Surveying

Definition of Surveying:
1. Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of
distance, direction and elevation.
2. Surveying is a technique, profession and science of accurately determining the
three dimensional position of points, the distance and angle between them. These
points are usually on the surface of the earth and they are often used to establish
land maps and boundaries for ownership.
Primary division of survey.
1. Plane Surveying: It is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the
earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected, all the
triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles.
Eg:

For 12km arc long line is only 1cm greater than subtended chord.

2. Geodetic surveying: It is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth
is taken into account. All lines laying in the surface are curved lines and the
triangles are spherical triangles.

Classification of Surveying
1. Classification based on the nature of the field survey
* Land surveying
* Topographical surveys
* Cadastral surveys
* City surveying
* Marine or hydrographic surveying
* Astronomical survey
2. Classification based on the object of survey
* Engineering survey
* Military survey
* Mine Survey
* Geological survey
* Archeological survey
3. Classification based on instrument used
* Chain survey
* Theodolite survey
* Traverse survey
* Triangulation survey
* Tachometric survey
* Plane table survey
* Photogrammetric survey
* Aerial survey
Principles of Surveying:
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference:
The relative position of the points to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least 2 points of reference.

The position of which have already been fixed. Let A and B be the reference points
on the ground. The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative
position of A and B can be plotted on the sheet to same scale. The A and B will
survey as reference points for fixing the relative positions of other points. Any
points such as C can be platted as follows.

2. Work from whole to part:

The second principle of surveying is to work from whole to part. It is very essential
to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with higher precision.
Minor central points can then be established by less precise methods and the details
can then be located using these minor central points by running minor traverse etc.
The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of error and to
control and localize minor error which otherwise, would expand to greater
magnitude. If the reverse process is followed. Thus making me work
uncontrollable at the end.

3. Chain Surveying:
Chain Surveying is that type of survey in which only linear measurement are made
in the field.
This type of surveying is suitable for surveys of small extent.
Principle of Chain Survey:
The principle of chain survey is to provide a skeleton (or) frame work consisting of
a number of connected triangles, as the triangle is the only simple figure that can
be platted from the length of its sides measured in the field.
To get a good result in platting, the framework should consist of triangles which
are as nearly equilateral as possible.
Terms and definitions:
Survey Stations:
A survey station is a prominent points on the chain line and can be either at the
beginning of the chain line or at the end of the chain line. Such station are known
as main station.
Survey lines:
The line joining the main survey station are called main survey lines. The biggest
of the main survey line is called the base line and the various survey station are
platted with reference to base line.
Check lines:
The check lines (or) proof lines are the lines which are run is the field to check the
accuracy of the work.
Offset: It is the lateral distance of an object (or) ground features measured from a
survey line.
By method of offsets the points (or) object is located by measurement of a
distance and angle from a points on the chain line. If the angle of offset is 90 0, it is

called perpendicular offset and if the angle is other than 900 it is called an oblique
offset.
Instruments for chaining: 1.Chain or tape, 2. Arrows, 3. Pegs, 4. Ranging rods,
5.Offset rod, 6. plumb bob.

Cross staff: The simple instrument used for setting out light angles is a cross staff.
It consist of either a frame (or) box with two points of vertical slits and is mounted
on a pole for fixing in the ground.
Eg: (a) Open cross staff, (b) French cross staff, (c) Adjustable cross staff.

Optical square: Optical square is accurate instrument than the cross staff for
setting out a line at right angle to other line.
It consist of circular box with three slits at E, F and G. In line with the opening E
and G a glass is silvered at the top and un-silvered at the bottom, is fixed facing the
opening E. opposite to the opening F a silver glass is fixed at A making an angle
450 to the previous glass. A ray from the ranging rod at Q passes through the lower
un-silvered portion of the mirror at B and is seen directly by eye at the slit E
another ray from the object at P is received by the mirror at A and is reflected
towards the mirror at B which reflects it towards the eye. Thus the image P and Q
are visible at B. If both the image are in the same vertical line the line PD and
QD will be at right angle.

Let the ray PA makes an angle with the mirror at A.

ACB = 450 or ABC = 1800 (450+ ) = 1350
By law reflection
Ebb1 = ABC = 1350
ABE = 1800 2 (1350-) = 2-900
DAB = 1800 2
From le ADB ADB=1800 (2 - 900) (1800-2)
ADB = 180 - 2 + 90 - 1800 + 2 = 900
thus if the image of P and Q lie is the same vertical line, then the line PD and QD
will be at right angle to each other.
Obstacle in chaining:Obstacle to chaining prevents chainman from measuring directly between 2 points
and give raise to a set of problems in which distance are found by indirect
measurements.

Obstacle to chaining are of three types

1. Obstacle to ranging but not chaining
This type of obstacle in which the ends are not inter-visible is quite common
except in flat country. There are 2 cases of this obstacle.
Both ends of the line may be intervisible from intermediate points on
the line.
Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points on
the line.

2. Obstacle to chaining but not ranging:

There are 2 cases of this obstacle
When it is possible to chain round the obstacle ie. pond.

