Hydrology

Hydrology
Hydrology is the branch of earth science in which
deals with occurrences, circulation and distribution of
water o the earth and earths atmosphere.
world water resources:1.36*10^8 M-Ha-m

97.2 % salt water

2.2 % surface water

2.15 % glaciers

2.8 % fresh w

0.6 % ground water

0.05 % in lakes and river

Hydrological cycle

2.1 Introduction
All forms of water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere is called Precipitation.
The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail,
dew. Of all these, the first two contribute
significant amounts of water.
Rainfall being the predominant form of
precipitation causing stream flow, especially the
flood flow in majority of rivers. Thus, in this
context, rainfall is used synonymously with
precipitation.

Introduction.
Types of precipitation
Rain, snow, hail, drizzle, glaze, sleet

Rain:
Is precipitation in the form of water drops of size
larger than 0.5 mm to 6mm
The rainfall is classified in to
Light rain if intensity is trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate if intensity is 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
Heavy rain above 7.5 mm/hr

Introduction.
Snow:
Snow is formed from ice crystal masses, which
usually combine to form flakes

Hail (violent thunderstorm)

precipitation in the form of small balls or lumps
usually consisting of concentric layers of clear
ice and compact snow.
Hail varies from 0.5 to 8 cm in diameter and can
be damaging crops and small buildings.

Types of precipitation

Convectional precipitation
Frontal precipitation
Orthographic precipitation
Cyclonic precipitation

Convectional precipitation- it is also known as

thermal convection. The air close to the warm earth
gets heated and rises due to its low density, cools
adiabatically to form a cauliflower shaped cloud,
which finally bursts into a thunder storm. When
accompanied by destructive winds

Frontal precipitation
When two air masses due to contrasting temperatures
and densities clash with each other, condensation and
precipitation occur at the surface of contact.
This surface of contact is called a front or frontal
surface. If a cold air mass drives out a warm air mass
it is called a cold front
if a warm air mass replaces the retreating cold air mass,
it is called a warm front
if the two air masses are drawn simultaneously towards
a low pressure area, the front developed is stationary
and is called a stationary front

 Cold front causes intense precipitation on

comparatively small areas, while the precipitation due
to warm front is less intense but is spread over a
comparatively larger area. Cold fronts move faster than
warm fronts and usually overtake them, the frontal
surfaces of cold and warm air sliding against each other

Orthographic precipitation
The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain
barriers, causes heavy precipitation on the windward
side.

For example Cherrapunji in the Himalayan range and

western Ghats
Cause very heavy orographic precipitation up to
1250 cm

Cyclonic precipitation
This type of precipitation is due to lifting of moist air
converging into a low pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure
differences created by the unequal heating of the earths
surface.
the winds blow spirally inward counterclockwise in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
There are two main types of cyclonestropical cyclone
(also called hurricane or typhoon) of comparatively small
diameter of 300-1500 km causing high wind velocity and
heavy precipitation,
the extra-tropical cyclone of large diameter up to 3000
km.

2.2 Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

Rainfall varies greatly both in time and
space
With respect to time temporal variation

With space Spatial variation

Temporal Variation of rainfall at a particular site

Rainfall Intensity, cm/hr

Total Rainfall amount = 6.17 cm

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

Time, min

100

120

140

2.3. Measurement of Rainfall

Rainfall and other forms of precipitation are
measured in terms of depth, the values being
expressed in millimeters.
One millimeter of precipitation represents the
quantity of water needed to cover the land with a
1mm layer of water, taking into account that
nothing is lost through drainage, evaporation or
absorption.
Instrument used to collect and measure the
precipitation is called raingauge.

Rainfall measurement

Precipitation gauge
1 - pole
2 - collector
3 - support- galvanized
metal sheet
4 funnel
5 - steel ring

1. Non recording gauge

Symons rain gauge

Symons raingauge

2. Recording gauge / graphic raingauge

The instrument records the graphical
variation of the fallen precipitation, the total
fallen quantity in a certain time interval and
the intensity of the rainfall (mm/hour).
Types
Tipping bucket type raigauge
Weighting type rain gauge type
Float type rain gauge

Tipping bucket type

This consists of a cylindrical receiver 30 cm diameter
with a funnel inside. Just below the funnel a pair of
tipping buckets is pivoted such that when one of the
bucket receives a rainfall of 0.25 mm it tips and empties
into a tank below, while the other bucket takes its
position and the process is repeated.

Tipping bucket
The tipping of the bucket actuates on electric circuit
which causes a pen to move on a chart wrapped
round a drum which revolves by a clock
mechanism. This type cannot record snow

Weighting type rain gauge type

In this type of rain-gauge, when a certain weight of
rainfall is collected in a tank, which rests on a springlever balance, it makes a pen to move on a chart
wrapped round a clock driven drum The rotation of
the drum sets the time scale while the vertical motion
of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.

