Chap 22

darwinian view of life

A. 3 key of chap :
1.

the Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by

unchanging species.

2. descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the
unity and diversity of life
3. evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
Darwin great contribution :
a. Mechanism for evo
b. NS
c. Differential reproductive success of ind within a popn based on how well
those ind are adapted to their envir
d. A processs in which organisms with certain phenotypic chara are more
likely to survive and reproduce than are org with other charac
- 2 definitions of EVOLUTION
A. a change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation.
B. descent with modification
1. evolution pattern : the pattern of evolutionary change is revealed by data from a range of
scientific disciplines (bio,chem,phy)
1. evolution process : consist of evolutions of mechanisms that produce the observed pattern of
change. (natural causes)
1. Scala Naturae : a scale were every life-forms could be arranged on a ladder.
-Lamarck mechanisms : 1) use and disuse ;the idea that parts of the body that are used
extebsuvely becom larger and stronger. While those who are not deteriorate.
2) Inheritance of acquired characteristics: organism could pass modification to the next
generation
Lamarcks thoughts : 1) evolution happens because organisms have aninnate drive to
become more complex
Cuvier denied that species ever evolve
Concept: Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of
organisms and the unity and diversity of life
ADAPTAION : base on NS, individuals that have certain inherited traits that help them in
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their survival depending on the region they are, tend to live and reproduce at higher rates
As a descendants of that ancestral organism who lived in different habitats, give them
diverse mod and adap to fit there specific way of life
Darwin viewed the history of life like a tree with multiple branches from a commun trunk
out to the tips of the youngest twigs.
Linnaeus realized that some org resemble each other more closely than others but he didnt
connect his though to the fact that its due to evo.
Darwin proposed the mechanism of NS to explain the patterns of evo
O1: Members of a popn often vary in their inherited traits
O2: all species produce more offspring than the env can support and lots of them fail to
survive
I1: individuals whose inherited traits give them a gigher probability of surviving and repro
in a given env tend to leave more offspring
I2: the unequal ability of ind to survive and reproduce=>more of them
Thomas Malthus helped Darwin to understand the important connection between NS & the
capacity of org to overreproduce: 1) organism heritable traits can influence its
performance 2) war and shit are due to pop to increase faster than food
How rapidly do change occur : 1) artificial sel: very fast/short time 2) NS: substantial mod
over hundred of gen
The process of variations ( Favorable or non fav traits) will increase the frequence of ind
with fav adap 7 hence refine the match between org and their enviro
Supported evolution:
A. Direct observation : NS a) process of editing not a creative mechanism
b) depends on time and place
B. Homology : evo comes from analyzing similavities among different org : related
species can have charact that have an underlying similarity yet function diff.
similarity resulting from common ancestry= homology
1. Anatomical and molecular homologies
related species share the features used to determine their
relationship. they also share similar features.
comparing early stayed of dev in different animal species reveals
add anatomical homologies not visible in adult org
vestigial structures : remnants of features that served a function in
the org ancestors
2. genetic code are shared by all species because they come from the start
evolution tree: diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships
among groups of organisms
3. convergent evo: in devo of similar features in diff lineages
analogous: share similar func, but not common ancestry, whiles
homologeous features share common ancestry, but not necessary
similar funct

C. fossil record: doc patterns of evo = show that past org differs from today org and
many have being extinct
shed lights
fossil indicated us that most mamals were terrestrial
recent fossil discoveries dc the formation of new specie& origin of
a major new group of mammals, CETACEANS
descent with mod produced increasingly large diff among related
groups of org= diversity of life
D. biogeography : geo distribution of species caused by continental drift show
movement of earths continents
use understanding of evo to explain bio datageo bio data
most island species are similar to the nearest mainland
Pre-Darwinian views: ARISTORTLE
a. Scala Naturae
b. Specie can be arrange on a scale of increasing complexity
c. Species =/= change & have fixed place on this ladder
Natural theology: adaptations : evidence of the creators design
a. Good design implies an intelligent designer
b. Beautiful & functional
Human did not evolve from gorillas: human&gorillas ahd a common ancestor
Progress in evo: YES
a. NS create adaptations within species
b. But the RED QUEEN HYPOTHESIS(it takes all the running u can do, to
keep in the same place
c. Arms races between species
Theory : scien Vs non : non: conjecture, hypo,unproven speculation/ Scie: well
substantiated overarching idead that explains the Nworld, series of proven hypo
The natural world can be explained without invoking pre-existing germs, essential life
forces, th Darwins theory:
Species evolved from ancestral forms
Mechanism: natural selection
2. NS as the blind watchmaker of life
3. Evolution is like a bush not a ladder.
4. Progress between species is not part of the theory
Local adaptation within species
5. Evolution is an historical fact
6. Theory: does our current understanding explain the diversity of life on earth?
e great chain of being, Ptolemaic epicycles or a prime mover

Summary Chap 22
Life diversity arose from ancestral through NS
Lamarch hypo that species evolve
Hutton & Lyell thought that geological change results from mechanisms that

operated in the past in the same manner as at the present time

Darwins voyage pf the Beagles ,ade him understand that new species originate
from ancestral forms through the accumulation of adaptations
Evo occurs by NS : heritable traits survive = reproduce at higher rate
1. Increase matchs between org and their env
2. If env change or ind move= adaptation=new species
Org share charact because of common descent (homology)
NS affects independently evolving species in a similar env in similar ways (convergent
evo)
NOTE IN CLASS
scala nature : can be arranged and dont change place: the ranking IS NOT CORRECT
the ranking of scala nature is actually about apparence aare relation to us
natural theology : adaptations: evidence of the creators design (intelligent design)
Lamarck: full theory of evo, mechanisms, use and disuse, inheritance of required characteristics
evidence for evolution
1. how would you convince a sceptic? a) antibiotic resistance b) direct observation (artificial
selection, pesticide resistant insects,ect) c) fossil record d) homology e) biogeography
why fish and amphebians are not the same thing ; because there had lots of cut in the tree so they
changed a lot from one to another
no progress between species
NS as the blind watchmaker of life, evolution is like a bush not aladder, progress between
species is not part of the theory,local adaptation species, evolution is an historical fact, theory
WAllance is best known for proposing nat sel independently of Charles Darwin
Lyell best known for uniforitarianism
Aristote=ladder

Chap 23
key concepts
1. genetic variation makes evolution
2. the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test wheter a population is evolving
3. nat Sel, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a poupulation
4. nat sel is the only mechanism that consistently cause adaptive evolution
microevolution : change in allele frequencies in a population over generations. its caused by nat

selec,genetic drift, gene flow.

hypothesis of inheritance
1. darwin: selection acted on such differences, leading to evolutionary change
2. mendel : organismes transmit discrete heritable units to their offspring.
Discrete and quantitative characters
1. DISCRETE : can be classified on an either-or basis. Determined by a single gene locus with
different alleles that produce distinct phenotypes
2. QUANTATIVE : influence of 2 or more gene on a single phenotype
3. gene variability can be quantified as the average heterozygosity.
4. how to identifie gene variability : survey the protein products of genes using gel
electrophoresis. and to find th esilent mutation we use PCR-based methods and restriction
fragment analyses.
geographic variation
1. differences in the genetic composition of separate populations
2. CLINE: a graded change in a character along a geographic axis caused by env variable
(tempreature) or natural sel.
mutation (are very low)
1. DEF: a change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism DNA. For multicell org, only
mutation in cell lines that produce gamete can be passed to offspring.
2. in animals, majority of mutations occur in somatic cells and dies with the dude.
3. can have impact on phenotypes
4. important variation begins when genes are duplicated due to errors in meiosis, slippage
during DNA replication, or the activities of transposable.
5. mutation appear to have played a major role in evolution. because it helps us develop new
function that are beneficial for us.
6. mutation due to the past have produce new alleles but sexual repro shuffles existing alleles
and deal them at random to produce individual genotypes
7. gene flow : can affect allele freqs
population
1. group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed , producing
fertile offspring
2. GENE POOL: consists of all copies of every type of allele at every locus in all members of
the population
3. ONE allele exist in a population for a locus its called FIXED and all individuals are
homozygous for that allele if they are 2 the individual could be homo or hete
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
1. this principle states that the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population will remain
constant from generation to generation, provided that only mendelian segregation and
recobination of alles are at works.