Methods (a): select 2 points A and B on either side. Set out equal
perpendicular AC and BD. Measure CD then CD= AB

Methods (b): set out perpendicular to the chain line measure AC and BC the
length of AB is calculated from the relation AB =

BC 2 AC 2

Methods (c): By optical square (or) cross staff find a point which subtends
900 with A and B. measure AC and BC. Then the length of AB is
AB =

AC 2 BC 2

Methods (d): Select 2 points C and D to both side of A and is the same line
measure. AC, AD, BC and BD, let angle BCD be from le BCD.
BD2 = BC2 + CD2 2BC x CD Cos
Cos =

BC 2 +CD 22 BD 2
..1
2 BC x CD

Similarly from le BCA

Cos =

BC 2 + AC 2 AB 2
.2
2 BC x AC

Equating equation 1 and 2 we get

AB =Sqrt[

BC
( 2 x AD)+ ( BD 2 x AC )
CD

(AC x AD)]

Method (e): Select any point E and base C is line with AE making
AE=EC range D in line with BE making BE=ED measure CD; then
AB=CD
Method (f): select any suitable point E and measure AE and BE mark E
and D on AE and BE such that
CE =

AE
n

and DF =

Measure CD; then

AE
n

AB = n x CD.

When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle eg. River.

Method (a): select point B on one side and A and C on the other side. erect
AD and CE as perpendicular to AB and range B, D and E in one line.
Measure AC, AD and CE. If a line DF is drawn parallel to AB and AB,
cutting CE in F perpendicularly. Then the le ABD and FDE will be similar.
AB
AD

DF
FE

FE = CE - CF = CE AD and DF = AC
AB
AD

AC

= CEAD
AC x AD

AB = CE AD
Method (b): erect perpendicular AC and bisect it at D. erect perpendicular CE
at C and Range E in line with BD measure CE then AB = CE
Method (c ) : erect a perpendicular AC at A and choose any convenient point
C with the help of an optical square, fix a point D on a chain line in such a
way that BCD is a right angle. Measure AC and AD. le ABC and DAC are
similar hence

AB
AC

AC
AD

; AB =

AC 2
AD

Method (d): fix point C in such a way that it subtends 900 with AB. Range D
in line with AC and make AD=AC. At D erect a perpendicular DE to cut the
line in E then AB = AE

3. Obstacle to both ranging and chaining.

Choose 2 points A and B to one side and erect perpendicular AC and BD of equal
length join CD and Prolong it pass the obstacle. Choose two points E and F on
CD and erect perpendicular EG and FH equal to that of AC. Join GH and prolong
it measure DE evidently BG= DE.
Problems:
1. A chain line ABC crosses a river, B and C being on the near and distant bank
respectively. The respective bearing of C and A taken at D, a point 45m
measured at right angles to AB from B are 300 0 and 2100, AB being 24m
find the width of the river.
Bearing of DC = 3000
Bearing of DA = 210
BD = 45m, AB = 24m
ADC = Bearing of DC Bearing DA
ADC = 300 210
ADC= 900
24

BDA = 45
BDA = 280 A1
BDC = 900 280 A1 = 610551

From BDC
BC = BD --- (BDC) = 45 (610551)
BC = 84.375
Assessment
1. In passing an obstacle is the form of a pond stations A and D, on the main
line, were taken on the posit sides of the pond. On the left of AD, a line AB
225m long was laid down and a second line AC. 275m long, was longed on
the right of AD, the points B, D and C being in the same slight line. BD
and DC were than chained and found to be 125 m and 137.5m resp. find the
length AD
Ans:212.9m
Error due to incorrect chain:
If the length of the chain used in measuring length of the line is not equal to the
true length, the measured length of the line will not be correct and suitable
correction will have to be applied. If the chain is too long, the measured distance.
Will be less. The error will be negative and the correction is positive.
Similarly if it is too short, the measured distance will be more, the error will be
positive and correction is negative.
Let L = true length of the chain (or) tape
L1=Incorrect length of the chain (or) tape.
1. Correction to measured length
l1 = measured length of the line
l = actual length of the line
1

True length of line = measured length of line x

L1
l=l ( L )
1

2. Correction to Area
A1= measured (or) computed area of the ground
A = actual (or) true area of the ground

L
L

Then true area = measured area x

l 2

l 2

A = A1
l1
L

L+ L
L

=1+

L
L

L= error in length of chain

Let

L
L

=e

(l + e) 2 = l + 2e + e2 = l + 2e (if e is small)
A = (1 + 2c) A1
3. Correction to volume:
V1 = measured (or) computed volume
V= actual (or) true volume
Then, true volume = measured volume x
L1 3

V = V1
1

L
L

L
L

L1 3

L+ L
L

=1+

L
L

=e

L 3

L
V =

x V = (1 + e) 3 V

(1+e)3= 1+e3+3e2+3e2+3e= (1+3e)

V =( 1+3 e ) v if e is small

Problem:
1. The length of a line measure with a 20m chain was found to be 250m.
Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 cm too long.

