Stability of slopes cut

in metasedimentary saprolites
in Hong Kong
A. Aydin I. Egeli

Abstract The increasing number of cut slopes in

Hong Kong, its rugged topography, high population
density and scarcity of land, in addition to the
complex nature of the weathered rock masses and
adverse climatic conditions, inevitably magnify the
potential for cut slope failures. With the extension of
residential and infrastructural development into the
New Territories in Hong Kong, a large number of
slopes are cut in weathered proles derived from
metasedimentary rocks. This paper reviews the engineering properties of the saprolitic soils in these
proles, presents case studies of the eld performance of cut slopes, analyses possible mechanisms
of instability and provides recommendations on the
current local practice of remedial measures.
Resume Le nombre croissant deblais a Hong Kong
entrane inevitablement certains problemes, pour les
raisons suivantes: topographie accidentee, haute
densite de la population et rarete du terrain disponible. A ceci s'ajoutent la nature complexe des
masses rocheuses exposees aux intemperies ainsi
que les conditions climatiques defavorables du
territoire. Avec le developpement de zones residentielles et d'infrastructures dans les Nouveaux
Territoires du nord de Hong Kong, un grand nombre de deblais sont realises dans des prols
d'alteration developpes sur des roches metasedimentaires. Cet expose analyse les proprietes mecaniques des sols saprolitiques de ces prols, presenter
des cas concrets de deblais etudie les mecanismes

Received: 21 February 2001 / Accepted: 15 April 2001

Published online: 10 July 2001
Springer-Verlag 2001
A. Aydin (&)
Department of Earth Sciences,
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
e-mail: aaydin@hkucc.hku.hk
I. Egeli
Maunsell Geotechnical Services Ltd.,
Harbour City, Hong Kong

potentiels d'instabilite et nalement propose des

recommandations inspirees des pratiques locales
pour traiter ces problemes de stabilite.
Keywords Engineering geology Slope stability
Metasedimentary rocks Saprolite Microfabric
collapse
Mots cles Geologie de l'ingenieur Stabilite des
pentes Roches metasedimentaires Saprolite
Effondrement de microtexture

Introduction
With a high population density in the limited area of Hong
Kong, development increasingly occurs on cut slopes.
However, in view of the complex nature of the weathered
rock masses and the climatic conditions, the potential for
failures is considerable. Although the number of fatalities
seems to be decreasing, due to increasing public awareness
and effective implementation of geo-environmental management programmes such as landslide preventive measures (LPM), the risk to property and the social impact of
slope failures are rising steadily.
With the extension of residential and infrastructural development into the New Territories, a large number of
slopes are cut in weathered proles derived from metasedimentary rocks. This paper reviews the engineering
properties of the saprolitic soils in these proles, presents
case studies of the eld performance of slopes cut into
these soils, analyses possible mechanisms of instability
and provides recommendations on the current local
practice as regards remedial measures. It is intended both
to provide practical guidance and to promote future
studies on the subject.
In this paper, the term saprolite refers to that part of the
weathering prole where the soil largely preserves its
original rock fabric and volume. The uppermost section
(generally less than 2 m) of the soil over saprolites is
considered as true or mature residual soils (or as lateritic
soils; e.g., Sowers 1963; Deere and Patton 1971). The
mature and the saprolitic soils together are often referred
to as (tropical) residual soils. Saprolites consist of
materials dominantly decomposed to grades IV and V
DOI 10.1007/s100640100121

