1- Earth Interioir

Earth is the most beautiful planet in any Solar

System!!!!!

Geology is the study of the Earth, including

the materials that it is made of, the physical
and chemical changes that occur on its
surface and in its interior, and the history of
the planet and its life forms.

Prepared by: Dr. Mohamed Attwa

Email: attwa_m2@yahoo.com
Website: httb://http://zagazig.academia.edu/MohamedAttwa

Lecture1: Inside the Earth

Lecture 2: Groundwater

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Outlines
Introduction

Earths composition and density

How can we study/detect the Earth Interior?
Earths Structure
Crust, Mantle and Core
Earth's Internal Heat/Geothermal Gradient
Gravity and the Principle of Isostasy
Earths Magnetic Field/Core Composition Relationship

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Introduction
Drilling has reached a maximum depth of about 12 kilometers.
Earths internal heat is responsible for several phenomena,
such as volcanism, earthquakes, and moving plates.
Samples of rock from the deeper crust and mantle are
sometimes included as xenoliths in deep-seated intrusive that

moved along structural zones to the surface .

The average density for the planet of 5.52 g/cm3. The most of
Earths near-surface rocks have densities of 2.5 to 3.0 g/cm3.
The Earths interior must be denser than those near the

Fig. 1: Earths internal structure.

surface, the overall density would be less than 5.52 g/cm3.

Lecture1: Inside the Earth
Lecture 2: Groundwater

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Methods of Earths Interior Detection
Fortunately, the field of geophysicsthe application of the laws of physics to the dynamics of the

earthprovides compelling data that allow us to interpret how the inner earth is constructed. The
principal characteristics that geophysicists study are seismic waves, gravity, heat flow, magnetism, and
electrical conductivity.

Seismic Waves
Earthquakes focus, or hypocenter: the location
within Earths lithosphere where fracturing begins
that is, the point at which energy is first released.
The epicenter: the point on Earths surface
directly above the focus.

Fig. 2: Seismic wave fronts move out in all directions

from their source, earthquake focus.
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir

Methods of Earths Interior Detection

Seismic Waves

Seismic waves are produced by the energy released when an earthquake occurs. Body waves and
surface waves move outward in all directions from an earthquakes focus.
The two types of body waves are P-waves and S-waves. P-waves (primary waves) are the fastest
seismic waves. They move through all material and are compressional. S-waves (shear waves) are slower
than P-waves, travel only through solids, and move material perpendicular to their direction of travel.
Raleigh waves (R-waves) and Love waves (L-waves) are surface waves that are slower than either P- or
S-waves and travel along, or just below, Earths surface.
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir

Methods of Earths Interior Detection

Seismic Waves

Fig. 3: (left) Primary and Secondary Seismic Body Waves. (right) Rayleigh and Love
Seismic Surface.
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir

Methods of Earths Interior Detection

Seismic Waves
Seismic refraction: The direction of travel of a seismic
wave can be bent, or refracted, when it passes into or out of
different mediums.
Seismic reflection is the return of some of the energy
from seismic waves that have penetrated downward from
the surface, hit a rock boundary, and bounced back.

Fig. 4: Refraction and reflection of P-waves. Notice

that the only wave ray not refracted is the one
perpendicular to boundaries.

Fig. 5: Seismic Wave Velocities versus depth.

Several discontinuities are shown.
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Structure
A- The Crust
1- Continental crust is granitic, meaning that it has
an overall composition similar to granite, it has an
average density of 2.7 g/cm3, and it varies from 20
to 90 km thick.
2- Oceanic crust is made up of basalt and gabbro,
its density is 3.0 g/cm3, and it is only 5 to 10 km
thick.
3- The Moho, the boundary between Earths crust
and mantle, is present everywhere except beneath
spreading ridges.

Fig. 6: This discontinuitybetween the crust and

mantle (upper). Variations in P-wave velocity in the
upper mantle and transition zone (bottom).
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Structure
B- The Mantle
1- Earths mantle lies beneath the crust to a depth of
about 2900 km, >80% of Earths volume.
2- The mantle is made up of three partsthe upper
mantle, which includes the asthenosphere, a

transition zone, and the lower mantle.

3- At depths of 100 to 250 km, seismic wave velocity
decreases in the low-velocity zone. It corresponds
closely with the asthenosphere but is distinct in that
the asthenosphere is present everywhere but the Fig. 6: This discontinuitybetween the crust and
low-velocity zone is not.

mantle (upper). Variations in P-wave velocity in the

upper mantle and transition zone (bottom).
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Structure
C- The Core
1- Earths deep interior is made up of an inner
(solid) and an outer (liquid) core, both composed
largely of iron and nickel with several other
elements as well. Its density varies from 9.9 to 13

g/cm3.
2- Much of what scientists know about the core is
based on studies of the P- and S-wave shadow
zones, experimental evidence, and comparisons
with meteorites.