In correct --- of the chain = L = 20 +

10
100

= 20.1m

Measured length = l1 = 250m

1

Hence =length of the line = l

L
L

20.1
= 250 ( 20 ) = 251.25m

2. The length of the survey line was measured with a 20m chain and was fond to
be equal to 1200m. As a check the length was again measured with a 25m
chain and was fond to be 1212m. On comparing the 20m chain with the test
gauge. It was found to be 1 decimates too long. Find the actual length of the
25m chain used.
Sol with 20m chain = L1 = 20 + 0.10 = 20.1m
1

L=l

L
L

= 1200 x

20.1
20

= 1026m (true length of line)

With 25m chain= l=

1026 =
L1 =

L1
25

L
L

x l1

1212

1206 x 25
1212

= 24.88m

Thus the 25m chain was 12 cm too short.

Error in chaining:
A cumulative error is that which occur in the same direction and tends to
accumulate.
A compensating error may occur is either direction and hence tends to
compensate.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Error
Incorrect length of tape
Bad ranging
Tape not stretched tight and straight, but both
ends in line.
Tape not stretched horizontally
Error due to temperature
Variation in pull

Type
cumulative
cumulative

Sign
+ (or)
+

cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
compensating

+
+
+ (or)

7. Error due to sag

8. Error is marking tape length
9. Disturbing arrows after they are set.
10.Error in reading the tape
11.Incorrect counting of chain length

cumulative
compensating
Blunder
Mistake
Blunder

Tape correction:
We have seen the different sources of errors in line or measurement. In most of
the error, proper correction can be applied. Since in most of the cases a tape is
used for precise work the correction are sometimes called tape correction.
After having measured length, the correct length of the base is calculated by
applying the following correction.
1. Correction for absolute length:
It is the usual practice to express the absolute length of a tape as its nominal
or designated length plus (or) minus a correction. The correction for the
measured length is
Ca =

L.C
l

Where Ca = correction for absolute length

L = measured length of a line (m)
C = correction per tape length
l = designated length of the tape (m)
The sign of correction (Ca) will be the same as that of C,
2. Correction for temperature:
If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape
was standardized, the length of the tape increases, measured distance
become less and the correction is therefore additive. Similarly if the
temperature is less the length of the tape decreases, measured distance
become more and the correction is negative. the temperature correction is
given by
Ct = (Tm To) L
Where:
= Co-efficient of thermal expansion

Tm = Mean temperature is the field during measurement

To = Temperature during standardization of the tape
L = measured length (tape length)
3. Correction for pull (or) tension:
If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the
tape was standardize, the length of the tape increases, measured distance
become less and the correction is positive. Similarly if the pull in less, the
length of the tape decreases. The measured distance become more and the
correction is negative
If Cp is the correction for pull we have
( P mP0 ) L
Cp =
AE
Pm = pull applied during measurement (N)
Po = standard pull (N)
L = measured length (m)
A = C/s area of the tape (cm2)
F = youngs modulus of elasticity (N/cm2)
4. Correction for sag:
When the tape is stretched on supports between two points. It takes the
form of a horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be less than the
distance along curve. The difference between horizontal distance and the
measured length along catenary is called the sag correction.
l1 = length of the tape (in meter) suspended between A and B
Cs1=sag correction in m
w= weight of the tape in kg/m
p= pull applied in kg
wl1= weight of the tape suspended between the support
The relation between curved length (l1) and the chord length (d1) of a very
flat parabola is given by
8
l1 = d1 [ 1+ 3

h
[ d 1 ] 2]

Cs1 = d1 - l1 =

8
3

h2
d1

Note: sag correction in always negative

Correction for slope or vertical alignment
The distance measured along the slop is always greater than the horizontal distance
and hence the correction is negative
AB = L = inclined length measured
AB1 = horizontal distance
h = difference is elevation between the ends
Cv = slop correction
2

Cv =

h
2L

Problems:
1. A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30m long at 18 0C
and found to be 452.343m the temperature during measurement was 32 0C.
Find the true length of the line. Take the co-efficient of expansion of the tape
per 0C = 0.0000035
Solution
Given: Temperature correction per tape length Ct = (Tm To) l
l = 30m, To = 180C, Tm=320C
= 0.0000035
Ct = 0.0000035 x [32-18] x 30=0.00147m
Hence the length of the tape at 320c = 30+Ct = 30.00149m
Now true length of a line = measured length x

L1
L

L = 30m, L1 = 30.00147m,
aMeasured length = 452.343m
True Length =

30.00147
30

x 452.343 = 452.365m

2. A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30m at 18 oC and a
pull of 5 kg and the measured length was 459.242m. Temperature during
measurement was 280c and pull applied was 10kg the tape was uniformly
supported during the measurement. Find the true length of the line. if the
cross sectional area of the tape was 0.02cm 2 the co-efficient of expression
per 10C=0.0000035 and the E = 2.1 x 106 kg / cm2
Solution:
Correction for temperature per tape length= (Tm-To)L
= 0.0000035 (28-18) x 30
= 0.00105 (+ve)
sag correction per tape length = 0
( P mP0 ) L
Correction for pull per tape length =
AE
(105) x 30
= 0.02 x 2.1 x 10 6

