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10/14/2016

Stability of Structures
The selection of structural elements is based on three
characteristics: strength, stiffness, and stability.
The procedures of stress and deformation analyses in a
state of stable equilibrium were discussed already.
However, the structure is not necessarily stable even
though the stress is in the allowable range.
Some members, however, may be subjected to
compressive loadings, and if these members are long and
slender the loading may be large enough to cause the
member to deflect laterally or sidesway.

Columns

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Columns and Buckling

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Critical Load

Long slender members subjected to an axial compressive

The maximum axial load that

force are called columns, and the lateral deflection that

a column can support when it

occurs is called buckling. Quite often the buckling of a

is on the verge of buckling is

column can lead to a sudden and dramatic failure of a

called the critical load, .

structure or mechanism, and as a result, special attention

Any additional loading will

must be given to the design of columns so that they can

cause the column to buckle

safely support their intended loadings without buckling.

and therefore deflect laterally


as shown in Figure.

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Critical Load
In

order

to

Critical Load

better

this instability, consider a

consisting

mechanism
of

weightless

bars that are rigid and pin


connected

as

shown

in

figure.
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In order to better understand


the nature of this instability,
consider a two-bar mechanism
consisting of weightless bars
that are rigid and pin
connected as shown in figure.
When the bars are in the
vertical position, the spring,
having a stiffness k, is
unstretched, and a small
vertical force P is applied at
the top of one of the bars.

understand the nature of

two-bar

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Critical Load

Critical Load

We
can
upset
this
equilibrium position by
displacing the pin at A by a
small amount as shown in
figure. The spring will
produce a restoring force
= , while the applied
load P develops two
horizontal
components,
= , which tend to
push the pin (and the bars)
further out of equilibrium.
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Since is small,
2
and . Thus the
restoring
spring
force

becomes = , and the


2
disturbing force is 2 =
2.

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Critical Load

If the restoring force is smaller than the disturbing force,

then >
and the system is said to be in unstable
4
equilibrium as the the system will tend to move out of
equilibrium and not be restored to its original position.

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Stability of Equilibrium

If the restoring force is equal to the disturbing force, then

= . This load is referred as the critical load, . This


4
load represents a case of the mechanism being in neutral
equilibrium. Since is independent of the (small)
displacement of the bars, any slight disturbance given to the
mechanism will not cause it to move further out of
equilibrium, nor will it be restored to its original position.
Instead, the bars will remain in the deflected position.

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Euler Load for Columns


with Pinned Ends

Concept of stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium is easy


to visualize by considering a ball on a surface.

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Critical Load

If the restoring force is greater than the disturbing force,

then <
and the system is said to be in stable
4
equilibrium as the force developed in the spring is adequate
to restore the bars back to their vertical position.

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Consider
the
ideal
perfectly straight column
with pinned supports at
both ends as shown in
figure.
The least force at which a
buckled mode is possible
is the critical or Euler
buckling load.

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Euler Load for Columns


with Pinned Ends

Euler Load for Columns


with Pinned Ends

Assume the compressed column is displaced as shown in


the figure.
In this position, the bending moment according to the
beam sign convention is .
By substituting this value of moment into the deflection
equation, the differential equation becomes:
2/2 = / = (/)
Letting 2 = / and transposing gives
2/2 + 2 = 0
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Since, 2 = /, (/)2 =
Thus, = (22)/(2)
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Euler Load for Columns


with Pinned Ends

Thus, = (22)/(2)
These are eigenvalues for this problem.
However, since in stability problems, only the least value
of is of importance, must be taken as unity, and the
critical or Euler Load for an initially perfectly straight
elastic column with pinned ends becomes
= (2)/(2)
According to the previous equation of the deflection
equation, at the critical load, the equation of the buckled
elastic curve is
=
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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

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Euler Load for Columns


with Pinned Ends
The shape of this deflection
is shown in figure.
For the second, and third
mode of this deflection
equation is also shown in
the figure.
However, higher modes
have no meaning because
the primary model is most
critical.
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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints
Columns with fixed at one
end and pinned at the other

The procedure is very similar to the previously


discussed pinned ends restraints conditions.
The difference is different boundary conditions.

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This equation is of the same form as the one for


simple harmonic motion, and its solution is
= +
Boundary conditions
(0) = 0, () = 0
Then, = 0
Also, for the non-zero solution, =

Here the effect of unknown


end moment Mo and the
reactions must be considered
in setting up the differential
equation for the elastic curve
at the critical load:

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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

The homogeneous solution of


this differential equation is the
same as that given previously.
The particular solution, due to
the non-zero right side, is given
by dividing the term on that
side by 2.