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315

A. Aydin I. Egeli

(according to the six-fold weathering classication system; direct shear tests (at rN: 100 kPa) while the friction angle
e.g., GSL 1995).
remains essentially unchanged (Sandroni 1985).
A typical feature of metamorphic rock fabric is the pervasive planes of weakness in the form of lamination, foliation and schistosity. Costa Filho et al. (1989), as a result
of direct shear, triaxial, oedometer and permeability tests
Engineering properties
on saprolitic soils derived from granitic gneiss, concluded
that structural anisotropy is not a dominant factor in their
of metasedimentary saprolites
geomechanical behaviour in advanced stages of weatherMetamorphosed clastic sedimentary rocks in Hong Kong ing. However, the data presented in Table 2 clearly indiinclude mainly metasiltstones and metasandstones, which cate that both shear strength and permeability are
are often interbedded with phyllite and thin layers of signicantly affected by the relict rock fabric in saprolitic
graphite schist (Lai et al, 1996). The quartz content in the soils.
metasandstones is higher (6080%) than in the metasilt- An important property of saprolitic (young residual) soils
stones (5060%). The clay size matrix in both rock types is is their bonded structure. Due to this bonding, they exhibit
recrystallised to sericite, which imparts a strong preferred yield behaviour in consolidation and a shear strength intercept in shear, as in overconsolidated transported soils.
orientation to the rock.
Weathering processes in humid climates result in deep In granitic and gneissic residual soils, yield stress can be as
weathering proles reaching depths of tens of metres. low as 50 kPa (Fookes 1997). Mechanisms leading to yield
Consequently, an overwhelming majority of slopes are cut and shear intercept at low normal stress levels have not
within these proles. It is therefore essential to understand been investigated in most metasedimentary saprolitic
the weathering-induced changes in the engineering prop- soils.
erties of the various rock types. Due to their limited ex- Most of the studies are focused on the soil grades of
posure in the residential areas in Hong Kong, few local weathering and data on the intermediate grades are rare.
studies are available on the engineering properties and Komoo and Yaakub (1990) suggested descriptive material
behaviour of the metasedimentary rocks and saprolitic and mass weathering classication systems for Malaysian
soils. Additionally, in the literature, reference to schist and metamorphic rocks based on the extent of discoloration,
gneiss is usually made with no indication of their parent preservation of texture and friability. They also conducted
rocks igneous or sedimentary. Although the resulting a series of index tests to quantitatively characterise profabric and hence the properties may be expected to be gressive deterioration in the engineering properties of
similar, there is an element of uncertainty as to whether phyllite, schist and quartzite (Table 3).
they actually represent gneiss and schist derived from The performance of various metasedimentary saprolites in
different ground engineering works in Ghana and Brazil is
sedimentary rocks.
A survey of typical values from physical and classication briey discussed by Gidigasu (1985) and Sandroni (1985),
tests of some Brazilian saprolitic soils is given in Table 1. respectively.
The ranges of each parameter signicantly overlap among
different metasedimentary saprolites. It is therefore essential to complement the classication with an understanding of the mineralogy of the constituent grains. For
Case studies of cut slope failures
example, increasing biotite content in different types of
coarse-grained gneissic residual soils is found to decrease An account of two slope failures in Caracas, Venezuela, is
shear strength (Sandroni 1985). The Atterberg limit tests given by Tinico and Salcedo (1981). These roadside slopes
are also greatly inuenced by the presence of mica in the were cut in weathered sericite-quartz phyllites and quartz
soil, leading to underestimation of the plasticity index mica schists and had a simple geometry. Failure surfaces
(Gidigasu 1985). The cohesion of micaceous residual soils were located in phyllites, along foliation planes and posis reduced two- to three-fold on submergence prior to sibly through intervening rock bridges, weakened as a

Table 1
Physical and classication properties of Brazilian metasedimentary saprolitic soils. SG Specic gravity; e in-situ void ratio; LL liquid limit;
PI plasticity index. (After Sandroni 1985)
Rock type

SG

Sand 0.055 mm
(%)

Clay <2 lm
(%)

LL
(%)

PI
(%)

Gneiss
Foliated quartzite
Schist
Phyllite and slate

2.602.80
2.652.75
2.702.90
2.752.90

0.31.1
0.50.9
0.61.2
0.91.3

40100
1070
1070
050

015
010
030
1540

2060a
3065a
3575
3080

530
1030
1540
1040

316

Frequently pseudo-plastic in the LL cup

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Stability of slopes cut in metasedimentary saprolites in Hong Kong

Table 2
Engineering properties of saprolitic soils derived mostly from metasedimentary rocks. K Permeability; c shear strength intercept; / internal
friction angle; w and ^ direct (or triaxial) shear tests parallel and normal to foliation planes, respectively; rN applied normal (or axial) stress
Rock type

K (m/s)

c (kPa) and / ()
w

Phyllite

c: 0300

Ferritic quartzite

c: 20
/: 37
c: 40
/: 22
c: 78
/: 28
c: 10
/: 29
c: 0
/: 29
c: 3.5, /: 34

Micaceous
quartzite
Schist
Micaceous
phyllite
Phyllite and
metasandstone
Schist
Gneiss

0.1 to 2.010 (^)

