lands and nerves.

It is composed of
several layers; the outside, called the epidermis, is not supplied with
blood vessels, and is produced by the under layers.
_The glands_ of the skin are first, those which secrete the
perspiration. This is poured out to keep the temperature of the body
even, also to rid the circulation of many injurious substances. Then
there are glands which secrete an oily matter which aids in preserving
the softness and pliability of the skin. These glands are called
sebaceous glands. Hair is said to be an appendage of the skin because
its texture is essentially similar to that of the cuticle. Nails, also,
are but modifications of the skin. The fact that the epidermis is being
constantly cast off and renewed, and that matter is both secreted and
excreted continually, renders frequent washing of the skin necessary to
health.
_Digestion_ In animals the arrangements which exist for converting
aliment into blood are more or less complicated according to the
requirements of each class; and this conversion is called assimilation,
a term which includes digestion and those changes which take place in
the blood and tissues, by which new material is added to them.
The preparation of the food for assimilation by the tissues is
accomplished in a long tube called the alimentary canal. This canal
is made up of various parts having different functions and different
construction. These parts we will briefly describe. They are the mouth,
pharynx, sophagus, stomach, small and large intestine.
As solid food requires to be broken up or ground before it passes
into the stomach, the mouth is provided with teeth firmly implanted
in the jaws, while the lower jaw is moved by strong muscles in two
directions, one vertical, the other lateral. Man is supplied with two
sets of teeth; the first adapted to the jaws of childhood; the second
larger, which replace the former, are designed to last through life.
The rudiments of each set are found in the jaws before birth. During
the grinding or mastication of the food it is moistened and softened by
a fluid called saliva. This also acts chemically upon it, changing the
starch into sugar. The food is carried from the mouth to the stomach in
a long tube called the sophagus, by means of the muscular contraction
of this tube.
_The stomach_ is a flask-shaped organ consisting of a double wall of
tissue, the outer one being muscular, the inner one vascular. This
latter membrane has a large supply of blood vessels, which convey the
blood out of which the gastric juice is manufactured and secreted by
the little glands of this membrane. The gastric juice is a fluid which
contains an active ingredient called pepsin. This, aided by the acid
which this fluid contains, effects a remarkable change on the albumen
of the food, making it a liquid. From the stomach the food passes into
the small intestine, where it receives from a small tube the pancreatic
juice which changes the fat into an emulsion.
_The intestine_ is a tube, about twenty-five feet in length, which,
like the stomach, has a double wall. Its inner coat contains multitudes
of little projections called villi. These contain blood vessels which
absorb and carry off the liquified food. It also secretes a fluid
called intestinal juice, which acts upon the unchanged starch, making
it into sugar. Its muscular wall by a continuous contraction produces a
motion known as the peristaltic motion, which carries the food onward
in its course. The intestine also receives the bile, a fluid produced

by the liver.
_The liver_ is the largest gland in the body. It receives the portal
vein which conveys the blood from the intestines. This vein, after
dividing and sub-dividing, thus bringing blood into communication with
all parts of this organ, is again collected into a main trunk which
passes on toward the heart. During its passage through the liver the
bile is eliminated from the blood by the little cells of which this
gland is composed. From the liver the bile is carried toward the
intestine, into which it is poured to assist in digesting the food, and
to be itself changed.
Besides the little blood vessels in the _villi_ of the intestines there
is another set of vessels called the lacteals, which aid in taking up
the digested food and pouring it into the circulation; also, throughout
the body a set of similar vessels collect the waste material and pour
it into the great veins, returning to the heart, in order that it may
be renovated or cast off; these are the lymphatics.
_The kidneys_ are great excretory organs, and are similar in shape to
those of a sheep, but are somewhat larger. They are glands, and excrete
urea, as well as other salts and waste materials, all of which are
highly poisonous if not removed from the blood.
_Blood_ is the life-giving fluid of the body: it is the source from
which all tissues are built, and it is the workman that carries the
waste material away from the tissues. In order to accomplish its work
it must circulate, and this requires a separate set of organs. First,
the impure blood must be carried back from the different parts of the
body; then it must be distributed again. It must also be made to flow
onward in a continuous current. Blood is a viscid fluid, of a red
color, containing over seventy per cent. water, with solid matter. Its
color differs on each side of the heart. When it returns from the body
it is blue, but when it leaves it is red. Under the microscope it is
seen to contain minute globules, or disk-like cells; to these the blood
owes its color. It possesses the remarkable property of spontaneous
coagulation when drawn from the veins. It is forced on by the heart.
_The heart_ is a muscle and consists of four cavities; two called
auricles having weak walls, and two ventricles with strong muscular
walls. The blood returning from the body is poured into the right
auricle, thence into the right ventricle; from this cavity it is forced
through the lungs and returns again to the heart, being poured into the
left auricle, which empties into the left ventricle. This ventricle
forces the blood throughout the body. The blood received by the heart
from the body is impure, and is sent to the lungs, where it gives up
part of its impurities and receives oxygen from the air.
_Arteries_ are those vessels that distribute the blood, while the
veins collect it and return it to the heart, thus all streams of blood
leaving the heart are conveyed in arteries, and those pouring into it
are carried in veins.
_The lungs_ are the organs that purify the blood, and in order that
this be thoroughly done, the blood is distributed throughout their
substance in minute capillary vessels. The lungs themselves are
vascular; being made up of a multitude of air cells, their surface
is greatly increased; hence their power of absorption. The diaphragm
is a muscular partition lying below the lungs. It is dome-shaped, and
when its fibers are shortened it enlarges the cavity in which the lungs