2. 5 conditions : 1) no mutation 2) random mating(fuck someone else than a family memeber)

3) no natural selection 4)extremely large population size 5) no gene flow ( moving allele
into or out of pop , gene flow can alter allele f)
3. use to identifie if evolution occurs in a population
4. why is he impo: geneteics of non-evolving pon, null hypothesis of no change, freq of alles &
genotypes remain constant
5. in a H-W popn with two alleles,frequence of a=0.4 what is the % of the popn that is homo
for this alleles: 16%
genetic drift 2 types : bottle neck and founder effect(23.11)
1. GENETIC DRIFT: chance events can also cause allele frequencies to fluctuate unpredictably
from one generation to the next, especially in small population.
2. A mech of evolution caused by : sampling error in small popn
A. significant in small popn
B. cause allele frequecies to cahnge at random
C. lead to a loss of genetic variation within popn
D. cause harmful alleles to become fixed
1. genetic drift is SIGNIFICANT in small popn, cause allele frequencies to change at random,
lead to a loss of genetic variation within popn, cause harmful alleles to become fixed.
2. BOTTLE NECK : a severe drop in population size can cause the bottleneck effect (named
like this because the popn has pass through a bottle neck that mean few of them has
survived) can be caused by natural cause or human cause. GENETIC DRIFT happens all the
time with bottle neck effect.
3. FOUNDER EFFECT: when a few individuals become isolated from a larger popn, this
smaller group may estalish a new popn whose gen pool differs from the source popn.
Gene Flow
1. the transfer of alleles into or out of popn due to the movement of fertile individuals or their
gametes.
2. affect how well populations are adapted to local environ cond.
3. it has become an increasingly important agent of evolutionary change in human populations.
Relative Fitness
1. the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the nect generation realtive to the
contributions of other individuals
3 mode of natural selection
1. DIRECTION SELECTION: occurs when conditions favour individuals exhibiting one
extreme of a phenotypic range, thereby shifting a popn frequency curve fir the phenotypic
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character in one direction or the other

2. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION: occurs when conditions favour individuals with intermediate
phenotypes.
3. STABILIZING SELECTION: acte against both extreme phenotypes and favours
intermediate variants. mainting statuss quo for a particular phenotypic character. selection
favours ind whose heritable phenotypic traits provide higher reproductive success than do
the traits of other ind.
Key role of NS in adaptive evo
1. NS increases the frequencies of alleles that enhance survival and reproduction over time.
2. gene flow and gen drift can be favourable or disadvantageous
3. NS acts on id, but pop evolve
4. NS act on phenotypes :
B. NS cannot see gen per se
C. Can only see henes as expressed in pheno
5. NS is synonymous with evolution: NO , NS is only 1 of 5 mechanism of evolution. Other 4 :
1) gene flow 2) mutation 3) genetic drift 4) non-random mating
6. Does NS create new phenotypes: NO, not in one selection event (it edits existing phenotypes)
Sexual Selection
1. Form of selection in which individuals with certain inherited charateristics are more likely
than other ind to obtain mates.That can result in Sexual dimorphism
2. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM: a difference between the two sexes in seondary sexual
characteristics. include diff in size, colour, ornamentation and behaviour.
3. how sexual sel operate:
A. intrasexual selection: selection within the same sex, individuals of on sex compete directly
for mate of the opposite sex.
B. Women are choosy in their mate choice. they usually go for the one with a good gen like
better feature and physical.
Preservation of genetic variation
1. NEUTRAL VARIATION : diff in DNA sequence that do not confer a selective advantage or
disadvantage
2. DIPLOIDY : considerable amount of genetic variation is hidden from selection in the form
of recessive alleles. recessive alleles that are less favourable than their dominant counterpats
or even harmful in the current environment can persist by propagation in heterozygous
individuals. it keep lots of allele that may not be favourable right now but that will be needed
maybe later.
3. BALANCING SELECTION: occurs when NS maintains 2 or more forms in a popn.

A. HETEROZYGOTE ADVANTAGE : if individuals who are heterozygous at a particualr

locus have greater fitness than do both kind of homozygote, they exhibit heterozygote
advantage.
B. FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT SELECTION: the fitness of a phenotype depends on how
common its in the popn.
Why NS cannot fashion perfect organism
1. selection can act only on existing variations: NS favours only fittest phenotypes among those
currently in popn.
2. evolution is limited by historical constraints: each species has a legacy of descent with
modification from ancestral forms. you cant erase the past.
3. adaptations are often compromises : each organisme must do many different things. Every
organism is block by a condition . I.E : seals cant walk so they have to slide but it would be
easier for them to walk.
4. chance, NS,and the environment interact; Chance events can affect the subsequent evo
history of popn.

How many diff types of gamete can be produced? 2

Ignoring crossing over, how many genetically diff types of gametes can a human
make? 2^23 because its independent to meisis. 2^n
New combination : sexual repcombination (3mech), independent assortment of
chromosomes, crossing over, fertilization,deals a unique hand of genes to each
individual
3mech for preserving genetic variation from NS
1. Diploidy: deleterious alleles are hidden from selection except in homozygous recessive
2. Heterozygote advantage : recessive alls are protected by highest fitness of
heterozygote(higher rate of danger)
3. Frequency-dependent selection: fitness decreases as a morph becomes more common; if
genetic component to trait,

CHAP 24
Key:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

the bio species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation

speciation can take place with or without geographic separation
hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation
speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes.
SPECIES: DEF: 1) ind that share a gene pool
Member of a popn or group of pop with the potential to interbreed successfully in nature:
Criterion: potential to interbreed, strength : addresses the mechanism of repro isolation .
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weekness : know about reproductive behaviour & gene flow

1.
2.

3.

4.

SPECIATION: process by which one species splits into two or more species. It explains
similarity & diff between current and old species
1. Microevolution: change in allele frequencies
2. Macroevolution: broad pattern of evo above the species level.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION: the existence of biological factors that impede members
of 2 species from interbreeding & producing viable,fertile offspring.= block gene flow= limit
HYBRID . keeps gene pools separate 2 type : pre & post zygotic
HYBRID: offspring that result from an interspecific mating
PREZYGOTE BARRIERS: block fertilization from occurring;
A. Imbedding members of different species from attempting to mate,
B. by preventing an attempted mating from being completed successfully
C. Hindering fertilization if mating is completed successfully
Exemple: habitat isolation,temporal(breed during different times), behavioural(actractive
acting), mechanical(morphological difference), gametic(sperm=/=fertilize egg)
POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS: contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote
is formed
Exemple: reduce hybrid viability(gene may make the dev or survival impossible),
fertility( if not the same #chromosome =/=fail produce normal gamet), breakdown(next
generation gene are sterile)
Limitation of the bio species concept
A. Directs our attention to a way by which speciation can occur: evolution of reproductive
isolation. (does not apply to asexual)
B. species are designated by the absence of gene flow.sometimes gene flow occurs between 2
ind that are morphologically and ecologically different.
OTHER DEF OF SPECIES
A. Morphological species concept: characterizes a species by body shape and structural
features. Similarity of appearance. Strength : easy & practical. It can be applied to
sexual&asexual, and its usefull even without info on the extent of gene flow.
Disadvantage: relies on subjective criteria ; researchers may disagree on which
structural features distinguish a species. Similar looking things can be diff species
B. Ecological species conept: views species in terms of its eco niche. The sum of how
members of the species interact with nonliving/living parts of env. EMPHASIZES
role of disruptive NS as organism adapt to diff env cond.
C. Phylogenetic species concept: defines a species as the smallest group of ind that
share a common ancestor= forming 1 branch on the tree of life.
2 mechanisms of specification : ALLOPATRIC(OTHER COUNTRY)
SPECIATION
A. DEF : gene flow = stop when a population is divided into
geographically isolated subpopulation
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B. Geo barrier => period of iso=> re-contact => variable species

or reproductive isolation
1. Process of Allopatric speciation: once geo separation has occurred,
separated gen pools may diverge= mutation,NS&genetic drift may alter
allele freq in diff ways in the separated pop
2. Physical separation is not a biological barrier to reproduction
Why is geo iso so imp:
1) Keeps the gene pools separate
2) Allows pop to diverge
3) Gene flow is the enemy of local adaptation &
speciation

SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
A. DEF: specition occurs in popn that live in the same geo area. Diff
because the cause are rare
B. DO to poluploidy,habitat differentiation, sexual speciation)
1. POLYPLOIDY : species originate from an accident during cell % that
results in extra sets of chromosomes. 80% of plants via polyploidy,
sterile hybrids can reproduce asexually, fertile hybrids can self, less
common in animals
A. Autopolyploid: ind has +2 sets of chromo that derived from
single species.
B. Allopolyploid: In subsequent generations, various mechanisms
can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid
2. HABITAT DIFFERENTIATION:When genetic factors enable a subpop
to exploit a habitat or resource not used by the parent popn.
3. SEXUAL SELECTION: female choose base on appareance (like
human)

REVIEW ALLOPATRIC&SYMPATRIC
1. ALLOPATRIC: new species forms in geo isolation from its parent
popn.= restric gene flow=other barrier arise do to genetic changes
2. SYMPATRIC: requires emergence of a reproductive barrier that
isolate a subset of a popn from the remainder of the popn in the
same area. Due to polyploidy
Evolution of RIMS:
1) Incidentally : byproduct of separate evolution
2) By NS: when hybrids have lower fitness

HYBRID ZONE: members of diff species meet & mate, producing at least
some offspring of mixed ancestry.
PATTERNS WITHIN HYBRID ZONES:

10

1. Increase of embryo mortality, variety of morphological

abnormalities,.
2. Hybrid ind rarely serve as a stepping-stone from which alleles are
passed from one species to the other.
Reinforcement: strengthening reproductive barriers HYBRID
1. When hybrids are less fit than memebers of their parent species, we
might expect NS to strenghthen prezygotc barriers to reproduction,
thus reducing the formation of unfit hybris.
2. Repro for sympatric is higher.
Fusion : weakening reproductive barriers
1. Gene flow occurs but repro barrier weaken further and the gen pools
of the 2 species become increasingly alike
Stability: continued formation of hybrid ind
1. Stable: hybrid cnt to be produced.
Form of separation
1. Punctuated pattern: new species change most as they branch from
parent species and then change little for the rest of their existence
2. Other species diverge from one another much more gradually over
time.
The time course of speciation
1. Patterns in the fossil record : includes many eisodes in which
new species appear suddenly in geologic stratum,stratum,persist
essentially unchanged through several strata& then disappear.
2. Punctuated equilibria : describe these periods of apparent stasis
punctuated by sudden change.
3. Speciation rates: once the process of speciation begins, it can be
completed relatively rapidly
A. NS can produce extensive genetic changes in hybrid popn
over short periods of time

CHAP 25 :
Eras defined by: mass extinctions follow by radiaotion of new forms
Mass extinction :
1) part of our evolutianry history
2) 5 big : Permian extinctions (palezoic & Mesozoic), Cretaceous
(Mesozoic &cenozoic)
3) Names, dates and causes of the two famous episodes of mass
extinction:
Permian extinctions : 250 million BP
a) 96% marine animal go extinct
b) duration : 0.5 million years
c) cause : volcano, global warming, ocean anoxia, Pangaea( reduction
in intertidal habitat, continental climate, dry,)
cretaceous extinctions: 65 millins BP, duration: thousnads of
years,dino:extinct,1/2 marine animal extinct. Recovery: 20 million yrs
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 macroevolution: Broad patterns of evolution above the species level:

microevolution+speciation+extinctions+adaptive radiations
how is a new phylum created: speciation + a lot of time
d) The Permian: defines the boundary between the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic eras ( 251 million year ago) , claimed about 96% of
marine animal species and drastically altered life in the ocean.
Terrestrial life also been affected. It took less than 200 000 years to
happen. It happened during extreme episode of volcanism in the
past 500 millions years. The lava covered 1.6 million Km2. The
eruption also caused the production of CO2 that warmed the globe
by 6oC that harm lots of sensitive animal. CO2 also caused the
acidification of ocean that reduced the availability of calcium
carbonate. The eruption also added nutrients such as phosphorous
to ecosystems that made the oxygen concentrations to drop
because when those bacteria decompose dead bodies, they use
lots of O2.
e) The Cretaceous: occurred 65.5 million years ago (marked the
boundary between Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras). That extinguished
more than half of marine species and eliminated lots of terrestrial
plants and animal. One possible cause is a thin layer of clay
enriched in iridium that fall to Earth. This caused a huge cloud of
debris that billowed into the atmosphere that blocked sunlight and
severely disturbed the global climate for several months
Chap 26
1. Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships
2. Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data
3. Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
4. An organisms evolutionary history is documented in its genome
5. New info continues to revise our understanding of the tree of life

How do they categorize: 1) morphological characteristics

4) Archosauria (combine of molecular & morphological
5) Molecular charac (one of the most important)
Phylogeny: hypo for the evo history of species or group of species
Systematics : discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining
their evo relationships
Taxonomy: how animals are named and classified
Binomial: the two-part format of the scientific name( biologist refer to
organisms by Latin scientific names. 1st letter capital and the rest in italic
1) Genus: 1er part of the name to which the species belong
2) Specific epithet, unique for each species.
Linnaen system place genera in same
family=>orders=>classes=>phyla=kingdoms=>domains
Taxon: named taxonomic unit at any level of the hierarchy
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Phylogenetic tree: branching pattern often matches how

taxonomists have classified groups of organisms nested within more
inclusive groups.

CHAP 27
Key concepts
1) Structural & functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic
success
2) Rapid reproduction, mutation, & genetic recombination promote
genetic diversity in prokaryotes
3) Diverse nutritional & metabolical adaptation have evolved in
prokaryotes
4) Molecular systematics is illuminating prokaryotes phylogeny
5) Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere
6) Prokaryotes have both beneficial & harmful impacts on humans
7) #of organisms: prok, # of species:euk,#cell inside ur body:
pro,biomas earth:pro
8) most life is asexual for organism & sexual for species
9) age kingdom:pro>protest>animal>fungi>plants
cladist view: supported by biochem & gene
traditional view: supported by cell structure &
morphology(size,nucleus,organelles,genetic mat,reproduction)
sex: small vs large gametes, anisogamy
a) genetic recombination
b) combining genes from 2 ind into a single genome
c) genetic transfer involving 2 ind
reproduction is production of new organisms
sexual repro: sex linked in time with repro, meiosis &
recombination, virtually all euks have the capacity for sexual
reproduction.
a)benefits: genetically diverse offspring
ancestral role of males: make genetically diverse offspring. MUTUALISM
what is possible
a) repro without sex: yes bac & others
b) sex whithout reprod: yes , bacteria
c) sex without gender: yes, isogamous fungi
d) gender without sex: no, gender implies sexual reprodu
repro in prok: binary fission, repro without sex, not diff from mitosis
endospores: resistant cells, copy of chro surrounded by though wall,
dormant until cond improve
asexual but rapid evo: RNA gene differs more between 2 strains of
E.coli than between humans/platypus. High mutation rate
Function of the cell wall : a) maintain cell shape
b) protects cells
13

c) prevents it from bursting in a

hypotonic env
Wall of eukaryotes(plants) is made of cellulose or chitin
Most bac walls contain peptidoglycan, polymer composed of
modified fabric encloses the entire bact & anchors other mol
that extend from its surface
Archeal cell walls contain a variety of polusaccharides &
proteins but lack peptidoglycan
ARcheal : extremophiles, thermophiles,
halophiles,methanogens(give of methane)
Structure of a bacterium cell wall determines the staining
response.
1) Gram + : bac have simpler walls with a relatively
large amount of peptidoglycan
2) Gram - : bac have less peptidoglycan & are
structurally more complex, with outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides(thats why they
are toxics) . MORE RESISTANT
CAPSULE: dense & well defined stick of polysaccharide. Help
protect against dehydration & adhere & shield pathogenic
prokaryotes attack
SLIME LAYER: less well organized. Help protect against
dehydration & adhere & shield pathogenic prokaryotes attack
Stick to other with fimbrae
Motility
Flagella : 1) motor 2) hook 3) filament
o Taxis : Movement caused by flagella that are scattered over the
body
o Prokaryote flagella differ from eukaryote flagella:
eukaryote are one-tenth the width and are not covered by
extension of the plasma. Prok are different in their mol
compostion & mech of propulsion.
Internal organization & DNA: cells of prokaryotes are simpler than
those of eukaryotes in both their internal structure & the physical
arrangement of their DNA. Some prokaryotic cells do have specialized
memebranes that perform metabolic functions.
Genome of prokaryote is structurally diff from a eukaryotic
genome & most cases has considerably less DNA
Nucleoid : region of cytoplasm that appears lighter than the
surrounding cytoplasm in electron micrographs.
Plasmids: smaller rings of independently replicating DNA
molecules that carrt few genes

14

Prokaryotes ribosome are smaller tha eukaryote=

antibiotics to attach & block protein synthesis.
Prok have less DNA because it has less genome
Prok DNA: circular chromosomes with fewer prot, lack of
membrane-bounded nucleus; chromosome located in the
nucleoid Smaller ring of replicated DNA mol called plasmids.
Prok ribosome are smaller & differ in prot & RNA= certain
antibiotics to bind to ribo & block synthesis.
Reproduction & adaptation:
Binary fission : single prokaryotic cell divides in 2 cells then in
4,8,16. Every 1-3h
Reproduction is limited: not enough food, poison,etc
Prokaryotes can out stand harsh conditions bc of
biochemical, structural adaptation. They develop
endospores(resistant cells) cells in lack of essential
nutriment.
2. 3 key : they are small, repro by binary fission, have short generation
times
Genetic recombination : additional diversity arises from genetic
recombination.
Transformation, transduction, conjugation= new
prokaryotic DNA from diff ind.
Horizontal gene transfer: movement of genes from one
organism to another.
Transformation& transduction:(: (603)
a) Transformation: genotype & phenotype of a prokaryotic cell are
altered by foreign DNA from the surroundings.
b) Incorporate it in his Chromosomes:recombinant
c) Transduction : bacphages carry prokaryotic genes between host.
Occurs from accident during replicative cycle.
A. A virus that carries proka DNA may not be able to replicate bc it
lacks some or all of its own gnetic mat. However it can inject pro
DNA in another PRO.= DNA recombination
Conjugation & plasmids)p603: DNA is transferred between 2
prokaryotic cells. ALWAYS 1 WAY
a) pilus of donor attach to recipient=>pilus then retract, pulling
the 2 cells=> formation of bridge=> transfer DNA
b) they can also transfert directly through the pilus
c) formation of pili & DNA donation is due to F factor ( DNA
piece)
d) F FACTOR AS A PLASMID: designated F+ cells, Function
as DNA donors during conjugation. (function as DNA donor)
F- = recipient. F+ cell can convert F- to F+ if entire copy is
transferred

