525-1575)
S (ps/nm2km)
0.056 (1550)
0.07 Typ
(Link 1550)
0max (nm)
S0max (ps/nm km)
2
Chromatic Dispersion
(1.0 to 10.0)
Dmax-Dmin = 5.0
-
Optional value may be specified by cablers to support a particular cable construction PMDQ
M (Cable Number)
20
Q (%)
Max PMDQ (ps/km)
0.275
(Link 1550)
0.35 (Link)
0min (nm)
0.35
0.275
(Link)
1310-1625 nm Max
PMD
Coefficient Cabled Fibre
0.4
1565-1625 nm
1625 nm Max
G.654
0.5 (Link)
1530-1565 nm
Attenuation Coefficient
(dB/km)
G.653
0.01
0.5
0.20
0.5
0.20
0.5
0.20
0.5
0.20
0.5
0.20
Damaged
Dirty
Clean
The setup for manual Optical Power Loss measurement as recommended by TIA/EIA
455-171 (FOTP-171) is presented in the figures below.
The procedure is as follows:
A laser light source and a power meter are used to perform the test at the
specified wavelengths. To measure optical loss, a known level of light is first
transmitted from the light source directly to the power meter, without the fibre
or any part of the system in place (Reference Procedure figure).
Having the two units hooked up, a power level can be set as reference using
the REF key on the power meter.
Once this reference level is known, the units can then be connected to each
end of the fibre under test (FUT) (Loss Measurement Procedure figure). The
difference between the received signal power and the reference power
corresponds to the link loss, mainly the loss of the fibre and the transmitting
and receiving patch panels.
Since the different sources of attenuation in a fibre plant are direction
sensitive, it is important to perform an optical loss measurement both ways,
and then average the loss results.
This procedure then has to be repeated at the different wavelengths required
(typically 1310nm, 1550nm and 1625nm).
Test jumper
Laser source
Power meter
Reference Procedure
DUT
Test jumper
Test jumper
Laser source
Power meter
The unit can be configured with an optional video inspection probe so that the
technician can verify the cleanliness of connectors and patch panels, before
performing the test.
In addition to the data storage, the units can also be configured with Pass/Fail
capability to enhance network acceptance
The unit can be configured with optional optical talk set, to facilitate
communications with his testing partner.
EXFO have been supplying our unique MAXTESTER solution to operators for over 8
years. For medium to long haul installations, the advantages of this automated test
solution are enormous.
Many OTDR configurations are available, so it is important that the test application is
understood so that the correct OTDR configuration is used. For example, dynamic
range of the OTDR will give an indication of the fibre distance to test, where a higher
dynamic range will cover a greater distance.
In addition, OTDR equipment is available with one, two or three integrated
wavelengths. In most applications, only two wavelengths are necessary (i.e. 1310 and
1550nm), and for those who wish an extra wavelength, like 1625nm for maintenance
applications or for macrobending analysis, OTDRs are available with the three
mentioned wavelengths.
Ideally, for outside plant applications, the OTDR should be field modular and should
be easily combined with other test modules in one test platform, like OLTS, CD and
PMD test applications.
the span start and span end are identified in the event table, as well as span lengths
between events.
In the event table, the following information should be detailed:
Event Type
Event Number
Distance of event from span start (Location)
Loss in dB of the event
Reflectance of the event
Attenuation of the span length
Cumulative Loss from span start
Once data is acquired, it can be post-processed by using either the software on the test
equipment or similar software installed on a desk-top computer. Reports containing
valuable information on the fibre links can be compiled, stored and printed. Some
elite suppliers offer test and post-processing capabilities on one single platform,
preferably one that is PC-based (i.e. Windows 2000 Operating System). One can also
find reporting tool that will integrate OTDR, OLTS, CD and PMD results per fibre, in
a single report.
Each loss will be assigned to an event in the table of events. Together, these losses
will contribute to the total attenuation of the fibre link. Other useful data should be
available from the OTDR, like loss per kilometer average (dB/km) and fibre settings
data like internal optical reflectance (IOR), Rayleigh Back Scatter (RBS) and the
Helix Factor (%).
EXFOs OTDR solution.