Fig. 6: This discontinuitybetween the crust and

mantle (upper). Variations in P-wave velocity in the
upper mantle and transition zone (bottom).
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Structure
C- The Core
1- Earths deep interior is made up of an inner (solid) and an outer (liquid) core, both composed largely of
iron and nickel with several other elements as well. Its density varies from 9.9 to 13 g/cm3.
2- Much of what scientists know about the core is based on studies of the P- and S-wave shadow zones,
experimental evidence, and comparisons with meteorites.
P-wave shadow zones: When P waves originate from an earthquake and encounter the core, they are
refracted inward . This refraction creates two areas on the opposite side of the earth where P waves are
not detected. Called P-wave shadow zones, these are the intervals on the surface between the last
unrefracted P wave and the first refracted P wave. Knowing how P waves behave allows the location and
shape of the core to be estimated from P-wave data.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Structure
C- The Core
S-wave shadow zones: S waves cannot penetrate the region of the core at all, creating an extensive Swave shadow zone across about half of the earth's surface. Since S waves can pass through only solid
material, it is very likely that at least the outermost core is liquid or molten.

Fig. 7: P-waves are refracted so that

no direct P-wave energy reaches the
surface in the P-wave shadow zone.

Fig. 8: The presence of an S-wave shadow

zone indicates that S-waves are being blocked
within Earth.
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earth's Internal Heat/Geothermal Gradient
Geothermal Gradient: Earths temperature increases with depth, its geothermal gradient averages
about 25C/km, but it is higher in areas of active or recently active volcanism.
The heat flow is the amount of heat from the earth's interior that is lost at the surface. The heat is
probably generated by a still-cooling core or by the radioactive decay of elements such as uranium and
thorium. Areas of higher heat flow are generally related to magmatic activity or tectonic forces that bring
wedges of hot mantle rock (mantle plumes) into thin or faulted crustal areas .
More than 70% of the total heat lost by Earth is lost through the seafloor, but heat-flow values for both
oceanic basins and continents decrease with increasing age.
The temperature at the coremantle boundary is estimated at 2500 to 5000C.
why the outer core is liquid whereas the inner core is solid???
Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Gravity and the Principle of Isostasy
Gravity: Gravitational attraction would be the same everywhere on the surface if Earth were perfectly
spherical, homogeneous throughout, and not rotating. As a consequence of rotation, however, a
centrifugal force is generated that partly counteracts the force of gravity, so an object at the equator
weighs slightly less than the same object would at the poles. The force of gravity also varies with
distance between the centers of masses, so an object would weigh slightly less above the surface than
if it were at sea level.
Fig. 9: (left) Earths gravitational
attraction pulls all objects toward its
center of mass. (rright) Earths
rotation generates a centrifugal
force that partly counteracts the
force of gravity. Centrifugal force is
zero at the poles and maximum at
the equator.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Gravity and the Principle of Isostasy
Gravity anomaly: Gravity measurements are higher over an iron ore deposit than over unconsolidated
sediment because of the ores greater density. Such departures from the expected force of gravity are
gravity anomalies. Positive and negative gravity anomalies are found where mass excesses and
deficiencies occur. Gravity surveys are useful in exploration for minerals and hydrocarbons.

Fig. 9: (left) Earths gravitational

attraction pulls all objects toward its
center of mass. (rright) Earths
rotation generates a centrifugal
force that partly counteracts the
force of gravity. Centrifugal force is
zero at the poles and maximum at
the equator.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Gravity and the Principle of Isostasy
Isostatic Equilibrium: Huge plates of crustal and upper mantle material (lithosphere) "float on more
dense, plastically flowing rocks of the asthenosphere . The "depth" to which a plate, or block of crust,
sinks is a function of its , weight and varies as the weight changes. This equilibrium, or balance, between
blocks of crust and the underlying mantle is called isostasy. The taller a block of crust is (such as a
mountainous region) , the deeper it penetrates into the mantle because of its greater mass and weight.
Isostasy occurs when each block settles into an equilibrium with the underlying mantle. Blocks of crust
that are separated by faults will "settle" at different elevations according to their relative Mass.

According to the principle of isostasy, Earths less dense crust floats in the denser mantle below.
Continental crust stands higher than oceanic crust because it is thicker and less dense.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Gravity and the Principle of Isostasy

Fig. 10: Principle of Isostasy.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Magnetic Field/Core Composition Relationship
Magnetism is a physical phenomenon resulting from the spin of electrons in some solids, particularly
those of iron, and moving electricity.
A magnetic field is an area in which magnetic substances, such as iron, are affected by lines of
magnetic force emanating from a magnet. Note that Earths magnetic field resembles on a large scale
the magnetic field around the magnet.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa

1- Earth Interioir
Earths Magnetic Field/Core Composition Relationship
Gravity depends on the masses of objects and the
distance between their centers of mass, whereas
magnetism results from moving electricity and the spin of
electrons in some solids. Furthermore, anything with
mass is affected by gravity, but only some substances are

magnetic.
The magnetic field is thought to be generated by the liquid
outer core. If this liquid material is metallic, as
geophysical studies suggest, its flow as a result of heat
convection would create an electric current,

Electric

currents induce magnetic fields.

Dr. Mohamed Attwa