= 0.00357m (+ve)
Total correction = 0.00105 + 0.00357 = 0.00462m
True length of the tape = 30.00462m
True length of the line =

30.00462
30

x 459.242 = 459.949, 459.313

3. A 50m tape is suspended between the ends under pull of 15 kg. The weight
of the tape is 1.5kg find the corrected length of the tape between its ends.
Solution:
2

Correction for sag = Cs =

l1 w p
24 p

l1 = 50m, w = 1.5kg, p=15kg

Cs =

50 x 1.5 2
24 x 152

= 0.0208m

Corrected length of the tape = l-Cs = 50-0.0208 = 49.9792m

4. A steel tape 20m long standardized at 550F with a pull of 10kg was used for
measuring a base line. Find the correction per tape length. If the temperature
at the time of measurement was 80 0F and the pull exerted was 16kg. Weight

of 1 cubic cm of steel = 7.86g. weight of tape =0.8kg, and E = 2.109 x 10 6

kg / cm2, Co- efficient of expansion of tape per 10F = 6.2x 10-6
Solution:
Correction for temperature = 20x6.2 x 10-6 (80-55)
= 0.0031m (additive)
p
( m po ) x L
AE

Correction for pull =

Weight of tape = A (20x100) (7.86x10-3) kg = 0.8kg

A=
Cp =

0.8
7.86 x 2

= 0.051cm2

( 1610 ) 20
0.051 x 2.109 x 106

Correction for sag =

= 0.00112 (additive)

wl

1 2

=
1
l

20 (0.8)
24 x 162

= 0.00208m (Subtractive)

Total correction = 0.0031 + 0.00112 0.00208 = 0.00214m

5. A steel tape is 30m long at a temperature of 65 oF when laying horizontally
on the ground its sectional area is 0.082cm2, its weight 2kg and the coefficient of expansion 65 x 10-7 per 10F. The tape is stretched over three
equal span. Calculate the actual length between the end gradations under the
following condition; temperature = 850F, pull = 18kg, take E = 2x106 kg /
cm2
Ans: 30.005m
(Assignment)

Compass surveying
Introduction:
Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small
and is fairly flat. When large areas involved, methods of chain surveying is not
sufficient. In such cases it is required to use some angle measuring instruments for
the survey lines to be observed.
Definition: Compass surveying may be defined as that branch of surveying in
which the position of an object is determined by angular measurement using
compass.
Instruments for the direct measurement of directions:
1. Surveyings compass
2. Prismatic compass
Instrument for measurement of angles
1. Sextant
2. Theodolite
Bearing and angle:
The direction of a survey line can either be established
a) with relation to each other
b) with relation to any meridian
Bearing: bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given meridian ie. true,
magnetic and arbitrary meridian

1. True meridian: True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane,
passing that point and the north and south pole and intersects with surface of
the earth.
2. True bearing: True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes
with the true meridian (through one of the extremities of the line). Since the
direction of true meridian remains fixed hence the true bearing of a line is
constant.
3. Magnetic meridian: Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction
shown by a freely floating balanced magnetic needle free from all other
attractive forces. The direction of magnetic meridian can be established by
magnetic compass.
4. Magnetic Bearing: The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle
which it makes with magnetic meridian. The magnetic compass used to
measure it.
5. Arbitrary meridian: it is any convenient direction towards a permanent and
prominent mark or signal such as church spire, top of chimney, light horse
etc.
6. Arbitrary Bearing: Arbitrary bearing is a line is the horizontal angle which it
makes with any arbitrary meridian a theodolite is used to measure.
Systems of bearing:
There are two types of bearing system
1. Whole circle bearing system (W.C.B) or azimuthal system
In this system the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north (or with
south) is clock wise direction. the value of the bearing thus varies from
00-3600. Prismatic compass is graduated on this system.

From figure
This WCB of AB = 1, of AC is 2 of AD = 3 of AF = 4
2. The Quadrantal bearing system: (Reduced bearings)
In this system the Bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward from
north or south whichever is nearer. The direction can be either clock wise or
anticlockwise depending upon the position of the line. By surveyors
compass. This system can be observed.

The QB of line AB is and is written as NE, the bearing is measured

W.R.T, north meridian (since it is nearer) towards east.
Conversion of bearing from one system to the others:
Conversion from WCB to RB
Line

WCB

Rule For R.B

Quadrat

AB
AC
AD

BETWEEN
0 and 900
900 and 1800
1800 and 2700

RB = WCB
RB = 1800 WEB
RB = WCB 180o

NE
SE
SW

AF
2700 and 3600
Conversion from RB to WCB
Line
AB
AC
AD
AF

RB
NE
SE
SW
N W

RB = 3600 WCB
Rule For ECB
WCB = RB
WEB= 1800 RB
WCB= 180o+RB
WCB= 3600 RB

NW
WCB BETWEEN
0 and 900
900 and 1800
1800 and 2700
2700 and 3600

Fore bearing (FB) and back bearing (BB):

The bearing of a line whether expressed in WCB or in QB system, differs
according to the observation is made from one end of the line or from the other.
Eg: if the bearing of a line AB is measured from A towards B, if is known as fore
bearing as forward bearing. If the bearing of the line AB is measured from B
towards A, it is known as back bearing or backward bearing.

