Summary Fire Safety Design

Chapter 1, Introduction
Fire safety rules were developed since the Middle Ages, when fires regularly consumed whole sections
of cities. Since then, fire safety regulations have evolved to a very extensive set of requirements.
However, the main objectives of fire safety regulations are limited:
- Avoid fatalities
- Avoid damage to adjacent buildings
Limiting material damage is only secondary to these objectives.
Requirements in building regulations are usually build up in the following way:
- A safety objective (e.g. people shall be able to safely evacuate in case of fire)
- Functional requirements that serve this objective (e.g. sufficient escape routes shall be
available)
- A method for verification if the functional requirements is met (e.g. escape routes shall be
designed according to a given standard)
Three components are required for combustion: fuel, oxygen and heat.
Fuel and oxygen react with each other at a sufficiently high
temperature. The product of this reaction is heat.
Combustion may take the form of flaming combustion of gaseous
vapors or of smoldering combustion of solids.
We call the gaseous products of decomposition the decomposition or
pyrolysis gases.
Gasses can burn so quickly that the expansion of the gases (expansion
due to heating) causes a shock wave, or an explosion.
The reaction is quickest and the flame is hottest if the mixture of oxygen and fuel is such that exactly
enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel.

Chapter 2, Fire physics

Heat can move by conduction, convention and radiation. The greater the difference in temperature
between two objects, the more readily heat will move between them. Calculating the rate of heat
transfer is one of the most important skills in fire physics.
The amount of heat transfer due to conduction and convection is roughly proportional to the difference
in temperature: if the difference in temperature between the objects is doubled, the movement of heat
to the cold objects will also be doubled.
An average fire loses approx.. 70% of its energy (heat) through convection, and 30% through radiation.
Many substances decompose in the face of heat. If the gases produced during decomposition are
inflammable, the we call the substance inflammable. If, in addition, they also produce significant
amounts of heat, we often call them fuels. A visible flame is not necessary to ignite the inflammable
gases as long as the temperature is high enough. The gases produced during decomposition of a
substance will ignite at the set temperature for that substance: the so-called self-ignition temperature.
That temperature, for most solids that we recognize in buildings as inflammable, is between 220 and
550 C.

Note that at the flash point and the fire point, an external source of ignition is required for ignition,
whereas this is not the case at the higher self-ignition temperature.
A substance may, as explained earlier, be heated up by conduction, convection or radiation.
At high temperatures in particular (read under fire conditions), the impact of radiation may well be
decisive, as the radiation emitted is proportional to T4. (see below)

The ignition behaviour of materials do not only depends on the material itself, but also on the heat
contact with the surface and background.
Heat is required for any fire to start.
An indoor fire has 3 distinguish phases: the growth phase, the fire phase and the decay phase.
A fire in a room or enclosed space behaves differently to one in the open. If a fire, after ignition, is
allowed to develop in an enclosed space, the growth rate depends on a large number of factors:
- Nature of the materials and the fixing between
those materials and others, such as a substrate
- Distribution of the materials throughout the space in
question: can flames spread easily form object to
object
- The geometry of the room, due to the rising and
cooling of smoke and the draught
- Installations that cause air flow and, as a
consequence, have an impact on the spread of
smoke and heat
- Available oxygen
- Active fire protection systems
Many FSE calculations use a fire for which the heat released grows quadratic as time progresses, the socalled t-squared (t2) growth curve, for the growth phase of the fire.
Because of the assumptions made, the t2 curve is not necessarily representative for the growth and
development of fires; in certain cases, an alternative growth curve should be considered. The
development t2 curve is, for instance, not representative in the following situations:
- If a fire is growing in three dimensions, i.e. not just in length and breadth but in height as well,
as is the case with storage rack fires
- If local propagation via inflammable objects ceases to be the primary source of the fire, as when
a secondary fire arises due to a hot layer of smoke or on reaching flashover
- If a fire reaches a barrier which blocks propagation in tow dimensions. For instance the edge of
the burning object if there are no other inflammable objects in close proximity or the walls of
the room
- If there is not enough oxygen in the room to sustain the fire

A flashover is a sudden change (acceleration) in the steady growth of a fire.