Float type rain gauge

In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber,
the float moves up which makes a pen to move on a
chart wrapped round a clock driven drum When the
float chamber fills up, the water siphons out
automatically through a siphon tube kept in an
interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork
revolves the drum once in 24 hours.
The clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a
week when the chart wrapped round the drum is also
replaced. This type of gauge is used by IMD.

Float type rain gauge

4. Radar measurement of rainfall

The meteorological radar is the powerful instrument
for measuring the area extent, location and
movement of rainstorm.
The amount of rainfall overlarge area can be
determined through the radar with a good degree of
accuracy
The radar emits a regular succession of pulse of
electromagnetic radiation in a narrow beam so that
when the raindrops intercept a radar beam, its
intensity can easily be known.

Raingauge Network
Since the catching area of the raingauge is
very small as compared to the areal extent
of the storm, to get representative picture of
a storm over a catchment the number of
raingauges should be as large as possible,
i.e. the catchment area per gauge should
be small.
There are several factors to be considered
to restrict the number of gauge:
Like economic considerations to a large extent
Topographic & accessibility to some extent.

Raingauge Network..

World
Meteorological
recommendation:

Organization

(WMO)

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical

zones
Ideal 1 station for 600 900 km2
Acceptable 1 station for 900 3000 km2

In mountainous regions of temperate , Mediterranean and

tropical zones
Ideal 1 station for 100 250 km2
Acceptable 1 station for 250 1000 km2

In arid and polar zone

1 station for 1500 10,000 km2

10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to

know the intensity of the rainfall

2.4 Preparation of Data

Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to check
the data for continuing and consistency
Missing data
Record errors

Estimation of Missing Data

Given annual precipitation values P1, P2, P3, Pm at
neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m respectively
The normal annual precipitation given by N1, N2, N3,, Nm,
Ni (including station X)
To find the missing precipitation, Px , of station X

Nx
Px
M

P1
Pm
P2
...

Nm
N1 N 2

Test for consistency record

(Double mass curve techniques)

Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighbourhood of

the problem station X is selected
Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the
neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order (from
recent to old record)
Accumulate the precipitation of station X Px and the
average values of the group base stations Pavg starting
from the latest record.
Plot the Px against Pavg as shown on the next figure
A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed
that indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e
inconsistency.
Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shon on the
next slide

Double Mass Curve Analysis

Test for consistency record.

accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm

5
4.5
4
3.5

Mc c

Ma a

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm

M
Pcx Px
M

Pcx corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at stationX

c P Original recorded precp. at time period t at station X
x
1
Mc corrected slope of the double mass curve
a
Ma original slope of the mass curve

2.5 Mean Precipitation over an area

Raingauges rainfall represent only point sampling
of the areal distribution of a storm
The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is a
rainfall over an area, such as over the catchment
To convert the point rainfall values at various
stations to in to average value over a catchment,
the following methods are used:
arithmetic mean
the method of the Thiessen polygons
the isohyets method

Arithmetic Mean Method

When the area is physically and climatically

homogenous and the required accuracy is small,
the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can be
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the hi values
recorded at various stations.
Applicable rarely for practical purpose

P1 P2 ..... Pi .....Pn
1 N
P

Pi

N
N i 1

Method of Thiessen polygons

The method of Thiessen polygons consists of

attributing to each station an influence zone in
which it is considered that the rainfall is equivalent
to that of the station.
The influence zones are represented by convex
polygons.
These polygons are obtained using the mediators
of the segments which link each station to the
closest neighbouring stations

Thiessen polygons .

Thiessen polygons .
P7

P6

A7
A6

P2
A2

A1

A8

P1

P8

A5

P5
A3

A4

P3

P4

Thiessen polygons .

P1 A1 P2 A2 ..... Pm Am
P
A1 A2 ..... Am
Generally for M station
M

Ai
The ratio
A

PA
i 1

Atotal

Ai
Pi

A
i 1

is called the weightage factor of station i

Isohyetal Method

An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall

10.0
magnitude.
8
6

D
a5
12

C
9.2

12
a4

a3

7.0

7.2
A
a2
4.0
F

E
9.1

a1

8
4

10.0

Isohyetal Method
P1, P2, P3, . , Pn the values of the isohytes
a1, a2, a3, ., a4 are the inter isohytes area respectively
A the total catchment area
P - the mean precipitation over the catchment

P2 P3
Pn1 Pn
P1 P2
a1
... an1

a2
2
2
2

P
A
NOTE

The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods

especially when the stations are large in number.

IDF .

Hyetograph

- is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted in

chronological order

Hyetograph of a storm
Total depth = 10.6 cm

Intensity, cm/hr

0.5

Duration = 46 hr

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
08

8 16

16 24

24 32

Time, hours

32 40

40 48