15

e) F FACTOR in the Chromosome: chromosomal genes can

be transferred during conjugation.Hfr = donor
f) R Plasmids & antibiotic resistance: acteria have
Resistance gens in their plasmid which code for enzyme that
destroy antibiotic.
4 major modes of nutrition of prokaryotes:

first prokaryotes: everything started here

a) first meta: chemoheterotrohs
1. absorbed org mol.
2. Earth was anaerobic reducing atmosphere.
3. Metabolic pathway: glycolysis
b) photosynthesis: 3.5 billion , O2 begins accumulating 2.7
billion,Corrosive env by 2 billion ,extinction of many
obligate anaerobes ,cyanobacteria changed the world
foeveer
Cellular respiration: O2 is the final electron acceptor,Krebs cycle &
ETC,
Why gram- more pathogenic:
a) Lipopolysach are often toxic
b) Outermem protect agains th body defence Outer membrane
impede entry of anti
c) Common anti inhibit cross-linking of peptidoglycan,particularly in
gram+
obligate aerobes: must use O2 for cell respiration & cant growth
without it

16

 obligate anaerobes: are poison by O2. Live by fermentation, other

extract chemical energy by anaerobic respiration( NO3-)
Facultative anaerobes: use O2 if it is present but can also use
anaerobic.
Nitrogen metabolism:
a) Nitrogen is essential for prod of amino acids & nucleic acids.
Eukaryote obtain Nitrogen from limited group of nitrogen
coumpoudn. PROKARYOTE can metabolize nitrogen.
d) Cinverting N2 to NH3 is called nitrogen fixation. Cells can
incorporate this fixed nitrogen into amino acids & other
e) Nitrogen fixation in prokaryote have big impact on other
organism :
1) provide both fixed nitrogen and fixed carbon dioxide
to other organisms.
Metabolic cooperation
a. met cooperation between diff prokaryotic species often occurs in
surface-coating colonies know as biofilms. Cells secrete signaling
mol that recruit nearby cells, casing colonies to grow.
1) Cells also produce polysaccharides & proteins that stick the cells
to substrate & to one another.
2) Channels allow nutrients ot reach cells in the interior & wastes to
be expelled
Archaea
Extremophiles: first assigned to clade
Extreme halophiles : lives in highly saline environments. Wall cell
have unsual features that improve function in extremely salt env
Extreme thermophiles: hot environment. DNA & protein have
adaptations that make them stable at high temperatures.
Methanogens: 1) moderate env. Release methanse as by-product of
their way of obtaining energy. Use CO2 to oxidize H2= produce energy
& methane.-emit GHGs
2) anaerobic environment within the guts of cattle,etc. decompisers
in sewage treatment facilities
pathogenic prokaryotes cause illness by producing poison, which are
classified exotoxins/endotoxins
a) exotoxins: proteins secreted by the proteobacterium vibro
cholera.
1) Stimulate intestinal cells to releae chloride ions into the gut& water
follows by osmosis.
2) Produce disease even if the baac that create it is not avaible
b) Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides components of the outer
memebrane of gram
1) Release when bac dies & wall breaks down.

17

2) Cause typhoid fever

Highlights :
a) 5 kingdoms to the 3 domains
b) Fundamental division of life?
c) Traditional: proks vs. euks
d) Cladist: bacteria vs. all else
e) First life: prokaryotes
f) Only life for 1.6 billion years
g) Greater nutritional diversity within prokaryotes than all
euks
h) Evolution of metabolism: chemo-heterotrophs,
photosynthesis, aerobic respiration
i) Bacteria: gram negative vs. positive
j) 5 major groups
k) Archaea: methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles
l) Which features of bac can be considered to be defensive
structure:
Cell wall: prevents lysis, barrier to some pathogensand
chemicals
Endospore: resistant structure
Capsule: inhibits attack by phagocytes, phage, and inhibits
dehydration
Restriction enzymes: foil phage infections
R plasmids: confer protection from certain antibiotics
Secretory systems: Can remove toxins from cells
The prokaryotic cells that built stromatolites are

classified as cyanobac
In mosses gamete are produced by mitosis and in fern in
mitosis

CHAP 28
Protest are a taxonomically unicell eukaryotes that span all
five supergroups
1. Eukar: nucleus, membrane bounded organelles, mitochondria,
plastids & golgi apparatus
2. protis are mostly unicellular
3. protest organelles: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus,& lysosomes. Certain freshwater protest have
contractile vacuoles that pump water out.
4. Protist are photoautrophs or heterotrophs or mixotrophs. They
repro asexulally or sex. Or employ the sex processes of
meiosis & fertili.
5. 1st euk, 2.1 billion Bp
18

6. incredible structural diversity

7. nutrional: chemoheterotrophs& photoautotrophs
8. 3 ecological groups: 1) protozoans: ingest heterotrophs 2)
fungus : absorptive heterotrph 3) algae: photoautotrophs
Primary endosymbiosis: formation of chloroplast(plastid) from an
endosymbiotic cyanobacterium within a euk host
Euk have diverged into Archaeplastida(land plants,red/green
alga)
1st serial endosymbiosis:
2) endomembrane system & nucleus via infolding
3) an anaerobe engulfs an aerobi hetero bac mitochondriaproduces a hetero euk
4) mutualistic aerobe engulfs a gram- cyanobacterium-plastidNo known descendants
Algae & plants

anaerobe

produces a phot euk

2 endosymbiosis: plastid acquisition occurred via endosymbiosis
between red/gree algae with a non-photosynthetic euk host.
early heterothrophic eukaryotes had ability to phogocytose whole
algal cells & maintain them as endosymbiont within vacuole in the
host
best evidence for 2nd endosymbiosis: nucleomorphs:
chlorarachniophytes & crymptomonads
nucleomorph: double memebrane with nuclea pores, nucleomorph
gene are organized on linear chromosomes. Have 4 separate
genomes in one cell: nuclear,nucleomorph,plastid,mitochondrial
Protozoans, Animals, Fungi,

nd

double-membrane of plastids Vestigial nucleus &

from gram- endosymbiont
4 membranes
Het. euk.
These eukaryotes
are engulfed
4 membranes
2: cyanobacterium
1: algas plasma membrane
1: heterotrophs food vacuole
3dd stage of
primary ES
This membrane
is lost

genome
endosymbiosis has shaped the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Host was able to steal portportion of sugars being made by
algae or acquired other essential metabolite
both green & red algae are part of same supergroup of land
plants

Excavates are parasites

19

1. Have excavated: feeding groove on 1 side, missing link, reduced

mitochondria , anaerobic
d) diplomonads: anaerobic environments
1. modified mitochondria called mitosomes
2. have double memebrane like mitochondria but they cant
synthesiseze ATP since aerobic electron transport is missing
3. get energy from aneorobic biochemical .
4. have 2 equal-sized nuclei & multiple flagella
e) parabasalids: reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes
1. gets energy anaerobicly releasing hydrogen as by-product
f) Euglenozoans: include heterotrophs,photosynthetic
autotrophs, parasites
1. Morpho diff: presence of a rod with either a spiral or a crystalline
structure inside each of their flagella
A. Kinetoplastids: single, large mitochondrion that contains unusual
organized mass of DNA composed of thousands of interlocking circles
1. Includes species that feed on prokaryots in freshwater,marine & moist
terrestrial ecosystems, parasitize animals,plants\
B. Euglenids: pocket at one end of the cell from which one or 2 flagella
emerge. Most of them are mixotrophs
2. Chromalveolates: 2 line of evidence 1) form monophyletic group
2) common ancestor of the group engulfed a singlecelled,photosynthetic red alga
Alveolates; group of protists whose monophyly is well supported
by mol systematic. Have alveoli. Mixotrophic
a. Apicomplexans : parasites of animals.
1. Spread through their host as tiny infectious cells called
sporozoites
2. One end contain complex of organelles specialized for
penetrating host & tissue
3. Sexual & asexual
b. Ciliate : large varied group of protest name for the use
of cilia to move and feed
1. Distinc: presence of 2 types of nuclei: 1) tiny micronuclei 2)
large macronuclei
2. Cell has 1 or more nuclei of each type
3. Genetic variation : conjugation
4. Asexually by binary fission=> macronucleus disintegrates &
new one is formed from the cell micronuclei
5. Each macronucleu has a copy of the genome
c. Dinoflagellate: Armoured plankton: phyto, mixo &
hetero
1) 2 flagella in grooves
2) red tide blooms can be toxic

20

 Stramenopiles: protest that include important photosynthetic

organism. HairyLarge flagellum that is paired with smooth
smaller one
A. Diatoms: unicellular algae with unique glass-like wall
made of hydrated sillicia embed in an organic matrix
1. Wall consists of 2 parts that overlap = help protect from
crushing jaws
2. Major component of phytoplankton in ocean & lakes
3. Photosynthetic activity affect CO2 levels
B. Golden algae: yellow & brown
1. Biflagelated, with both flagella attached near one end
2. Fresh water & marine plankton
3. Photosynthetic & mixotrophic(by phagocytosis)
4. Unicellular & colonial
C. Brown Algae: largest & most complex. Multicell & marine
1. Are most complex multicell anatomy: have specialized tissues
& organs like plants
2. Thallus: term for algal body that s plantlike. Consist of
holdfast(anchors the alga), stipe(supports leaflike
blades)Blades( provide photosynthetic surface)
3. Have gas-filled,bubble-shaped floats => keep the blades up
4. Wall composed of cellulose & gel-forming polysaccharides
5. Alternation of generations
D. Oomycetes: include water moulds,white rusts& downy
mildews
1. Have cell walls made of cellulose
2. Dont have plastids & dont perform photsynthesis. Acquire
food as decomposers or parasites
3. Make it more aggressive & more resistant to pesticides
Alternation of generation: alternation of multicellular haploid &
diploid forms.
a) Apply to life cycles in which both haploid & diploid stages
are multicellular
b) Diploid ind is called sporophyte because it produce
spores
c) Zoospores: spores that are haploid & moves by means of
flagella=> dev into haploid
d) In luminaria, the 2 generation are
heteromorphoc( sporotophyte & gametophytes are
structurally diff)
e) Other alga are isomorphic( similar shape for spo/game)
2. Rhizaria: among Amoebas: were defined as protists that
move & feed by means of pseudopodia( extension that bulge
from almost anywhere on cell surface). Amoebas move by