In the WCB system the back bearing of a line many be obtained from the fore
bearing by
BB= FB 1800
Use + sign if the given fore bearing is less than 180 0 and use - sign is
exceeds 1800.
In QB system the FB and BB are numerically equal but with opposite letters.
The BB of a line may therefore obtained by simple substuting N for S and S for N
and E for W and W for E. thus, if the fore bearing of line CD is N40 0251E the back
bearing of CD is S400 251W.
Examples:

I)
Convert the following WCB to QB
0
1. 68 321 -WCB ----- N 680 321 E QB
2. 1320121 -WCB
QB = 180 WCB
= 180 1320121 = 470481
QB = S470481E
3. 2360371
QB = WCB 180
QB = 2360371 180 = 560371
QB = 5560371W
4. 3340521
QB=360 WCB
= 360 3340521 = 25081
QB = N 25081W
II)
Convert the following RB in WCB
a) N360161 E 360161
b) S280141E 1510461
c) S 470281W 2270261
d) N580241W 360-580241=3010361
III)
The following are absorbed for bearing AB 38 0141; BC, 1420181; CD,
2080371; and DE, 3180261 find there BB
Solution:
FB of AB = 380141
BB of AB = 380141 + 180 = 2180141
FB of BC = 1420181
BB of AB = 180 + 1400181 = 3320181
FB of CD = 2080371
BB of AB = 2080371 180 = 280371
FB of DE = 31800261
BB of DE = 3180261 180 = 1380261
IV) The fore bearing of line are as follows AB, N32 0121E; CD, S260301W
find their BB
FB
AB N320121E
CD S260301W
Calculation of angles from bearing:

BB
S320121W
N260301E

Case I: when the bearing of two lines measured from the point of intersection of
the line are given
Rule FB of one line FB of other

Case II: when bearing of 2 lines are given

= (180 + ) -
1
2
= BB of previous line FB of next line

Problem:
Following bearing were observed with a compass calculate the interior angles.
Line
FB
AB
600301
BC
122001
CD
46001
DE
2050301
EA
300001
Included angle = bearing of previous line Bearing of next line
Angle A= Bearing of AE-Bearing of AB

= (3000-1800) 600301=590301
Angle B = Bearing of BA Bearing of BC
= (60o301 + 1800) 122o = 1180301
Angle C = Bearing of CB Bearing of CD
= (172o + 1800) -46o =2560
Angle D = Bearing of DC Bearing of DE
= (46o +180) 2050301
Angle E = Bearing of FD Bearing of EA
=(2050201 1800) -300o +3600 = 850301
Sum of all angles = 540000
Check: (2n-4)900
= (10-4) 90
= 5400
3. The bearing of the sides of a traverse ABCDE are as follows.
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA

FB
1070151
22001
2810301
1890151
1240451

Compute the interior angles of the traverse.

Bearing of AE = BB of EA = 3040451
FB of AB = 1070151
= 1970301 Exterior angle
Angle A = 3600 1970301 = 162o301
Bearing of BA = BB of AB = 2870151
FB of BC = 22001
=2650151 Exterior angle
Angle B = 3600-2650151= 940451
Bearing of CB = BB of BC = 202001
FB of CD = 2810301
= 790301 = Interior angle
Angle C = 790301
Bearing of DC = BB of CD = 1010301
FB of DF = 1890151
870451 interior angle
Angle D = 870451
Bearing of FD = BB of DE = 9o51

BB
2870151
202001
1010301
90151
3040451

FB of EA = 1240451
1150301 interior angle
Angle E = DEA = 1150301
Check
Sum of angles = 5400 and (2n-4) 90=540
3.The following interior angles were measured with a sextant in a closed traverse.
The bearing of the line AB was measured as 600 with a prismatic compass.
Calculate the bearing of all other line if A = 140 0101 B=90081, C=600221,
D=699201
Note: To find the bearing of a line, add the measured clockwise angle to that
bearing of the previous line. If the sum is more than 180 0, deduct 1800. If is sum
is less than 1800, add 1800. clockwise angle will be obtained if we proceed in
the anticlockwise direction round the traverse.
Starting with A---- D, C, B
Bearing of AD = bearing of BA + 1400101-1800
= (180 + 60) + 1400101 180
= 200010
Bearing of DC = bearing of AD + 690201 1800
= 2000101 + 690201 -1800
= 890301
Bearing of CB = Bearing of DC + 600201 + 1800
= 890301 + 600201 - 1800
= 3290521
Bearing of BA = bearing of CB + 90081 - 180
= 3290521 + 90081 180
= 2400
Then
Bearing of AB = 2400 1800 = 600 (Check)
Assignment:
Determine the value of included angle in the closed compass traverse ABCD
conducted is the clockwise direction, given the following fore bearing of their
respective line and apply the check.