In a flashover, the temperature in the smoke layer under the ceiling of the
space is so high that the heat radiated by that smoke layer ignites the
inflammable objects in the whole space, including those under the smoke
layer, within a very short space of time (from approx.. 10-30 s) as a result
of thermal decomposition. That happens at a smoke layer temperature of
approx.. 500-600 C and heat radiation of approx.. 20 kW/m2. Flashover is
the transition between the growth phase and the fire phase.
In very large spaces and in long, narrow spaces, flashover seldom occurs in the whole space at the same
moment, as the temperature in the smoke layer differs too much in varying parts of the space for that to
happen. Under those conditions, the flashover can propagate itself through the space.
Another mechanism in which a fire can suddenly develop is backdraught
(or backdraft). A backdraft occurs when there are sufficient combustible
gases and the temperature is high enough, but there is too little oxygen
available for combustion. If (a lot of) oxygen is then introduced, for
instance when a door is opened or a window shatters, almost explosive
combustion will occur (i.e. within a few seconds).
In summary, just before a flashover there is insufficient fuel in the form of
gas available (due to a lack of heat); just before a backdraft there is
insufficient oxygen available.
There are various definitions of what constitutes smoke combustion and they cover a range of
phenomena. The common factor is that it is combustion of un burnt or partially burnt pyrolysis gases,
usually outside the space where the fire is raging. In smoke combustion fuel present, but heat or oxygen
is not.
In a fully developed fire, the gas temperature in the whole space is so high that all combustible materials
contribute to the fire form their surface with combustible products of decomposistion.
The length of the fully developed fire phase, i.e. how quickly the majority of the fuel heats up and
decomposes, also depends on the temperature in the spaces. This temperature is determined by factors
including:
- The type of fuel and the surface area it covers
- The cooling to the surrounding area
The duration of the fire is also influenced by the amount of oxygen in the space; if there is little oxygen
in the space in question, little will combust and inflammable substances will receive little heat; the fire
will burn longer as the result.
A fully developed fire may be either fuel bed controlled or ventilation controlled. If there is sufficient
oxygen to burn the gases of decomposition in the space and the scale of the fire thus solely depends on
the speed at which the fuel decomposes, then we can say that the fire is fuel controlled. If there is
insufficient oxygen for combustion and the scale of the fire thus depends on the speed at which oxygen
can enter the space, then we can say that it is a ventilation controlled fire.
The development of a fire during time can be divided in different phases, such as the ignition of the fire,
the growth phase and the fully developed fire, that occurs after flashover. Fire tests can be divided into
two categories:
- Reaction to fire tests: characterization of a material on a relatively small scale.
- Resistance to fire tests: characterization of the ability of a construction to maintain its function
during fire.

In reality, no two fires will have the same temperature development. The fire temperature is dependent
on specific circumstances such as ventilation conditions, type, distribution and quantity of combustible
materials and insulation value of the boundaries of the compartment.

Chapter 3, Reaction to fire

The fire behavior of materials can, in principle, be tested or calculated. However, calculation is solely
possible for very simple and uniform materials and, even then, only with great difficulty. In practice,
materials behavior is thus nearly always tested.
There are different fire scenarios, shown below:

There are a lot of different tests. The common international standards for test method are:
- Reaction to fire behavior of building products Non combustibility test
- Reaction to fire tests for products Determination of the gross heat of combustion (calorific
value)
- Reaction to fire tests for building products Building products excluding flooring exposed to the
thermal attack by a single burning item
- Reaction to fire tests for floorings Determination of the fire behavior using a radiant heat
source
- Reaction to fire tests Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate (the Cone
calorimeter test)
- Reaction to fire tests Ignitability of products subjected to direct impingement of flame Part2:
Single-flame source test
- Fire test Large-scale room reference test for surface products (also called the Room corner
test)
Class
A1

Required test(s)
EN 1182 (Non-combustibility) and EN 1716 (Combustion heat)

A2

EN 1182 or EN 1716 and EN 13823 (Single burning item)