21

extending a pseudo & anchoring the tip: more cytoplasm then

stream into the pseudopodium
A. Radiolarians: radiate skeletons.
1. Pseudopodia radiate form central body & reinforce by
bundles of microtubules(cover by thin layer of
cytoplasm.\
B. Forams: calcium carbonate shells : TESTS.
1. Tests: consists of single piece of organic material hardened with
Ca+
2. Pseudo: spread through pores fct in swimming, test formation,
feeding
3. Photsynthesis of symbiotic algae that live within tests
4. Ocean & fresh water,sand or rock or algae,plankton
C. Cercozoans: large group that contain most of amoeboid &
flagellated protest that feed with threadlike pseudo
1. Marine, fresh water & soil eco
2. Heterotrophs & few mixotrophic( ingest /photosyn) , autotroph
3. Parasite of plants,animals,other protest, predators(impo
consumers of bac in soil & aquatic)
3. Archaeplastida: monophyletic group that descended from
ancienct protest that engulfed a cyanobacterium.
1. Red algae : are reddish,owing to a photosynthetic
accessory pigment called phycoerythrin which mask the
green of chlorophyll.
2. Absorb blue & green light
3. Multicell
4. No flagellated staged in their life cycle & depend on water
currents to bring gametes
5. seeweeds
2. Green Algae: have structure & pigment of composition like
chloroplasts of land plants
1. Charophytes: most closely related to land plants
2. Chlorophytes: live freshwater,terrestrial.unicell,photosynthesis
subfreezing,intense visible & radiation UV. Sex by mean of
biflagellated gametes
a) Large size or greater complexity evolved in chlorophyte in
3 ways
1. Formation of colonies of ind cell & in filamentous
forms(pond scum)
2. Formation of true multicell body by cell % & differentiation
3. The repeated % if nuclei with no cytoplasmic %
3. plants
Unikonta: include animal fungi & protest
1) Amoebozans: form clade that is well supported by mol data.,ingest
heterotrophs
1. Produce fruiting bodies that aid in spore dispersal.
22

2. Slim molds have diverged into 2 main branches:

a) Plasmodial slime molds: brightly coloured.unicell. undivided by
plasma membranes & contains many nuclei. Product of mitotic
nuclear % that are not follow by cytokinesis
1) Form mass that is plasmodium
b) Cellular slime molds: feeding stage consist of solitary cell that fct
ind but when food is present they form an aggregate that fct as a
unit.Haploid,asexual,forest floors,
A. Gymnamoebas: unicell protest, soil/freshwater & marine.
1. Heterotrophs that actively seek & consume bac .
2. feed also on detritus
3. free living
B. Entamoebas: parasite, infect all class of vertebrate animals.
Highlights
Protists descendants of first eukaryotes
2 of 4 nutritional groups
3 ecological groups: protozoans, algae, fungus-like
Paraphyletic group
Evolution of eukaryotes
Primary serial endosymbiosis: eukaryote
Secondary endosymbiosis
Transition from single- to multi-cellular life
Diversity of protists: 5 major groups
Hydrogenosomes, nucleomorphs, mitosomes, and
kinetoplasts are all evidence of : endosymbiosis
Life cycles-terms
1. Ploidy: number of copies of each chromosome
2. Changes in ploidy:
a) Mitosis: doesnt no change
b) Meiosis; halve, syngamy, fertilization,double
c) Gametes : n, unicellular
d) Zygotes: 2n, unicellular
e) Embryos: 2n multicellular
3. Animal life cycle:
a) Diploid part of our life cycles?
b) Multicell,diploid,organism
c) Haploid part of our life cycle?
d) Unicell.haplod,gam
e) No multicell haploid phase

Chap 29
1) plant have a waxy waterproof curticle and algae do not
2) how are gametes produced by bryophyte?:by mitoss of
gametophyte cells
3) in mosses. Haploidprotonemata directly produce buds that grow
into gametophores
23

4) sphagnum is a moss that forms extensive deposits of partially

decayed organic material
5) the dots on the underside of a fern frond are spore cases, therefore
what is true of the plant to which the frond belongs?: its a
sporophyte
6)
7) gametophyte have fewer chromosome than sporophytes do
2) dots underside of a fern frond & spore cases =sporophyte=
reproductive leaf that are sori= means that the parents are sporeproducing organism
3) sporophyte ferns, leaves are megaphylls
2) Characteristics of plants:
eukaryotes,multicell,photosynthetic,chloroplasts,cell walls
cellulose,terrestrial-ancestrally,sex repro,alternation of
generation,develop from embryos, embryo: diploid,multicell
structure enclosed in maternal tissue
3) What is a plant: eukaryotic,photo org that deve from an embryo
4) Plant life cycle: altern of generatio, multicell haploid & diploid
forms,osomorphic:identical,heteromorphic:different
5) Aquatic vs terrestrial life:
a) factor that plants colonize land:
1) nbr of potential predators
2) relative nbr of competitors
3) relative availability of symbiotic partners
b) age: aqua;3.9 billion BP, terres: 500 million BP,
c) AOW:derived trait 1&2 :
1. multicell dependent embryos: protected from drying & nourished by mat
tissue
2. multicell gametangia
Spatial sepratation of resource; air : CO2 & light, soil: water & nutrients
Derived trait 4: apical meristems:
1) growth of tissue,
2) tissue specialization
Origin of land plants: 1st colonizers: algae in littoral zones of lakes &
ponds, s
1) subject to periodic drying: selection pressure,
2) above the wter line: a new adaptive zone,lots of
nutrients,nocompettition or predation
Origins of plants: oldest fossils 475 million BP
Colonization of land: 475 mya,
Morphological & molecular evidence
Charophyte are the only algae that share 4 similar thing with land
plant
1) Rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins: ring of prot in
plasma membrane,synthesize cellulose microfibrils of cell wall

24

2) Peroxisome enzymes: enzyme that help minimize loss of org

product resulting from photorespiration
3) Structure of flagellated sperm:
4) Formation of a phragmoplast: microtubule formed between
daughter nuclei of % cell=> Dev of cell plate=> new cross wal
separating daughter cells
a. Adaptations enabling the move to land: charophytes
have sporopollenin that prevent zygote form drying out
b. Derived traits of plants:
1) Epidermis has curticle that consists of wall & other polymers.
Waterproof that help prevent excessive water loss from the aboveground plant organ while giving some protection
2) They have roots
3) Secondary compounds: products of secondary metabolic
pathways : alkaloids,terpenes,tannins& flavonoids=> defend a
plant against parasites herbivores. Flavonoids: defend from
UV
Alternation of generation & multicell,dependent embryos:
altern between gametophytes & sporophytes=> each generation
give rise to the other.
1) Mitotic % of zygote=>multicell diploid sporophyte=>produce
haploid spores by meiosis=> haploid spores sprout to form
gametophyte
2) Parental tisue has placental transfer cells that transfer
nutrients=> embryophyte
3) Gametophyte(makes gamet): multicell haploid: produced from
sprouting spores, produces egg& sperm => fuse to form zygote
Walled spores produced in sporangia; haploid repro cell that
grow into multicell haploid gametophyte by mitosis
1. walled spores: surrounded by resistant covering of sporopollenim
What is a spore: haploid cells that give rise to gametophyte
Gametophyte: gamete-producing(haploid phase) producing the zygote
from which the sporophyte arises
2. also found in Fungi,
3. sperm Vs spore Vs seed Vs pollen
4. Polymer sporopollenin make the walls of plant spores tough &
resistant, 1er : reduce dehydration
5. Sporophyte has multi cell organ call sporangia that produce
spores
6. In a sporangium, diploid cells called sporophytes undergo meiosis &
create haploid spore.
7. Outer tissues of the sporangium protect the dev spores until it
release in air
a) Multicell gametangia: prod of gamete within multicell organs called
gametangia