Line
AB
BC
CD
DA

FB
400
700
2100
2800

The prismatic compass:

The prismatic compass is the most convenient and portable form of magnetic
compass which can either be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod.
The magnetic needle is attached to the circular ring made of aluminum a nonmagnetic substance. When the needle is on the rivet, it will orient itself. In the
magnetic meridian and therefore the north and south ends of the ring will be in this
direction the line of sight is defined by the object vane and the eye slit, both
attached to the compass box, the object vane consist of vertical hair attached to a
suitable frame while the eye slit consist of a vertical slit cut into the upper
assembly of the prism unit. Both being hinged to the box. When an object is
sighted, the sight vanes will rotate W.R.T the N-S end of ring through an angle
which the two line makes with the magnetic meridian. A triangular prism in fitted
below the eye slit, having suitable arrangement for focusing to suit different eye
sights. The 00 or 3600 reading is engraved on the south end of the ring. So that
bearing of the magnetic meridians read as 00.
The reading increases in clockwise direction from 0 0 at south end to 900 at
west end, 1800 at north end and 2700 at east end.
The greatest advantage of prismatic compass is that both sighting the object
as well as the reading circle can be done. Simultaneously without changing the
position of eye.
Adjustment of prismatic compass
a) Temporary adjustments
b) Permanent adjustment s

Temporary adjustment: Temporary adjustment are those adjustment which have

to be made at every set up of the instrument.
1. Centering: Centering is the process of keeping the instrument exactly over
the station. Ordinary prismatic compass is not provided with fine centering
device as it is generally fitted to engineers theodolite. The centering is
invariable done by adjusting the legs of the tripod. A plumb bob may be used
to Judge the centering and if it is not available, it may be judge by dropping
a pebble from the center of the bottom of the instrument
2. Leveling: If the instrument is a hand instrument it must be held in hand in
such a way that graduated disc is swinging freely and appears to be level.
Generally a tripod is provided with ball and socket arrangement with the
help of which the tap of the box can he levelled.
3. Focusing the prism: The prism attachment is slided up or down for focusing
till the reading are seen to the sharp and clear.
The surveyors compass:
In surveyors compass the graduated ring is directly attached to the box and not
with needle. The needle freely floats over the pivot thus the graduated ring is not
oriented in the magnetic meridian.
The object vane is similar to that of prismatic compass. The eye vane consist of a
simple metal vane with fine slit. The objects is to be sighted first and the reading is
then taken against the north end of the needle, by looking vertically through the top
glass.
When the line of sight is in magnetic meridian the north and south ends of the
needle will be over 00 N and 00 S graduations of the graduated card. The card is
graduated in quadrantal system having 00 at N and S end and 90 0 at east and west
ends.
Magnetic Declaration:
Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between the true
meridian and the magnetic meridian shown by the needle at the time of
observation.

If the magnetic meridian is to the right side or eastern side of the true meridian,
declination is said to be eastern or +ve. If is to be the left side or western side the
declination is said to be western or ve

The lines drawn through the points of same declination are called isogonic line.
The line made up of points having zero declination are called agonic line.

Example:
1. The magnetic bearing of a line AB is S320E and the magnetic declination is
80161E what is the true bearing of a line.
True bearing of AB = magnetic bearing AB declination
Convert given QB to WEB
WCB of AB = 180-32=1480
True bearing of AB = 1480+8o161 = 1560161
In QB = S230441E
Local attraction:
A magnetic meridian at a place is established by a magnetic needle which is
uninfluenced by other attracting forces. However, sometimes the magnetic needle
may the attracted and prevented from indicating the true magnetic meridian.
Local attraction is a term used to denote any inference, such as the attracting
forces, which prevents the needle from pointing to the magnetic north is given
locality.
Detection of local attraction:

The local attracting at a particular place can be detected by observing the fore and
back bearing of each line and finding the difference. If the difference between fore
and back bearing in 1800, it may the taken that both the station are free from local
attraction, provided there are no observational and instrumental error.
Elimination of local attraction:
First method:
In the first method true included angle at the affected stations are computed from
the observed bearing. Commencing from the in unaffected line and using these
included angles, the correct bearing of the successive lines are competed.
Example: The observed bearing of a lines AB, BC, CD and DA are
Line
AB
BC
CD
DA

FB
460101
1190201
1690301
2800201

BB
2260101
2980401
3510101
990201

Solution:
Difference for BB and FB of line AB = 2260101 460101 =1800
A and B are free from local attraction
A = Bearing of AD Bearing of AB = 990201 460101 = 530101
B = Bearing of BA Bearing of BC = 2260101 1190201 = 1060501
Similarly C = 1290101, D = 700501
Check A + B + C + D = 3600
Commencing from the unaffected line AB. The correct bearings of the other lines
may be calculated.
Bearing AD = Bearing of BA + 530101 = 2260101 + 530101 180 = 990201
Bearing of DC = Bearing of AD + D = 990201 + 700501 + 180 = 3500101
Bearing of CB = Bearing of DC + C = 3500101 + 1290101 1800 = 2990201
Bearing of BA = Bearing of CB + B = 2990201 + 1060501 1800 = 22600101
Corrected bearings are:
Line
AB
BC
CD

FB
460101
1190201
1700101

BB
2260101
2990201
3500101

2790201

DA

990201

2. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse.

Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA

FB
1910151
1200451
349051
3390351
2960001

BB
10051
3000451
690000
1600401
1150001

Calculate the interior angles and correct them for observational errors. Taking the
bearing of BC as correct, find the corrected bearing of the remaining side.
Solution:
The difference between the FB of next line and BB of previous line will gives the
angle
A = FB of AB BB of EA = 1910151 1150 = 760151
B = FB of BC BB of AB = 1200451 100151 = 1100301
C = FB of CD = BB of BC = 349051 - 3000451 = 480201
D = FB of DE BB of CD = 3390351 1690001 = 1700351
E = FB of EA BB of DE = 296001 1600401 = 1350201
Total = 5410001
Then by (2n-4) x 90 = (2x5-4) x 90 = 5400
The discrepancy = 5410 5400 = +10
Distributing error equally among 5 angles
A = 760151 121 = 76031
B = 1100301 121 = 1100181
C = 480201 121 = 48081
D = 1700351 121 = 1700231
E = 1350201 121 = 135081
5400001
Starts from the correct BB of BC
Calculate as before
2nd method: It is in most common use the included angles are not computed but
the amount and direction of error due to local attraction at each of the affected
station is found starting from bearing unaffected by local attraction, the bearing of

the successive lines are adjusted by applying the correction to the observed
bearing.
Example:
The following bearing were are observed while traversing with a compass
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE

Line

Observed

AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
DE
ED

bearing
450451
2260101
960551
277051
290451
2090101
3240481
1440481

FB
450451
960551
290451
3240481

Correction

0 at A
251at B
251at B
351at C
351 at C
0 at D
0 at D
0 at E

BB
2260101
277051
2090101
1440481

Corrected

Remark

450451
2250451
960301
2760301
290101
2090101
3240481
1440481

Station B and C
are affected
Local attraction

3. The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse

Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA

FB
75051
1150201
1650351
2240501
3040501

BB
2540201
2960351
3450351
44051
125051

At what station do you served the local attraction? Determine the correct magnetic
bearing. If declination was 50101E, what are the true bearings?
Line

Observed
bearing

Correction

Corrected

+50101E ---

Bearing

bearing

Remark

AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
DE
ED
EA
AE

75051
2540201
1150201
2960351
1650351
3450351
2240501
44051
3040501
125051

+00301
+10151
+10151
O at C
O at C
O at D
O at D
+ O0451
+ O0451
+ O0301

750351
2550351
1160351
2960351
1650351
3450351
2240501
440501
3050351
1250351

800451
260451
1210451
3010451
1700451
3500451
230001
50001
3100451
1300451

Station A,
B and E
are
affected
by local
Attraction

4. Assignment: The following fore and back bearing were observed in

traversing with compass. Where LA was suspected?
Line
FB
BB
0
1
AB
38 30
2190151
BC
1000451
2780301
Cd
250451
2070151
DE
3250151
145015
Find the corrected fore and back bearings and the true bearing of each of the lines
given that the magnetic declination was 100W.
Co-ordinate method of platting for a froverse survey.
If the length and bearing of a survey line are known, it can be represented on
plane by 2 rectangles co-ordinates. The axis of the co-ordinates are the north and
south line and east and west line.
The latitude of survey line many be defined as its co-ordinate length
measured parallel to the meridian direction.
The departure of the survey line may be defined as its co-ordinates length
measured at perpendicular to the meridian direction.

In fig the length of the line OA is given by l 1 and bearing of line OA is 1 then
latitude L1 = +l1 cos 1 and
D1 = l1 sin 1
WCB
0 to 90

900 to 1800
1800 to 2700
2700 to 3600

RB and
Quadrent
NE I
S E II
SW

III

Sign of
Latitude
Departure
+
+
-

N W IV
Omitted measurements:
In order to have a check on field work and in order to balance a traverse the length
and direction of each line is generally measured in the field.
Sometimes when it is not possible to take all measurements due to obstacles or
because of some over sights such omitted measurement or missing quantities can

be calculated by latitudes and departure provided the quantities required are not
more than two.
For closed traverse L and D are Zero
L = l1 cos 1 + l2 cos 2 + 13 cos 3 +.. = 0
ED = l1 sin 1 + l2 sin 2 + l3 sin 3 + . = 0
Where l1, l2, l3. Are length of line and 1, 2, 3.. are reduced
bearings.