B,C,D

EN 13823 and EN 11925-2 (Ignitability)

EN 11925-2

No performance determined

Chapter 4, Smoke control

Smoke is defined here as the volume that contains air and airborne solid, liquid and gaseous products of
combustion. The plume of smoke above an actual fire thus has the following components:
- The gases of decomposition of the fuel
- The products of combustion (o.a. CO2 and H2O)
- The ambient air that is mixed in with the flames and the plume of smoke, but does not have any
part in combustion
Smoke is thus a mix of solid particles, droplets and gases.
The polluted volume with products of decomposition and combustion, is actually more important than
the nature of these products: the starting point for the evacuation of most buildings is either smoke-free
evacuation or short route with some smoke.
The amount of smoke created in a fire depends primarily on the amount of air mixed in, rather than the
products of decomposition and combustion.
Hot smoke mixes whit ambient air when it rises or moves in any other way. This causes the temperature
of the smoke to drop. As long as the smoke is still clearly warmer than the surrounding air, the smoke
will remain an individual layer above the smoke-free layer; neither layer will yet mix completely.
If the concentration of smoke is approximately uniform, we call this homogeneous mixing.
Smoke spread in a building may be caused or influenced by the following driving forces:
- Temperature difference between the warm smoke and the relatively cold ambient air:
The difference in density between warm and cold air is the driving force that ensures that
smoke rises, if this is more than a few degrees (around 5C) warmer than the ambient air.
- Chimney effect:
If the outdoor temperature is lower than that in a building, an up draught will be created in
open vertical shafts due to the difference in density between the outdoor and indoor air.
The variation in pressure relative to height can be calculated with the formula:
=
- Wind pressure:
The wind pressure exerted on a building may influence the air currents in the building, and thus
have a significant impact on the spread of smoke. The most significant factors in relation to the
wind pressure are the wind speed and the pressure coefficient:

.
- Expansion of gases due to heating:
If the temperature of the air in a space rises quickly and steeply (e.g. in a flashover situation), a
large volume of surplus air will be created in a short period of time. There is no room in the
space for this surplus volume of air, so it will be forced out the space. This mechanism of
expansion (expansion by heating) is described by the formula:
= ( )

- Presence and function of ventilation systems

Smoke control and removal systems:

- A smoke and heat exhaust ventilation (SHEV) system is a system that improves the conditions in
a space that is endangered by smoke (and possibly also by fire) by removing (hot) smoke.

Jet fan trust ventilation improves the conditions in a section of a space threatened by smoke,
usually the space where the fire is burning, by blowing away the hot smoke. This is often done
by ceiling fans.

An overpressure ventilation system protects a space from penetration of smoke form adjacent
spaces by creating overpressure in the space to be protected and maintaining a minimum flow
rate through openings in the wall around that space, particularly through open doors. The
system often comprises fans for clean air supply and valves or openings for air removal.

Chapter 5, Evacuation
There are various aspects of fire which can lead to personal injury:
- direct contact with flames or radiation from the fire
The pain barrier for human skin is reached at between 43 and 45 C.
-

smoke
Smoke may expose people to high temperatures or radiation. Smoke also has impact on the
human body by depriving it of oxygen and by exposing it to toxicity.
Even though a low concentration of oxygen does not lead directly to death, it does have an
impact on a persons ability to escape, potentially making escaping less efficient, whereby
people could spend longer than desirable/too long exposed to smoke.
When smoke is breathed in, it almost always has a negative impact on a person. Smoke (or the
toxic elements in smoke) can act as an irritant or intoxicant, induce sleep, and even be deadly.

collapse or failure of a structure

other reasons (e.g. by jumping out of a window)

In the event of an emergency (a fire for instance), a person may suffer acute stress.
Pre-movement is the time that in individual needs to begin the process of leaving the building.
o The time needed for awareness of the alarm or recognition of the danger; for instance,
this includes the time for inquiry (recognition)
o The time needed to start evacuation after awareness of the situation; for instance, this
includes collecting personal belongings (response)
The time before a smoke alarm sounds or before smoke is visible may be added to the premovement time.