25

1) Female: archegonia, pear-shaped that produce single

nonmotile egg retained(contain sporophyte embryos)
2) Male : antheridia, produce sperm and release them
b) Apical meristems: localized region of cell % at the tips of root &
shoot
1) Cell produce by AM differentiate into the outer epidermis=>
protect
The origin & diversification of plants: distinguish groups of plant
by knowing If they have vascular tissue(cell into tubes that
transport water & nutrients) if they have they are called
vascular plants and non vascular are called bryophytes
1) Vascular plants are categorized as : 1) lycophytes 2)
pterophytes. Both together are called seedless vascular
plants
2) seedless group are paraphyletic: sometime called
grade( collectionof organisms that share a key biological
feature)
3) 3rd clade of vascular plant: seed plants. Seed( emryo packaged
with a supply of nutrients inside a protective coat.
a) Gymnosperms: naked seed because their seed is not enclosed
in chambers
b) Angiosperms: huge clade consisting of all flowering plants(dev
inside chamber called ovaries)
Non-vascular plants BRYOPHYTE: 1) liverworts 2) mosses 3)
hornworts
Bryophyte gametophytes: haploid gametophyte are the
dominant stage
bryophytes: typically:moist habitats,
a. adap: waxy cuticle ,embryos,apical meristems,resistanspores,
most have stomata
b. curticle: outer waxy(lipid) coating, protect from desiccation
Bryophytes(cont`d):
1) unique life cycle,
2. gametophyte is dominant,
3. sporophyte is dependent nutrients,water&sugars,
limitaitons for life on land:
1) swimming sperm,
2) no vascular tissue,
3) no woody tissue,
a) When bryophyte spores are disperdes to someplace better they
geminate & grow into gametophytes
b) Germinate: produce a mass of green branche, 1 cell thick filament
known as protonema(large surface that enhance absorption)
c) Gametophore: has an apical meristem that generate a gameteproduction

26

d) Bryophyte gametophyte : form ground-hugging carpets because

body parts are too thin to support tall plant. 2nd height constraint is
absence of vascular tissue
e) Rhizoids: long tubular single cell. Not compose of tissue . dont
play 1er role in water&mineral absorption
f) Gametophyte form multiple gametangia, produce
gametes(covered by protective tissue
g) Archegonium produces one egg, antheridium produce many
sperm . some bryophyte are bisexual=> egg not release,
they stay in archegonia
h) Sexual reproduction more successful

Bryophyte sporophytes: remain attached to parental

gametophyte.
1) Foot: absorb nutrient from a bryophyte gametophyte to sporophyte
2) Seta: conducts these mat to sporangium(capsule: use them to
produce spores by meiosis. It has tooth-like structure
named persitone that open under dry condition & close
under moist cond)
3) Have specialized pores called stomata: support photosynthesis
allow exchange CO2 & O2 between outside & inside
Ecological & economic importance of mosses
a. Mosses colonize bare,sandy oil,
b. Liverworts: liver shaped gametophytes help treat liver
diseases, stemlike gametophyte have many leaflike
appendage
c. Hornworts: long,tapered shape of the sporophyte
1) A hornwort sporophyte lacks a seta & consists only
sporangium(release mature spores by splitting open)
Mosses : familiar carpet of moss consist of gametophytes
Origin & traits of vascular plants: had branched sporophyte that
were not dependent on gametophytes for nutrition
Seedless vascular plants: living descendent
adaptation for terr life:
1) vascular tissue, roots, leaves(specialize tissue), lignin:woody tissue,
sporophyte becomes dominant,
Ferns: habitat:typically moist
1) swimming sperm
2) no seeds
3) sporophyte dominant
4) xylem with tracheids
5) to examine meiosis in ferns, you would study the sporangia.
Coal forest: 290-360 million BP,
1) Died in wetlands
2) Fossil fuels : reduced CO2 levels 5 fold
27

3) Global cooling
4) Decline of coal forest? Drier,cooler cond-pangea
5) Permian extinctions
6) Subsequent forests: conifers
c) Transport in Xylem & phloem : vascular tissue.
1) Xylem: conducts most of the water & minerals. Includes
tracheids(tube-shaped cells carry water & minerals up from
roots
a) Water-conducting cell = lignified, help to grow
2) Phloem: distribute sugars,amino acids, other organic products
d) Evolution of roots: evolved in the sporophytes and they absorb
water & nutrient
e) Evolution of leaves: surface area of plant body & serve as primary
photosynthetic
a) Microphylls: (410 million years) small, usually spineshaped
leaves supported by single strand vas tissue. Origanted from
sporangia(on the side of plant)
b) Megaphylls: (370 millions) leaves with highly branched vas
sys
Sporophylls & spores variations:
a) Sporophylls: modified leaves that bear sporangia, produce :
sori(clusters of sporangia).
b) Strobili: groupe of sporophylls form cone-like
c) Most seedless vascular are homosporous( have one type of
sporangium that produces one type of spore=>bisex game
d) Heterosporous: 2 type of sporangia & produces 2 kind of spores :
megasporangia on megasporophylls produce megaspores=>
female gametophyles
e) Microsporangia produce microspores=> male gamet
f) Homosporous spore prod: 1) sporangium on sporophyll=>single
type of sore=>typically a bisexual gametophyte =>1)eggs 2)
sperm
g) Heterosporous spore production: megasporangium on
megasporophyll=megaspore=female gametophyte=eggs
h) megasporangium on megasporophyll=microspore=male
gamet=sperm
classification of seedless vascular plants: lycophytes et pterophytes
1) lycophytes: club mosses,spike mosses, quillworts, most ancient
group,include small herbaceous plants & giant trees. Grow on
tropical trees as epiphytes(plant that use other plants as a
substrate but are not parasites), microphyles, ligning
vascular tissues, moist soil,underground,nourished there by
symbiotic fungi, permanently shady places

28

2) pterophytes : ferns(have megaphylls have sporophyte give rise to

large leaves),horsetails(gritty texture, rings of small leaves),whisk
ferns(dichotomously branching stems but no roots) ,

CHAP 30

what are the key difference between an animal and a plant life cycle:
gymnosperms & angio have the following in common except ovaries
key adaptations of seed plants: pollen, seed, reduction of gametophyte
what are male &female gametophytes: male(pollen)
female(cone,megasporangium2n undergo meiosis to become
megaspore then mitosis that make female gametophyte (n) multicell
embryo sac)
4 key traits present in land plants but absent in charophyte: 1) alter of
generation, ,walled spores produces in sporangia,multicell
gametangia,apical meristems
why reduce the gametophyte:
1) dev within the sporangia
2) nourished by sporophyte
3) protect it from desiccation
4) protect from uv radiation
what is a seed: embryo with food within a protective coat from the
integuments
seed
3 generation: 1) embryo=2n
2) food supply=female gametophytic tissue n
3) seed coat-derived from integument 2n
5) protect it from desiccation
replaces the spore as dispersal phase
more resistant than spore
protects(integument) whole structure is called ovule & nourishes
embryo
common to all seed: reduced
gametophyte(microscopic),pollen,heterospory,ovules
their tiny gametophytes can develop from spores retained within the
sporangia of the parental sporophyte=protect them from env stress
seedless plants are homosporous: produce one kind of spore=give
rise to bisexual gametophyte
pollen
a) replace swimming sperm
b) vehicle for sperm
c) pollen grain:male gametiphyte
d) microspore dev into pollen grain
e) tough protective coating

29

1)

2)
3)

f) if germinates= rise to a pollen tube that discharge sperm in

the female
spore: protective stage before seed. Single-cell
first seed(3n) plants:
when fertilization, zygote grows into a sporophyte embryo=>dev
into seed: the embryo along with a food supply,packaged within
a protective coat derived from the integuments.
gymnosperms: naked seeds, not enclosed by ovary
multicell consisting of embryo protected by a layer of tissue the
seed coat
flowering plants derived traits:
1 flower: reproductive structure
2 fruit: mature ovary containing seeds
3 2x fertilization
angiosperm:
fuction of flower:
2) facilitates fertilization
3) attracts pollinators
4) pollen into the wind
structure of flowers
1) sepals: green & enclose the flower before it opens. steril
2) petals: brightly coloured in most flowers & aid in attracting
pollinators. Steril
3) stamens: produce microspores that develop into pollen grains
containing male gametophyte
4) filament: stalk found in stamen
5) anther: terminal sac where pollen is produce
6) stigma=>style=>ovary=>fertilization
7) monophyletic
8) monocots: 1 cotyledon dicots: 2 cotyledon
9) basal angiosperms: surviving basal angiosperms, 100
species,
10) magnoliids: 800 species, woody & herbaceous
species,related to eudicots & monocots
life cycle:
each male gametophyte has 2 haploid cells:
a) generative cell that divides=>2sperm
b) tubecell=>pollen tube
c) each ovule that develop in ovary has embryo sac
cross-pollination: transfer of pollen from an anther of a flower on
one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same
species=>genetic variability
stick to stigma=>absorb water&germinate=>tube cell produce pollen
tube=>grows down within the carpel=>reach ovary=>pollen tube
penetrate micropyle(pore integuments of the ovule=>discharge 2
30

sperm cell=>one sperm fertilize egg the other one fuse with two
nucleid forming tripoloid cell=>ovule mature into seed,zygote dev a
sporophyte with a rudimentary root & 1 seed leaves called
cotyledons.=> triploid central dev into endosperm(rich in
starch&food)
function of fruit:
1. spread seed
2x fertilization:
one sperm+ovum=zygote
one sperm+ 2 nuclei=endosperm(3n)
why?: 1) prevents squandering food on infertile ovules
synchronize dev of food storage in the seed with the dev of
embryo
2) why do we need pollinators?
Radiation of flowering plants: 1st fossils :140 million BP
Dominant :65 million BP
Newest phylum? Smyho 200000
4 phyla:
phylum cycadophyta: next largest group of gymnosperms. Large
cone & palmlike leaves
phylum gnetophyta: consist of 3 genera:
gnetum,ephedra,welwitschia. Tropical & desert. Group together
based on mol data
phylum Ginkgophyta: deciduous fanlike leaves that turn gold in
autumn.tolerates air pollution well
phylum coniferophyta: largest of the gymnosperm
a)ginkgo :1 species
b)cycads:130 species palm like leaves
c) Gnetophytes : 70 spp in genera
d)conifers :600 species most are evergreen