The EXFO solution comprises the range of FTB-7000 modules for our FTB-400
platform. Whilst many manufacturers provide OTDR solutions, EXFO again have
some industry leading features which should be considered by any operator:
On a practical point, it should be worth noting at this stage the power that the
multitasking FTB-400 mainframe provides. The OTDR acquisition is usually
performed at the same time as the Insertion Loss measurements. The FTB-400 allows
the OTDR and the MAXTESTER applications to be operating at the same time.
Hence whilst the technicians accessing a fibre for test, he can perform the OTDR and
IL testing simultaneously from the same platform. The ToolBox R/T Pro software
allows, directly on the FTB-400, to generate a complete report highlighting OTDR
and OLTS info on a per fibre basis.
PMD Measurement
The process for making field-PMD measurements was covered for many years by
TIAs recommendation FOTP-124. This technique was called the Traditional
Interferometric Method (TINTY).
The standard has recently (2004) been updated and ratified as FOTP-124A
(Generalised Interferometric Method (GINTY)). The reason for this update was that
the old TINTY method was designed with specific concessions and was not able to:
Measure accurately (the error bar using TINTY was very high, typ 15%)
Measure low levels of PMD (typically no less than 0.1ps)
Measure through amplifiers
It is crucial to note that although many manufacturers provide PMD equipment, they
are either based on the older, TINTY, technology and method, or on method just not
made for field-measurements. EXFO patented the GINTY method and technology in
2003 in our FTB-5500B and are the only company who can provide a solution
compliant to this section of the FOTP-124A. Hence EXFOs PMD solution is the most
accurate, capable to measure to the lowest levels and through amplified links.
The conceptual setup of the interferometric methods is shown below, the light from a
polarized, broadband source is sent through the DUT, and then through an analyzing
polarizer. The envelope of the fringe pattern (interferogram) is analyzed to evaluate
the PMD. The standard deviation of the interferogram can be precisely related to the
PMD value of the DUT, provided that the degree of mode coupling (e.g. negligible,
random) in the DUT is known. This technique is extremelly robust against fast
changing DUT, such as installed fibers.
Hence the PMD unit should have the following specification (or better):
It is worth again to point out a superior EXFO feature again at this point. The source
used for EXFO PMD measurement is the same source as used for the EXFO FTB5800 CD measurement. This has an obvious practical advantage, but also represents
an important Capex saving for our clients.
Here is an extreme case - a comparison (poor ORR OSA (in green) versus EXFOs
FTB-5240B (in red)) on a 5 channel 12.5GHz system. The poorer units only measure
some 3dB of OSNR, whilst the EXFO still is measuring the correct 30dB OSNR
value.
The EXFO OSA of course also carries all the required measurement
parameters/functions for all complete suite of DWDM test requirements.
Appendix 1
Loss Budget
A few years ago, loss budget tolerance was not really an issue. Now with higher data
rates and optimized costs, the budget tolerance has shrunk considerably, and it is an
accepted standard in the industry that budget loss tolerance should be no greater than
3dB. This seems impossible to miss when a typical power meter has an uncertainty of
5% or 0.2dB, but there is more to the story. Lets review what can be easily forgotten
or wrongly tested, and you will see that a 3 dB margin is not too much
Lets assume, for the purpose of the example, that a cable of 80km has to be qualified.
Prior to leaving, the 2 technicians reference the power meter with a source at the
given wavelengths, and agree on a test plan.
The instruments you have purchased were specified to have 1 year
calibration interval.
Calibration drift: up to
0.5dB
Uncertainty: 0.4dB
Once on location, both technician turn the units on and start testing.
Warm-up time of typically 30 minutes has to be done with the source,
while offset nulling has to be performed on the power meter. How sure
are you your technicians wait and perform these actions?
You have assumed that the reference you took is still valid now that the
source and meter are re-activated. However these units are not perfectly
repeatable.
During testing, when the source user changes the test wavelengths, he
must notifie the power meter user to change calibrated wavelength on the
meter. Mis-matched wavelengths will results in an error
Uncertainty: 0.2dB
TOTAL UNCERTAINTY
3.5dB