Chapter 6, Fire resistance in general

The general definition of fire resistance is: the time during which a building element (system) exposed to
fire, can fulfil tis anticipated function(s) under end-use conditions.
In order to prevent a building or part of a building to collapse at a moment when people are still inside,
load bearing structures are subject to fire resistance criteria. A building structure must hold until the
building can be evacuated and searched by the fire service. That is why the requirement for fire
resistance in terms of loading capacity is often relatively long (approx. 30 min-1hour). Structural
elements that in case of a of collapsing could precipitate progressive collapse, must remain intact during
that time.
A building structure may be constructed in such a way that some parts can collapse without this having
consequences outside the immediate site of the fire.
Deformation plays an important role in both forms of fire resistance; especially the difference in
deformation between different materials and between the same materials with a different temperature.

If elements in a wall or partition deform in different ways, openings may be created that can admit hot
gasses (flames, smoke).
It would appear obvious not to use inflammable materials in a fire-resistant wall or partition; however
this is not the case. On the one hand, the choice of materials is based on much more than fire safety
alone. Think, for instance, about functionality (e.g. heat-insulation, sound proofing or protection against
burglary and vandalism), workability, cost, weight, outward appearance, strength, elasticity, durability
or environmental considarations.

Chapter 7, resistance to fire of load-bearing structures (general)

The most simple approach is the conventional

approach, where we use a generalized fire curve for the
fire load (horizontal axis) and consider the mechanical
response of each individual component of the structure
(vertical axis). In this case the determination is relatively
easy and straight-forward. Because the temperature in
(almost all) generalized fire curves increases with time,
here will always be a point in time where the
component fails
Failure of the structure is assumed when the first
component fails.
A more complex approach is the so-called fire safety
engineering approach (FSE). In this approach, the temperature of the fire is determined in a more
accurate way, using the so-called natural fire safety concept (NFSC).
In determining the structural behavior, we may choose between carrying out tests or carrying out
calculations.
This figure provides tow
members subjected to fire.
The first member is fully
engulfed in fire whereas the
second member is subjected
to fire from one side only. In
both cases there is a
continuous heat exchange
between the fire and the
member. The net heat flux
from fire to member is positive for the exposed members or sides (incoming heat flux) while it is
negative for the unexposed sides (outgoing heat flux). The total heat flux is the summation of the heat
flux by convection and the heat flux by radiation. The related equations are provided below:
= +

= ( )
= (4 4 )

The surface emissivity, , indicates how much radiation falling on a surface is transferred to heat. The
convection coefficient, , is a function of the air flow along the heated surface.
As a second step, we determine the heat transfer inside a body. The temperature gradient in the body in
x-direction, /, can be determined using Fouriers law:

The thermal conductivity is a material-dependent parameter. The energy balance (or heat balance)
equation of the body reads:
= ()

The figure on the right indicates that the heat capacity () of

steel is generally larger than concrete, implying that it
requires more energy to heat a unit volume of steel as
compared to a unit volume of concrete.

The principle of the calculation of the mechanical response for the load bearing function is:
, ,
, = (Effect) mechanical actions, , = mechanical resistance
The mechanical (external) load is considered to remain unaltered during the fire. With increasing
temperature, the mechanical material properties (strength, Youngs modulus) decrease, meaning that
the structural resistance decreases with temperature.
Fire is considered an accidental load which, according to EN 1990, should be considered in an accidental
load combination. The probability that a fire occurs simultaneously with the extreme mechanical load is
so low that it does not have to be account for.
To be able to estimate the fire resistance of a structure, the so-called reduction factor and the utilization
factor are terms that are regularly used by fire safety engineers. The reduction factor is defined as the
mechanical action under fire conditions divided by the matching mechanical action at room
temperature. The utilization factor is defined as the mechanical action under fire conditions divided by
the mechanical resistance at room temperature.
An important principle for determining the resistance to fire in case of the load bearing function is the
so-called run-away temperature. This is the temperature at which the deformation or the deformation
rate of the structural component becomes excessively large. At that point in time, it is considered that
the resistance to fire criterion is reached.
If the temperature remains increasing, the material properties deteriorate and at a certain point in time
the structural resistance approaches the effect of the mechanical actions. Here the mechanical
deformations increase dramatically and they dominate the total deformation. We approach the runaway criterion.