= + (/)
2/2 = /
= [ + (1 /)]/
Letting, 2 = /, and transposing,

2/2

+ 2

Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

= (2/)(1 /)

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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints
The complete solution then becomes

= +
+ (/)(1 /)

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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints
Solving these equations
simultaneously, one obtains
= tan
The smallest which satisfies the
above equation is L = 4.493.

Boundary conditions,
(0) = 0, () = 0, (0) = 0

Then one obtains the critical load


= (20.19)/2
= (2.052)/2

(0) = 0 = + /
() = 0 = +
(0) = 0 = /
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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

Columns fixed on both ends


By similar procedure, it can be shown that
= (42)/2

Effective Column Length


The previously derived equations are similar, and can
be expressed in one equation using the effective
column length ():

Cantilever Columns
By similar procedure, it can be shown that
= (2)/(42)

= (2)/()2 = (2)/(2)
where, = 1 for pinned - pinned end conditions
= 0.7 for fixed - pinned end conditions
= 0.5 for fixed - fixed end conditions
= 2 for free standing columns

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Euler Loads for Columns with


Different End Restraints

Limitations of the Euler


Formulas
The elastic modulus E was used in the derivation of
the Euler formulas for columns.
Therefore all the reasoning presented earlier is
applicable while the material behavior remains
linearly elastic.
By this limitation, the previously derived buckling
equation can be rewritten in a different form using
the relationship = 2.

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Limitations of the Euler


Formulas

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Limitations of the Euler


Formulas

= (2)/(2) = (22)/(2)
= / = (2)/(/)2
where, / of the column length to the least radius of
gyration is called the column slenderness ratio.
Graphical Interpretation of Euler Formula
A graphical interpretation of the previous equation is
shown in the left screen.
Since the previous equation is based on the elastic
behavior of a material, determined by this equation
cannot exceed the proportional limit of a material.
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Limitations of the Euler


Formulas

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Example 1

Graphical Interpretation of Euler Formula


Therefore, the hyperbolas shown in the figure are drawn
dashed beyond the individual materials proportional limit,
and these portion of the curves cannot be used.
Also, note that a precise definition of a long column is now
possible with the aid of this figure.

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Find the shortest length L for a steel column with pinned


ends having a cross-sectional area of 60 by 100 mm, for
which the elastic Euler formula applies.
Let E = 200 GPa and assume the proportional limit to be
250 MPa.

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10/14/2016

Example 1

Example 1

Find the shortest length L for a steel column with pinned


ends having a cross-sectional area of 60 by 100 mm, for
which the elastic Euler formula applies.
Let E = 200 GPa and assume the proportional limit to be
250 MPa.
Solution:
= 100 603/12 = 1.8 106
= (/)0.5 = (3)0.5 10
Because of end conditions,
= , = (2)/(/)2
Solve for slenderness ratio (/) at the proportional limit.
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Example 2

Therefore, shortest length L which does not


cause the buckling of the column is 1.54 m.

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Example 2
By inspection, buckling will occur about the yy axis.

The A-36 steel member W8 31


shown in figure is to be used as a
pin-connected column.
Determine the largest axial load
it can support before it either
begins to buckle or the steel
yields.
Columns cross-sectional area
and moments of inertia are
= 9.13 2,
= 110 4,
= 37.1 4
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(/)2 = (2)/
= (2 200 103)/250 = 8002
(/) = 88.9
= 88.9 (3)0.5 10 = 1540

Since this stress exceeds the yield stress (36 ksi), the
load P is determined from simple compression:

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Example 3

Example 3

A W6 15 steel column is 24 ft long


and is fixed at its ends as shown in
figure. Its load-carrying capacity is
increased by bracing it about the yy
(weak) axis using struts that are
assumed to be pin connected to its
midheight. Determine the load it can
support so that the column does not
buckle nor the material exceed the
yield stress.
Take = 29 103 ksi and =
60 ksi.

The buckling behavior of the column will be different


about the xx and yy axes due to the bracing. The buckled
shape for each of these cases is shown in figures below.

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Example 3

Example 3

The effective length for buckling about the xx axis is


= 0.5 24 . = 12 . = 144 .
The effective length for buckling about the yy axis is
24
= 0.7 . = 8.40 . = 100.8 .
2

By comparison, buckling will occur about the yy axis.