male cones:
female
gymnosperms bear naked seeds,typically on cones
their seed are exposed on sporopylls that form strobili
31

progymnosperms seedless vascular plants

lived in carboniferous,dominated by
lycophyte,horsetails,ferns & other seedless vascular
plants
conifers: include spruce,pine,fir & redwood
highlights : Life on land is new
Plants: newest kingdom
Angiosperms: newest phylum
Plant: multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryote that develops from
an embryo
4 periods of plant evolution
Adaptations for each
Colonization of land: mosses
Vascularization: ferns
Seeds: conifers
Fruit: flowering plants

chap 31

Characteristics of fungi:
1) Eukaryote
2) Absorptive hetero
3) Sexual repro
4) Haploid,primarily
5) Mushroom poloidy?
6) Continuous cell wall
Def of fungus: absorptive heterotrophic eukaryotes that have
chitinous cells walls
The haplid nuclei of dikaryotic hyphal cells fuse to form a
diploid zygote,spores germinate & then mitotically divide to
form a mycelium, the dominant stage of lice cycle is usually
haploid,many species obtain their nutrients from decaying org
mat
Unique structure:
1) hyphae:filaments of cytoplas & nuclei surrounded by cell wall,
2) Chitinous cells wall
Unique structure(cntd)
1)mycelium :feeding network of hyphae
origin of fungi
1) oldest:460 mya
2) in earliest vascular plants(420mya)

32

3) evolved from unicell,flagellated protest

4) divergence of fungi & animals; 1 bya
unique lifestyles: ecological not taxonomic,
Molds,yeasts,lichens,mycorrhizae
advantage of di- or hetero-karyon:
a) 2 nuclei
b) functionally diplod
c) variability in duration of di or hetero-karyotic stage: key feature in
fungal taxonomy

life cycles : 3 types:

diversity of fungi: 100000 spp
1) 5 phyla:
chytrids( 1000spp) :
a) descendants of ancestral fungi, mainly aquatic
b) parasites
c) only fungi with flagella (on spores) & cell wall made of chitin
d) share enzyme& met pathways with other fungal gr(colonies with
hyphae or stay alon
e) conservation implications? : attacks animals du to climate changes
glomeromycetes
a) 160 spp
b) all endomycorrhizae
c) in plants roots
d) nutrients to plants
e) carbs to fungus
zygomycetes
a) zygote fungi,1000 spp
b) fast growing moulds responsible for causing food to rot.
c) Hyphae spread out over food surface=penetrate & absorb nutrient
d) Hyphae are coenocytic with septa found only where repro cell are
formed
e) Sex repro=mycelia of diff mating types
f) karyogamy in zygosporangium(2n) (produce by plasmogamy)
g) zygosporangium: multinucleate structure, 1st heterokaryotic with
many haploid nuclei from the 2 parents,then with many diploid after

33

karyogamy=resist freezing & drying & metabolic

inactive=>germinates into sporangium & sporangium releases
genetically divers haploid spores that colinize
h) dikaryon : within resistan sporangium
i) karyogamy(make spore and send it all away) when cond favourable
sac fungi: Ascomycota
a) production of spore In sac like asci
b) repro asexually by producing enormours numbers of asexual spores
: conidia(sometime involve in sex repro= fusig with hyphae from a
mycelium of a diff mating
c) 65 000spp, unicell yeast to elaborate cup fungi & morels
d) plasmogamy=>dikaryon: (gene variation) part of ascocarp(hyphae
& asci)=> cells at tip of ascocarp become asci=> karyogamy in
sac-like asci combine 2 parental genomes=>meiosis 4 cell
e) ascocarps: contain spore-forming asci
f) decomposers
club funchi: basidiomycetes
a) 30000, include mutualist & 2 groupe of destructive parasites for
plants: rusts,smuts
b) karyogamy within basidium follow by meiosis
c) long-lived dikaryotic mycelium
d) produce fruiting bodies: basidocarps=derive from basidia. Sex
spore= basidospores scater it by the mushrooms
e) decompose wood/plant mat (lignin)
f) dikaryotic= gene recombination
nutrition & ecology
1) heterotroph, they absorbs
a) secrete powerful hydrolytic enzyme into their surroundings.=
break down complex mol,other use enzynes to penetrate wall of
cell enabling the fungi to absorb from cell
b) decomposer: break down & absorb nutrients from nonliving org
mat
c) parasitic: absorb nutrients from the cells of living host. Some
pathogenic
d) mutualistic : fungi also absorb nutrients from a host organism
but they reciprocate with actions that benefit the host
body structure: multicellular filaments & single cells(yeasts). Many
of them grow as both.
a) Yeast: inhabit moist env, including plant sap & animal tissues,
there is a supply of soluble nutrients=sugar/amino acid. Can
ferment carbohydrates= allows the production of alcohol & CO2 to
allow dough to rise.
b) morphology of multicell fungi enhance their ability to grow into &
absorb nutrients from their surroundings.

34

c) The bodies of these fungi form network of filaments called hyphae

(consist of tubular cell walls surrounding the plasma membrane &
cytoplasm.
d) Fungus wall are done by chitin.
e) Mycelium: interwoven mass formed by fungal hyphae.= maximize
surface to volume ratio= better absorption
f) Mycelium grows rapidly, protein/mat synthesized by the fungus
are channeled through cytoplasmic streaming to the tips of the
extending hyphae. Fungus concentrates its energy & resource on
adding hyphal length & thus overall absorptive surface area rather
than on increasing hyphal girth .
g) They cant move, but the tip of their hyphae can reach far
stuff.
h) Hyphae are divided into cells by septum (crosswall)
i) Septa: have large pore to allow ribo and shit to go out/in
j) Coenocyte fungi: lack of septa. Consist of a continuous
cytoplasmic mass having hundreds of nuclei= result of repeated
division of nuclei without cytokinesis
Specialized hyphae in mycorrhizal fungi
a) Haustoria: use to extract nutrients from plant
host.=mycorrhizae(mutually beneficial relationships between
plant-fungi)
b) Mycorrhizae can improve delivery of phosphate ions & other
minerals to plants because the vast mycelial networks of the fungi
are more efficient than plants roots at acquiring these minerals from
the soil
1) Ectomycorrhizal fungi : form sheats of hyphae over the
surface of a root & typically grow into the extracell space of the
root cortex
2) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: extend branching hyphae
through the root cell wall & into tubes formed by invagination of
the root cell plasma membrane
3) Important in natural eco. Vascular plant rely on them for
essential nutrients
Sexual reproduction
a) Nuclei of fungal hyphae & spores of most fungal species are haploid.
b) Sex begin when hyphae from 2 mycelia release sexual signaling mol
called pheromones. If mycelia is from different mating types, the
pheromones from each partner bind to receptors on the other &
hyphae extend towrd the source of pheromones= genetic
variation by preventing mycelia to bind to the same family
c) Unique life cycle:
1) Haploid hyphae
2) 2-stage syngamy

35

3) plasmogamy: fusion of cytoplasm. Nuclei dont fuse right away,

part of the fused mycelium contain coexisting genetically different
nuclei= heterokaryon
4) sometimes diff nuclei exchange chromosomes & genes like crossing
over
5) create dikaryon: unfused nuclei (heterokaryon)
6) karyogamy: fusion of nuclei=produce diploid cell=forme
zygote/shit=>meiosis restore haploid cdn=>spore=disperse
1) heterokaryon: offers some of the adv of diploidy in that one
haploid genome may compensate for harmful mutation in the other.
2 nuclei,functionally diploid,
7) immediate meiosis
8) spores: haploid cells capable of producing a multicell organism
asexual reproduction:
a) by growing as filamentous fungi that produce spores by mitosis:
such as molds. They may repro sex if they see same member
but diff mating type
b) molds: grow typically rapidly & produce many spores
asexualing=fungi to colonize new sources of food
c) reproduce sex by asexually growing as single-cell yeast=occurs
ordinary cell % or by pinching of small bud cell off a parental cell
origin of fungi: evolved from flagellated ancestor. Some of earliest
have flagella
a) opisthokonts: a clade that refers to the posterior location of the
flagellum in these organism.
b) closely related to several gr of single-cell protest than they are to
animals
c) nucleariids: consists of amoebas that feed on algae & bac
fungi as decomposers: keep env stock with inorganic nutrients
essential for plant growt
fungi as mutualists: affect growth,survival, reproduction
a) fungus-plant: endophytic(live inside leaves without causing harm
mostly ascomycetes and distinc from mycorrhizal because
mycorrhizal function in transfer in the soil, make toxins to protect
plants
b) fungus-animal: break down plant material,ant
c) lichens: between photosynthetic microorganism & fungus in which
million of photosynthetic cell are held in a mass of fungal hyphae
1) asexual rep occur by fragmentation of parental lichen or
formation of soredia(small cluster of hyphae with
embedded alga
2) they also have sex repro
3) formation of soil
4) alga=carbon,cyanobac=fix nitrogen & provide org nitro
compounds,fungi=photosynthetic partners,etc
36

 fungi as pathogens: block of water & nutrient transport=tree dies,

attack food crops= produce toxic compound to humans\
1) mycosis: general term for infection caused by a fungal parasite
practical uses of fungi: decomposer,recycler, without
myccorhizae farmer wont be able

highlights :
Nutrition: absorptive heterotrophs
Structure: hyphae & mycelium
2-stage syngamy
Chytrids: flagella
Zygomycota: dikaryon within resistant sporangium
Glomeromycota: arbuscular mycorrhizae
Ascomycota: dikaryon cup of the fungus
Basidiomycota: dikaryon long-lived mycelium & fruiting body
lifestyles
The haploid nuclei of dikaryotic hyphal cells fuse to form a diploid zygote.
-Many species obtain their nutrients from decaying organic matter.
-Spores germinate and then mitotically divide to form a mycelium.
-The dominant stage of the life cycle is usually haploid