Chapter 8, Metal (steel and aluminium) structures

Steel and aluminium members are non-combustible, meaning that these members do not contribute to
the reaction to fire and do not produce (or release) energy under fire conditions.
We have already seen that the material expands when subjected to elevated temperatures. This
certainly also applies to metals. Finally, creep becomes very important, meaning that (creep) strains
develop for structures subjected to a constant load in time. Creep is a stress time and temperature
dependent mechanism. Creep actually forms an excellent warning system, because the creep
deformations become excessively large before failure occurs.
After cooling, sometimes large permanent deformations remain. This is not the result of thermal
expansion, because thermal expansion is reversible. The large deformations are due to creep action.
These large deformations usually mean that the structure cannot be re-used after fire exposure and
these structures have to be demolished.
Since creep is depending on exposure time, temperature and stress, this means that either the
temperature remained relatively low and/or that the stress during the fire remained low.
In case of re-using exposed metal structures, special care should be taken on bolted connections. Apart
from permanent strength deterioration of the bolts, the combined effects of thermal expansion and
creep during the fire may mean that high tensile forces are present in the bolts after cooling.
Because metal structures heat so quickly, thy are relatively sensitive to fire exposure. The behavior of
the metal itself cannot be improved, but het behavior of the structure can be improved by applying
insulation.
At increasing temperature, the yield strength decreases, the modulus of elasticity decreases, the strain
at rupture increases and the stress-strain relationship becomes curved (round-housed).
In a structural calculation, and despite the large influence of creep, it is not necessary to consider creep
explicitly. The reason is that in order to ease the calculation the influence of creep is already
incorporated in the stress-strain curve.

The first aspect that we will consider in the structural response is the classification of members with
respect to the sensitivity to local buckling. At room temperature, the classification borders are based on
the ratios between the width-to-thickness ratios, b/t, of the plates constituting the cross-section. At
elevated temperature, the same classification rules apply BUT the b/t ratio classification borders at
room temperature should be multiplied with a factor of 0.85.
The resistance of member in compression subjected to flexural buckling depends on:
- The reduction of the yield stress
- The reduction of the E-modulus
- The curvature of the stress-strain relationship
Apart from the modulus of elasticity, also the buckling
length may be different form room temperature. The
reason is that only the exposed part of the column is
weakened and this part will buckle at an earlier stage. At
that stage, the cold parts of the column will have their
original stiffness and hence the exposed part can be
considered as a separate column having clamped edges.

Chapter 9, Concrete structures

Concrete structures have an excellent reputation when it comes to their fire resistance.
When a concrete structure is heated due to fire, the exposed surface quickly heats up. Deeper into the
concrete the temperature remains relatively low. This large temperature difference causes strains,
stresses and cracks.
The most unpredictable type of fire damage to concrete is called spalling. Spalling of concrete during fire
is a phenomenon where parts of the concrete structure are breaking off of the cross-section.
When a concrete structure is heated, the exposed surface heats up quickly. However, the thermal
conductivity of concrete is relatively low therefore, it takes a long time for the thermal energy to spread
out through the concrete and temperatures to become linearly or uniformly distributed.
The thermal conductivity of concrete is mainly governed by the thermal conductivity of the coarse
aggregate. The hotter the concrete becomes, the less the heat is conducted.
The specific heat of concrete is only slightly dependent on the temperature, and is independent of the
coarse aggregate type. A strong influence on the specific heat is the moisture content of the concrete.

Chapter 9, Concrete structures

Concrete structures have an excellent reputation when it comes to their fire resistance.
When a concrete structure is heated due to fire, the exposed surface quickly heats up. Deeper into the
concrete the temperature remains relatively low. This large temperature difference causes strains,
stresses and cracks.
The most unpredictable type of fire damage to concrete is called spalling. Spalling of concrete during fire
is a phenomenon where parts of the concrete structure are breaking off of the cross-section.
When a concrete structure is heated, the exposed surface heats up quickly. However, the thermal
conductivity of concrete is relatively low. Therefore, it takes a long time for the thermal energy to
spread out through the concrete and temperatures to become linearly or uniformly distributed.
The thermal conductivity of concrete is mainly governed by the thermal conductivity of the coarse
aggregate. The hotter the concrete becomes, the less the heat is conducted.