Columns cross-sectional area and moments of inertia are


= 4.43 2,
= 29.1 4,
= 9.32 4

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Since this stress is less than the yield stress, buckling will
occur before the material yields. Therefore, =
263
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Example 3

Example 4

It can be seen that buckling will always occur about the


column axis having the largest slenderness ratio, since a
large slenderness ratio will give a small critical stress.
Thus, using the data for the radius of gyration from the
table in Appendix B, we have

The aluminum column is fixed at its


bottom and is braced at its top by
cables so as to prevent movement at
the top along the x axis as shown in
figure. If it is assumed to be fixed at
its base, determine the largest
allowable load P that can be applied.
Use a factor of safety for buckling of
F.S. = 3.0. Take = 70 ,
= 215 , = 7.5 103 2 ,
= 61.3 106 4 ,
= 23.2 106 4

Hence, yy axis buckling will occur, which is the same


conclusion reached by earlier calculations.
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Example 4

Example 4

Buckling about the x and y


axes is shown in figures.

the critical loads for each case are

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For xx axis buckling, K = 2,


= 2 5 = 10 .
For yy axis buckling, K =
0.7,
= 0.7 5 = 3.5 .

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Column will buckle about the xx axis. The allowable load


is therefore

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10/14/2016

Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula
Since no column is perfectly straight nor are the applied forces
perfectly concentric, behavior of real columns may be studied
with some imperfections or possible misalignment of the
applied loads. Also, there are situations where load is applied
at an eccentricity deliberately.
Therefore, an eccentrically loaded column can be studied and
its capacity determined on the basis of an allowable elastic
stress. This capacity will not be the ultimate capacity of the
column.

Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula
To analyze the behavior of an
eccentrically loaded column, consider the
column shown in figure.
Differential equation for the elastic curve
is the same as for concentrically loaded
column
2/2 = / = (/)
Again letting 2 = /, the general
solution is as before
= +

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Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

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Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

Boundary conditions

Maximum deflection will occur at


2

2 + =

= =

2
2
2
2

2
Largest bending moment M will be equal to
Maximum compressive stress will be

= +
= +

=
1 + 2

(0) = , () = ,
= 0
2
Using the boundary conditions,

2
= , =

2
=
+

2
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Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

But =

It can be noticed that there is a nonlinear relationship

/ =

/ 2 , hence,

between the load and the stress. Hence, the principle of

=
1 + 2

superposition does not apply, and therefore the loads


have to be added before the stress is determined.

This equation is known as the secant formula for the


columns.
In the secant formula, the radius of gyration r may not be
the minimum, since it is obtained from the value of I
associated with the axis around which bending occurs.
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Furthermore, due to this nonlinear relationship, any


factor of safety used for design purposes applies to the
load and not to the stress.
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10/14/2016

Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

For an allowable force acting on the column, where is

Application of secant formula is cumbersome as it involves


trail and error procedure. Alternatively, it can be studied
graphically, as shown in figure (next slide). From the
figure, it can be noted that load eccentricity has greater
effect on short columns and negligible effect on very
slender columns. These types of graphs form a suitable aid
in practical design. Secant formula covers whole range of
column lengths but the greatest handicap in using it is that
some eccentricity is to be assumed even for supposedly
straight columns.

the factor of safety, , must be substituted for in


secant formula and must be set at , yield point of
the material

= =


1 + 2

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Eccentric Loads and the Secant


Formula

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Example 5
A W8 40 A-36 steel column,
shown in figure, is fixed at its
base and braced at the top so that
it is fixed from displacement, yet
free to rotate about the yy axis.
Also, it can sway to the side in
the yz plane. Determine the
maximum eccentric load the
column can support before it
either begins to buckle or the
steel yields. = 11.7 2,
= 146 4, = 49.14
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Example 5

Example 5

From the support conditions it is seen that about the yy axis


the column behaves as if it were pinned at its top and fixed at
the bottom and subjected to an axial load P. About the xx
axis the column is free at the top and fixed at the bottom, and
it is subjected to both an axial load P and moment M = 9 P

yy Axis Buckling,
K = 0.7, = 0.7 12 = 8.4 . = 100.8 in.

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xx Axis Yielding,
K = 2, = 2 12 = 24 . = 288 in.
Using A = 11.7 in2, c = 8.25 in./2 = 4.125 in., rx = 3.53 in. and
applying secant formula
=

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1 + 2

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10/14/2016

Example 5
Substituting the data and simplifying yields
421.2 = 1 + 2.979sec(0.0700 )
Solving for by trial and error, noting that the argument for
the secant is in radians, we get
= 88.4
Since this value is less than
occur about the xx axis.

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= 1383 kip, failure will

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