are situated. This creates a partial vacuum, causing the air to rush
into the lungs. The blood absorbs the oxygen from the air and gives up
carbonic acid gas. When the muscles of the diaphragm are relaxed the
elastic force of the air cells in the lungs expels the remaining gases
from the lungs. The diaphragm is assisted by the action of muscles
situated between the ribs; these lift the ribs and enlarge the cavity
of the thorax. The lungs also act as a reservoir for the air used in
the production of vocal sounds. They communicate with the atmosphere
by means of a tube called the trachea; this terminates in the pharynx,
with which the nostrils also communicate, thus completing a passage to
the outside air.
_The voice_ is produced by the modifications which the teeth, tongue,
lips and throat make upon the sound produced by the vocal cords. The
vocal cords are stretched across the upper end of the trachea, which is
called the larynx. The air from the lungs is forced past them, setting
them in vibration, thus producing sound.
_The nervous system_ consists first of all of the brain. This is
composed of nervous matter and constitutes the mass contained in the
skull. It is divided into three parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum,
and the medulla oblongata. These three parts seem to preside over
different functions. Thus, the cerebrum is the seat of the faculties of
the mind, while the cerebellum presides over the muscular actions. The
brain is connected with distant parts of the body by means of fibers
which are distributed to all parts. These fibers are of two kinds,
one set carrying the impressions to the brain, the other carrying the
stimulus from the brain to the organs. The former are called sensitive,
the latter motor nerves. A deep fissure separates the brain into two
lateral halves, and these parts are connected with opposite sides of
the body. Besides these nerves, which originate in the brain and pass
through the spinal cord, there are twelve pairs that pass directly
through the skull to the organs which they supply. These are called
cranial nerves, and are distributed to the eyes, the nose, the ears,
the larynx, the lungs, the face, stomach, etc. Ten of these pairs of
nerves originate in the medulla oblongata. Of the functions presided
over by these nerves may be mentioned those performed by the tongue,
(taste), eyes, ears, and nose.
Many of these nerves are not sensitive, in the ordinary use of the
word. Thus, the retina of the eye is the expansion of the optic nerve,
and, while it is sensitive to light, it is not to ordinary impressions,
such as material contact. Also, the nerve of the ear is only sensitive
to the vibrations of fluids. We see by light reflected from objects.
This light passes through a set of lenses, and by means of these an
image is formed on the retina, which impression is carried to the
brain. Just how all this is accomplished is not known. The nerve of the
ear floats in a fluid called lymph. This fluid receives the vibrations
of bodies through the air, through the membranes and chain of bones,
and thus the nerves receive and transmit them to the brain, which act
constitutes hearing.
Volumes could not tell all that one single fiber of muscle contains
that is instructive, much less the entire functions, constructions,
and mysteries of a single organ of special sense. And to perform all
the allotted functions every part must be in the best repair. This
constitutes health. Health is maintained by cleanliness, by repose,
by muscular activity, by moderate eating, by plenty of fresh air, by
a contented disposition, and a clear and active mind. Watch over your
body with a jealous care, for all your future depends upon its good

condition.

SUNDAY READINGS.
SELECTED BY THE REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D.
[_April 1._]
THE LAW OF THE HOUSEHOLD.
By E. A. WASHBURN, D.D.
Honor thy father and thy mother; that thy days may
be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth
thee. Exod. xx: 12.
We open this second division of the Law with the duties of man to man;
and at its head stands the commandment of the household. I must repeat
here the remark of eminent scholars, that each of the original tables
probably contained five statutes; and thus the maxim we now consider
was directly joined with the four concerning the worship of God. Such
a view gives us indeed a new insight into the Hebrew religion, which
linked the first of social truths with a divine faith; it is the
anticipation of his Gospel, who has taught us that the love of parent
and children is the type of our holier bond in the family of Christ.
But there is a yet further thought in the words of this commandment
with promise. That thy days maybe long in the land. Those earlier
commandments tower above us like the lonely heights, whe