The specific heat of concrete is only slightly dependent on the temperature, and is independent of the
coarse aggregate type. A strong influence on the specific heat is the moisture content of the concrete.
In fact, the transport of water through the concrete may to some extent also be in liquid form, e.g. liquid
water moving through the pores under high pressure, or moving through a crack in the concrete. In that
case, the water flow itself influences the temperature distribution inside the concrete. This is however
too complex to be included in existing calculation models, so it is generally accepted that the thermal
conductivity graph is not influenced by moisture.
The volumetric mass does slightly decrease due to the loss of free water, physically bound water and
eventually also (part of) the chemically bound water.
It should be noted that the described phenomena are mostly irreversible. A crack that has occurred
during heating will not disappear after cooling down, water that has evaporated and left the concrete
will not immediately come back, and dehydrated cement paste will not (immediately) rehydrate.
The choice of which model to use depends on the geometry and fire exposure.
The same as most materials, concrete expands when heated. Each of the constituents of concrete (e.g.
cement paste, sand, coarse aggregate) follows its own thermal expansion.
The thermal expansion is influenced by transitions in the crystal structure of the material
Due to the different thermal expansion coefficients of each of the concrete constituents, internal
stresses develop in heated concrete.
When heated, the cement paste is forced to follow the expansion of the aggregate. This causes tensile
stresses in the cement paste, and leads to a finely distributed network of micro-cracks inside the cement
paste.
The compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperatures is not purely a function of the
temperature. Also, the history of heating and mechanical loading plays a role. A moderate compressive
stress (up to about 30% of fck at room temperature) in the concrete during heating has a positive effect
on the remaining compression strength.
The combination of heating and compressive loading leads to an additional (negative)strain component,
called load induced thermal strain (LITS). This strain component is irreversible, which means that during
cooling down the strain is not recovered.
The exposed surface of the concrete reaches a temperature that is close to the fire (convection +
radiation) temperature. However, deeper into the concrete the temperature is much lower.
This temperature difference lead to Eigen stresses.
It is steel reinforcement that prevents the concrete structure form cracking completely when heated. As
long as the reinforcement is protected from the heat by the concrete cover, the concrete structure will
retain part of its load bearing capacity.
The Eurocode (EN 1992-1-2) contains different calculation methods. In all methods, the effect of thermal
(Eigen) stresses and resulting cracks are neglected. This is a reasonable assumption as long as steel
reinforcement is applied so that thermal cracks do not lead to immediate failure.
Spalling may lead to collapse of the structure if the steel reinforcement is no longer sufficiently
protected by concrete, or if the concrete cross-section is no longer able to resist the compressive loads.
The causes of spalling are a complex interaction of several phenomena. When concrete is heated,
stresses may build up due to two causes:
Thermal expansion of the concrete
Eigen stresses in a heated structure lead to a high level of compression close to the exposed surface, in
the direction parallel to the surface. This compression may be so high that compressive failure occurs in
the most heated part of the concrete.
Pressure inside the pores in the concrete, due to expansion and evaporation of pore water.