Chap 32

characteristique of an animal:
1) eukaryotes
2) diploid
3) ingestive heterotroph
4) glycogen
5) no cell walls
6) structural proteins,collagen
what is an animal: multicell,ingestive heterotrophic,diploid,eukaryote that
develops from a blastula

37

origin of animals: oldest fossils: 574 mya,pre-cambrain fauna,common

ancestor: 675-875 mya
Cambrian explosion: 37 phyla
0.5 of living phyla appeared 535-525 mya
# phyla decreased since Cambrian
blastopore become anus in human
divide animals into 2 groups:
1) invertebrates vs vertebrates
traditional phylogeny: based on development
easier to follow but wrong
based on mol data
origin of animals:
1) sponges
2) no true tissues
3) integrated group of cells with common fct & isolated by
membranous layers
tissues & radial symmetry
1) diploblastic : endo-&ecto-derm
2) radiate: living descendants?:Cnidarians
3) cnidarians: hydrozoansjellyfish,sea anemones,corais
bilateral symmetry,triploblastic
1) third tissue: mesoderm
2) identical twins are possible in starfish & reptiles
deuterostomes: echinoderms & chordates. Symmetry: dilateral larvae,
radial adult
ecdysozoans: ecdysis,nematodes,arthropods
lophotrochozoans: all others
1) flatworms,molluscs,annelids,ribbon worms
only 2 groups of truly terrestrial aniamals? :
1) vertebrates tetrapods: 360 mya
2) insects :300 mya(fern galls)
highlights: animal: heterotrophic,diploid,euk that dev from a blastula
origins :precambran seas
notissues: sponges
2tissues,radially symme
make a cladogram ON FINAL

CHAP 32

Choanoflagellates are among the closest living relative to animals.

nutritional mode: animals(ingest) differ form plant(photosynthetic) &
fungi(absorptive heterotroph)

38

 cell structure & specilialization: animal dont have cell wall instead
they have proteins external to the cell membrane providing them
structural support
1) muscle cells & nerve cells are only for animals
2) they are organized into tissues(group of cell that have common
structural, fct)
reproduction & development: sperm & egg are produced directly by
meiotic
%=>fertilization=>zygote=>cleavage=>blastula=>gastrulation=>ga
strula
1) some animal have larva. Its a sexually immature form that differ
from the adult form but then they go metamorphosis that will
develop them into a juvenile form but still dont have sexually
mature.
2) Gene that control animal develop are the same across a big range
of taxa. They have gene that regulate expression of other genes
and they contain homeoboxe.
Neoproterozoic era: (1 billion-542 mya):
1) Ediacaran biota: early group of soft body multicell eukaryote
2) Some fossils are unclassifiable because they are not related
to animal
3) Time of increasing animal diversity
Paleozoic era(542-251mya): Cambrian explosion,vertebrates made
transition to land around 365 mya & diversified into numerous
terrestrial groups where 2 of them still exist: amphibians
(frogs&shit) and amniote(reptiles,birds mammal)
Mesozoic era: angiosperms & insects had big diversification
Cenozoic era: mass extinctions of both terrestrial & marine animals
ushered in a new era Cenozoic.
1) Climate cooled down= triggered shifts in many animal lineages
Animal can be characterize by body plan.
Body plant: set of morphological & developmental traits integrated
into a functional whole
a) Symmetry
1) Radial symmetry: top and bottom no front & back,left,right\
2) Bilateral symmetry: front(anterior) to back(posterior) &
top(dorsal)to bottom(ventral), left,right.
3) Bilaterally symmetrical body plan have sensory equipment
concentrated at their anterior end,including nervous system an
evolutionary trend called cephalization. And they move. They
are triploblastic
b) Tissues: true tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from
other tissues by membranous layers.
1) Embryo becomes layered through the process of gastrulation
2) Diploblastic: have ectoderm & endoderm

39

c)

3) Triploblastic: ecto,endo,meso
Body cavities: a fluid or air filled space located between the
digestive tract & the outer body wall.mostly triploblast
1) Coelom: tissue derived from mesoderm. Aka coelomates
2) Pseudocoelomate: body cavitie form from meso & endo
3) Acoelomates: lack a body cavity altogether
4) Function: fluid cushions,prevent internal,injury
Protostome & deuterostome
1) cleavage
a) Protostome undergo Cleavage: protostome development
undergo spiral cleavage, plan of cell % are diagonal to vertical
b) Determinae cleavage: rigidly cast
c) Deuterostome is characterized by radial cleavage. Parrallelle
or perpendicular to the vertical axis of the embryo. They also have
indeterminate cleavage
2) Coelom formation:
a) As archeteron form in protostome development, the solid masses
of mesoderm cells split to form the fluid-filled cavity,the coelom
3) Fate of the blastopore: prot & deuteron differ in the fate of
blastopore
a) In protostome development, the mouth dev from the first
opening
b) Deuteron mouth derived from the secondary opening &
blastopore usually forms the anus
Based on cladistics methods, phylogenetic tree takes shape as a
hierarchy of clades nested within larger clades(finer & thicker branches
respectively). Clades are inferred from shared derived character that
are unique to memebers of the clade
1) Points of agreement:
a) All animals share a common ancestor
b) Sponges are basal animals
c) Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues:
eumetazoans(true animal) include the phyla ctenophore &
cnidarian are diploblastic & generally have radial symmetry
d) Most animal phyla belong to the clade bilateria: Cambrian
explosion was primarily a rapid diversification of bilaterians
e) Chordates & some other phyla belong to the clade
deuterostomia: include vertebrates & chordates
Ecdysozoans: refers to a characteristic shared by
nematodes,arthropods & some other ecdysozoan phyla
Lophotrochozoans:refers to 2 different features observed in some
animal
a) Lophophore: a crown of ciliated tentacles that fct in feeding
b) Trochophore larva: molluscs,annelids
Chap 52
40

Whats ecology?
a) The scientific study of : interaction between organism &
environment or distribution & abundance of organisms
2 great env issues of our time: climate change & biodiversity crisis
what is the current population of humans on earth?
% changes: last 20 years
a) world pop: +29%
b) Canadian pop: +22%
c) Atmospheric CO2: +11%
d) Fossil fuel consumption: +52%
e) # malnourished people on Earth +9%
2 aapproaches to ecology/ science
a) reductionism-seeks answers at lower levels of hierarchy
b) reducing complex systems to simpler components
c) traditional science
2 holism: holism-seek answers at the same or higher levels of analysis
by examining , emergent properties
a) novel properties that emerge at each level
b) invisible to reductionist
c) become apparent to holist
2 approaches to asthma:
a) reductionistic
b) holistic
emergent properties :
a) individuals
b) age,size,clutchsize,lifespan,ersonality
c) density,dispersion,growth rate
d) communities
e) S,species diversity,successional stage,species interactions
f) Ecosystems
g) Efficiency of nutrient cycling,energy flow,transfer efficiency
Ask new questions at all 4 levels:
a) Individual level?
b) Cold water caused poor reproduction?
c) Population level?
d) Overharvesting
e) Community leve?
f) Predation inhibiting recovery of the cod?
g) Ecosystem?
h) Atlantic ecosystems now fundamentally changed?
The environment has 2 components:
a) Abiotic
b) Biotic

41

Why do we care about climate: predict

4 aabiotic components of climate:
a) temperature
b) precipitation
c) sunlight
d) wind
mtl climate:
a) how many hours of sunlight today? 9hours 51 min
b) shortest day: dec 21-8hours 42min
c) longest day: june 21-15hours 42 min
d) when does daylength changes the fastest: 3 min/day near the
equinoxes,2 s/day around the soltices
global climate pattern
1) latitude
a) warm at the equator & cold at the poles
b) angle of incidence of the sun
2) : seasons: tilt of the earth : 23.5 degree
a) where is the sun overhead on : june 21: 23.5N
b) dec 21: 23.5S
c) march 21 & sept 21: equator
3) wind & precipitation-1st principles
a) cold air denser than warm
b) air cools as it rises
c) warm air holds more moisture than cold
d) earth rotates

42