Given
l1 ,

Required
l

Formula
l = l cas

l,

D = l sin

L1, D

Tan

Tan = D/L

L1,

l = L sec

D1,

l = D cosec

L1, l

Cas

Cos = L/l

D1,l

Sin

Sin = D/l

L, D

l=

D 2 + L2

Cases of omitted measurement

Case I: Bearing or length or bearing and length of one side omitted

To calculate, bearing or length or bearing and length of line EA

Calculate L1 and D1 of the four known sides AB, BC, CD, DE then
L = Latitude of EA + L1 = 0
ED = Departure of EA + D1 = 0
Departure of EA = -D1
Knowing the latitude and departure of the line EA the length and bearing are
calculated
Case II: Length of one side and bears of another side omitted.

Let the length of DE and Bearing of EA be omitted join DA which become the
closing line of the traverse ABCD is which all quantities are known.
Now Length and bearing can be calculated as in first case.
In ADE, the length of sides DA and EA are known and angle ADE is known. The
angle and length DE can be calculated.

Sin B =
DE =

DA
EA

sin and =180 - (B + )

EA sin
sin

= DA

sin
sin B

Knowing , the bearing of EA can be calculated

Case III:Length of two sides omitted:

Length DE and EA be omitted the length and bearing of the closing line can be
calculated by the 1st case. The angle

can be calculated by knowing

bearing, length of DE of EA can be computed by DEA

DE =

sin
sin

sin

EA = sin

x DA
x DA

Problems:
1. The table below gives the length and bearing of the line of a traverse
ABCDE and the length and bearing of EA having been omitted. Calculate
the length and bearing of the line EA.
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA

Length
204.0
226.0
187.0
192.0
?

Bearing
870301
200201
280001
2100301
?

The latitude and departure of lines AB, BC, CD, DE are calculated as under.
Latitude
+
8.9
211.92
32.48
165.44
253.3
165.44

Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
Sum

Departure
+
203.80
78.52
184.16
97.44
282.32
281.60

L1 = +87.86
D1 = +0.72
Latitude of EA = -L1 = -87.86m
Departure EA = -D1 = -0.72m
Since the latitude and departure of line EA is ve
The line in the S- W quadrant the reduced bearing of EA is given by
Tan =

D
L

0.72
0
87.86 = 0 281

Bearingof EA= S 0o281= 1800281

lat

87.86

Also length of EA = caso = cas o o 281 = 87.85m

2. A closed traverse was conducted round an obstacle and the following
observations were made work out the missing quantity
Side
AB
BC
CD
DE
EA

Length (M)
500
620
468
?
?

Azimuth
980301
300201
2980301
230001
1500101

Solution: The latitude and departure of closing line DA is calculated as below.

Line
AB
BC

Latitude
+
535.11

73.91

departure
+
494.5
313.11

CD
Sum

223.45
758.56
73.91
1
L +684.55

411.29
807.61
411.29
1
D = 396.32

Latitude of DA = - 684.55
SW

Departure of DA = - 396.32
of DA is given by
Tan =

D
L

396.32

= 684.55 =

= 30041
Bearing DA = S 30041 W or 2100041
Length of DA = l = L sec = 684.55 sec 30041 = 791.01m
From figure ADE = = 230001 210041 = 19056
DEA =

= 1500101 (2300-180) = 1000101

DAE = 1800 (190561 1000101) = 590541

From ADE using sine rule we get
sin

DE = DA sin

= 695.27m

sin
sin

= 273.99m

EA = DA

Errors in compass survey:

The errors may be classified as
a) Instrumental error
1. The needle not being perfectly straight
2. Pivot being bent
3. Sluggish needle
4. blunt pivot point
5. Improper balancing weight
6. Plane of sight not being vertical
7. Line of sight not passing through the center of the sight
b) Personal errors:
1. Inaccurate leveling of the compass box
2. Inaccurate centering

3. Inaccurate bisection of signals

4. Carelessness is reading and recording
c) Natural errors:
1. Variation of dedication
2. Local affection
3. Magnetic changes in atmosphere due to clouds and storms etc.
Graphical method of adjusting compass traverse:
For a rough survey such as compass traverse the Bowditch rule may be applied
graphically. According to the graphical method, it is not necessary to calculate
latitude and departure etc. before plotting the traverse directly from the field notes,
the angle or bearing may be adjusted to satisfy the geometric condition of the
traverse.

In fig (a) polygon A B1 C1 D1 E1 A1 an unbalanced traverse having a closing error

equal to A1A. The total closing error A1A is distributed linearly to all the sides in
proportion to their length by a graphical construction shown in fig (b).
In fig (b) AB1, B1C1, C1D1, D1E1 etc. represents the length of the sides of the
traverse either to the same scale as that of fig (a) or to a reduced scale. The ordinate
aA1 is made equal to closing error A1A, by constructing similar triangle
corresponding error bB1, cC1, dD1, eE1 are found. In fig (a), lines E 1E, D1D, C1C,
B1B are drawn parallel to the closing error A1A and made equal to eE1, dD1, cC1,

bB1 respectively. The polygon ABCDE thus obtained represents the adjusted
traverse. It should note that the ordinates bB1, cC1, eE1, aA1 in fig (b) represents the
corresponding error in magnitude only but not in direction.