0.2 to 5.0104 (w)
9.5108 to 1.9106
1.9107 to 4.8106
9.5107 to 4.8106

Remarks

Source

rN: 100700 kPa

Tinico and Salcedo

(1981)
Sandroni (1985)

c: 50
/: 44
c: 45
/: 27
c: 100
/: 27
c: 60
/: 41

Partially saturated;
rN: 50500 kPa

Laminated
(silty sand)
Schistose
(sandy silt)
Laminated
(silty sand)
Schistose (silt)

rN: 01,000 kPa

c: 48, /: 21 (50% saturation)

c: 70, /: 15 (100% saturation)

Durci and Vargas

(1983) in Costa
Filho et al. (1989)
Greenway et al.
(1987)

C-U triaxial tests;

rN: 0300 kPa
C-U triaxial tests;
rN: 0100 kPa
(Laboratory; ^)
(Laboratory; w)
(Field)

Sowers (1963)
Costa Filho and
Vargas (1985) in
Blight (1997)

Table 3
Weathering-induced variations in some physical index properties of metasedimentary rocks. q Dry density; n porosity; ISD slake durability
index (second cycle); IPL point load index; UCS uniaxial compressive strength. (After Komoo and Yaakub 1990)
Term

Grade

q
(g/cm3)

n
(%)

ISD
(%)

IPL
(MPa)

UCS
(MPa)

Completely
Highly
Moderately
Slightly
Fresh

V
IV
III
II
I

<2.00
2.002.25
2.252.45
2.452.55
>2.55

>0.12
0.060.12
0.020.06
<0.02

020
080
8095
95100
-

<0.1
0.10.5
0.53.0
3.06.0
>6.0

<5
520
2080
80140
>140

result of weathering. The failures took place 15 years after

construction, implying a gradual deterioration of stability
rather than a sudden loss of strength during a peak rainfall
event.
Greenway et al. (1987) describe a series of slope failures on
very steep temporary slopes near Fanling (New Territories,
Hong Kong). The slopes were cut in weathered metasandstones, metasiltstones and phyllites. All of the failures
were attributed to the presence of relict joints and weak
foliation planes owing to the parallel orientation of ne
mica grains. The limited extent of these failures was attributed to the waviness and complex folding of the rock
mass. Only the largest of the failures, 100 m3, occurred
during a moderate rainfall, some time after the excavation.
Experience from these small-scale structurally controlled
failures indicates a potential for larger-scale failures in the
long term.
Recent observations of instabilities in two multi-berm
slopes cut in metasedimentary saprolites are reported below. The observation sites are located in the Northern New
Territories near Shaling (site 1) and Shau Tau Kok (site 2)
respectively. Prior to its failure and reconstruction, site 1
was a ve-berm slope cut in weathered metasiltstone with

an overall inclination of 30. The slope starts from a sideroad level and reaches a height of 30 m, with an additional
30 m high, uncovered upper section. The lowest section
was covered with chunam while the upper section has
natural vegetation cover. At the time of the eld study,
scars of small-scale failures and tension cracks were
common features in the upper slopes. The chunam cover
was in a soaked condition in places and severely cracked
with large deformations. The slope was designed with a
standard grid of weep holes which were clearly ineffective
due to their short lengths and/or blockage.
Site 2 consists of 14- to 16-berm contiguous multiple cut
slopes in weathered metasiltstone. The lower half of these
slopes was about 105135 m high and covered with nonreinforced shotcrete. The upper half was left uncovered,
acting as a catchment area. Parts of the lower section repeatedly failed after every major rainstorm during the rst
wet season, considered as a sign of overall instability. In
response, the original slope angle of about 40 was reduced
in stages to 25, representing a lower bound for the residual internal friction angle for such metasediments
(Table 2). In sections where attening was not possible,
external reinforcement measures such as buttressing were
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A. Aydin I. Egeli