The heated water will expand much more than the concrete itself, so to understand the effect of pore
water (moisture) pressures, we may consider the volume of the pores as constant.
At the same time, the strength of the concrete is reduced due to the high temperature.
When a layer of concrete spalls off due to pore pressures and thermal stresses, a new concrete surface
is exposed to fire and the process starts all over again. Therefore, spalling is often progressive, eating
away the concrete layer by layer.
The build-up of water pressure in the pores may also take more time, and reach a deeper level. This is
for example the case if during the fire more and more water is pushed ever deeper into the concrete,
until a level of saturation is reached that leads to an explosion deep in the concrete.
In order to avoid spalling of concrete, a possible solution is the application of an external insulation
layer, also called passive fire protection. By applying an insulation material on the surface of the
concrete, the flow of thermal energy towards the concrete can be strongly reduced, meaning that the
concrete heats up slower.
In the case of concrete protected with a layer of passive fire protection, the concrete surface is in fact
the location of the interface between concrete and fire protection. Therefore, the temperature on this
location is usually referred to as the interface temperature.
A concrete structure that is heated relatively fast may spall sooner than a concrete structure that is
heated slower.
If a passive fire protection is chosen in order to avoid spalling, it is necessary to apply sufficient thickness
to completely avoid spalling.
For the effectiveness of a fire protection system it should be note that not only the type of insulation
material is important but also the way that is applied and the conditions under which it has to function.
Another commonly applied measure to reduce or prevent spalling of concrete during fire is by adding
special types of polypropylene (PP) fibres to the concrete mix. From many fire tests it has become clear
that PP fibres can have the effect of reduction of spalling, even though the exact theory behind the
effectiveness is not fully clear. The most likely theory is that PP fibres reduce the pressure inside the
pores, because the fibres melt due to the heat and then a permeable network is formed that allows for
the water to escape from the concrete.
The effectiveness of PP fibres against spalling is strongly dependent on other factors, such as the
geometry, concrete mix, mechanical loading and fire curve. PP fibres mainly influence the flow of water
through the concrete. However they have no significant influence on the temperature distribution inside
the concrete and the resulting stresses due to thermal expansion. Therefore, PP-fibres do not prevent
internal cracking on structural scale or micro-scale, chemical deterioration and spalling if primarily
caused by thermal stresses.
The effectiveness of fibres against spalling varies from case to case, and can only be proven by fire tests
representative for the specific situation.
Apart from adding PP fibres to the concrete mix, there are other improvements that can be made in
order to make a concrete mix less sensitive to spalling. These improvements all have to do with thermal
expansion and permeability for pore water. The most important parameters are briefly described:
Type of coarse aggregate
Maximum diameter of the coarse aggregate
Fine fillers such as silica fume and fly ash strongly reduce the permeability of the concrete, and
increase the spalling behaviour significantly
Water cement ratio
The only method to determine spalling behaviour of a specific concrete structure under exposure to a
given temperature time curve is by performing fire tests.
In some cases, creating the test specimens for a representative test in a fire laboratory is not feasible.
This is for example the case with existing structures, where the exact mix of the concrete cannot be

reproduced anymore, or in case of very large concrete elements or large travel distance to a fire lab. In
that case, a mobile furnace can be applied. A mobile furnace applies the fire temperatures directly to
the surface of the actual structure.
Fire damage to concrete can be prevented by applying an external fire protection system. For example a
fire protective board, a spray mortar or a reactive coating. Each system has the aim of reducing the
amount of heat that flows into the concrete, and as such to limit the temperatures that occur in the
concrete during the fire.

Chapter 10, Timber structures

Timber does not conduct heat well. Heated timber decomposes (pyrolysis) where the temperature
exceeds approx. 250 C. The timber releases the gases of decomposition from the surface, after which
the gases mix with oxygen and burn.
When timber is burned, a layer of charcoal is formed. This layer of charcoal has an insulating effect, so
the charring rate may drop slightly. As the heated timber and the layer of charcoal contract relative to
the original volume, the timber structure contracts (deforms) in the opposite direction to concrete and
steel structures: timber structures tend to deform with the concave side towards the fire.
When timber is burnt, the unburnt profile, which has to bear the load, diminishes further. At a given
point in time, this profile becomes so small that the structure will collapse. This will be in the form of a
brittle fracture, without significant deformation taking place that would serve as a warning.
To calculate the fire resistance of timber, the charred zone is deducted from the original cross-section.
The remainder of the cross-section has not burnt but its temperature has increased, so the remaining
strength is reduced. The reduced cross-section with the reduced strength shall be able to carry the load.
The load-bearing function of timber structures may be improved as follows:
- Protecting the timber:
Applying panels (e.g. mineral wool or plaster board)
Applying intumescent coating
- Impregnating
When using panels to make wood fire resistant, the length of the screws is important: the deeper they
are anchored in the timber structure, the longer the protection will remain intact.
Impregnating timber can restrict the process of decomposition into combustible gases and thus restrict
the charring rate.