angles. Free, unblocked drainage and, to a lesser extent,

loss of inltrating water by evapotranspiration contribute
to the better performance of natural slopes.
The installation of long horizontal drains is a widely
practised drainage and slope stabilisation measure in Hong
Kong (Martin and Siu 1996). However, the effectiveness of
this method depends on intercepting the hydraulically
active zones within the slope and preventing blockage
within and around the pipes. Au (1997) suggests installation of horizontal drains using the observational method
and routine maintenance and ushing of the drains when
required. It should be noted that logarithmically increased
velocities within the immediate vicinity of the intake area
lead to leaching of nes and internal erosion. This can
Analysis of instability mechanisms will
result in a better performance of the drains with a naturally
enhanced permeability zone, but may lead to the formation
It was noted that the material beneath the chunam- and
of a cavity collapse in the longer term.
shotcrete-covered surfaces of the cut slopes examined at
both sites had reduced in volume. As it was in a saturated
state, this could not be attributed to shrinkage upon drying. The loss of nes by the process of illuviation was also
considered unlikely as the nes content was assessed to be
Conclusions and recommendations
unchanged in the stripped sections. A possible mechanism
for the volume reduction is the collapse of the skeletal Analysis of case studies reveals that rainfall not only
structure, as a result of a loss of the stabilising effects of triggers failures but also contributes to the internal detecapillary menisci between particles (Fookes 1997). Al- rioration of slopes in many different ways. Cost-effective
though such collapse is a natural process of soil formation, long-term stabilisation measures should therefore include:
it is accelerated in engineered environments. Loss of
1. Surface protection to minimise the uncovered areas
particle bonding with the reduction in the matrix suction
against direct inltration.
(uauw) beyond a threshold saturation level, due to the
2. Deep cut-off trenches to prevent the horizontal ow
damming of natural drainage paths behind the surface
from the unprotected upper slopes reaching the lower
cover, may be responsible for this unforeseen behaviour.
slopes along high permeability zones.
Without this damming effect, the level of saturation of the
3. Long horizontal drains to intercept groundwater
material, with a very ne-grained matrix and signicant
movement before it reaches and fully saturates material
ow anisotropy, could not be attained, especially under
in the vicinity of the covered slope faces.
relatively high overburden pressures.
The collapse substantially reduces the permeability of the On an engineering time-scale, the fate of reinforcement
material, which in turn may create a highly conductive measures such as soil nails and rock bolts is uncertain due
interface between two less impermeable layers, the shot- to accelerated weathering. The attening of cut slopes to
crete cover and the collapsed zone. Connement and residual friction angles should therefore be preferred for
buildup of water pressure within this interface forces both long-term stability, especially in areas of new developsides to deform, hence enlarging the void space at the ments in weathered metasedimentary terrain. The inuinterface. However, the possibility of local shear failure ence of surface protection and reinforcement measures on
upon soaking a highly stressed unsaturated soil (Fookes weathering rate is currently under investigation.
1997) may explain some of the excessive deformation The engineering properties and behaviour of metasedifeatures observed on chunam and shotcrete surfaces.
mentary saprolites have not been as intensely studied as
The collapse of the skeletal structure is a common process those of igneous and sedimentary saprolites. Progressive
in granites that are completely weathered and highly lea- weathering-induced weakening over an engineering timeched such that they have a metastable structure with a scale and collapse due to sudden and/or intense saturation
large void ratio (Brink and Kantey 1961; Lumb 1962). behind the protected surfaces may have an overriding
However, only limited test results are available on the inuence on the performance of slopes, the stability of
microfabric and collapse potential of metasediments. In which is normally structurally controlled. More research is
addition, the problem of accelerated weathering and as- needed to examine the mineralogy (e.g., types and abunsociated failure mechanisms in relation to the performance dance of clays and micas), microfabric (e.g., bonding,
of cut slopes in engineering time-scales is a general porosity and foliation) and geochemical properties (e.g.,
problem to be addressed.
type and extent of decomposition processes) of metaseThe importance of drainage measures in cut slopes with dimentary saprolites. Such research will contribute sigsurface protection is evidenced by the fact that natural nicantly to the understanding of the effects of wetting, the
slopes in these metasedimentary saprolites are often in- degree of saturation and matrix suction on their volume
clined at much steeper angles than their residual friction change behaviour during shear and consolidation.
adopted. Internal reinforcement in the original slope using
soil nailing was not effective due to the loosening of the
matrix upon wetting. As in the rst site, weep holes were
ineffective in draining inltrating water, creating a nonuniform pore pressure distribution within the slope. The
buildup of pore pressures behind the shotcreted surface
was manifesting itself in the form of wet/dripping areas.
Inspection of the shotcrete with hammer blows revealed
gaps underneath the cover at many locations, which was
conrmed when the cover was stripped. This indicated a
reduction in the volume of the material.

318

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