Chapter 11, Installations

Fire protection systems may be directly demanded by performance requirements in building
regulations. Fire protection systems can be sorted in a range of ways, for instance based on their
purpose:
Alarming and supporting escape
Removal or control of smoke
Compartmentation
Firefighting or extinguishing
Facilitation the fibre brigade/emergency services
Miscellaneous (andere mogelijkheden)

Types of systems:
Sprinkler system
A sprinkler system suppresses or extinguishes the fire by spraying relatively large droplets of water,
sometimes mixed with foam, usually form sprinkler heads in the ceiling or in racks.
Water mist system
A water mist system suppresses or extinguishes the fire by spraying relatively small droplets of water,
usually from sprinkler heads in the ceiling.
Water cannons
A system with water cannons (controlled or otherwise) suppresses or extinguishes the fire by spraying
relatively concentrated jets of relatively large water droplets, sometimes mixed with foam. The
extinguishes monitors/water cannons are mounted on a wall or on the ceiling, or on consoles, and are
controlled manually (by remote control) or automatically.
Foam extinguishing system
A foam fire extinguishing system suppresses or extinguishes the fire by spreading a layer of foam that
covers the space, and thus the fire as well, in whole or in part. This is often done through foam
generators or nozzles/sprinkler heads fitted to the ceiling.
Gas extinguishing system
A gas fire extinguishing system s suppresses or extinguishes the fire by filling the whole space with a gas
that suppresses combustion. The gas is blown into the space from a bottle-cell battery and a pipe
network. Certain gases dilute oxygen while others work on the combustion reaction.
Powder and aerosol extinguishing systems
A powder fire extinguishing system suppresses or extinguishes the fire. The powder for sort of system is
spread through nozzles/generators using an inert gas.
An aerosol fire extinguishing system suppresses or extinguishes the fire by filling the whole space with a
very fine powder that is sucked into the fire. Aerosols are produced by heating a solid or liquid in
separate units that are spread over the space.

Chapter 12, Fire safety engineering

The basis of a zone model consists of the following sub-sections that may vary in time:
A fire of a known area and output
A plume of smoke
Two zones layered on above the other with a horizontal interface between them
The rising plume of smoke feeds smoke and air from the cold zone to the layer of smoke. Smoke may be
releases from the layer of smoke due to the presence of openings or a mechanical exhaust ventilation
systems in the roof, or it may dissipate horizontally to another space or smoke compartment.

Obstacles to the free rise of the plume of smoke or the free horizontal spread of smoke in the smoke
buffer must be included in the model if that means that more cold air is mixed in.

Computation fluid dynamics (CFD)

models are models in which the threedimensional space is divided into cells.
The model calculates velocities,
temperatures and concentrations of
gases by solving fundamental equations
for heat and flow. Such models are used
for the design of cars and airplanes,
calculations for indoor climate in
buildings, as well as the weather forecast.
The applications of CFD models are
similar to zone models, but CFD models
are more detailed as they give a threedimensional time dependent calculation
of temperature, radiation, gas
concentrations and velocities, etc. CFD
models have the advantage that the
geometry of the object to be analysed is
flexible, and the space does not have to
be considered as one or a few zones
(such as is the case with zone models).
Therefore, a CFD model can be used to
calculate the conditions during fire in
complex situations such as car parks,
tunnels or atriums.

In a finite element model, a construction is divided into small elements. The model can calculate
temperatures as well as stresses and strains in solid materials by solving fundamental equations.
In a thermal finite element model, the internal temperature distribution inside the
construction as a function of time is calculated. As the model calculates the temperature distribution
inside the construction, the boundary conditions at the edges must be defined. These boundary
conditions can be heat transfer through radiation and convection, and may vary in time.
A thermal finite element model can be coupled with a CFD model. The CFD model then calculates the
convection and radiation conditions resulting from the fire, as function of time and space. And these
conditions are then imposed on the boundaries of the finite element model.