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DESIGN HANDBOOK
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SECOND EDITION
PRESSURE
VESSEL
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
PRESSURE
VESSEL
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
Second
Edition
Henry H. Bednar, P.E
TECHNIP ITALY s.P .A.

BIBLIOTECA
INVENTARIO N
fi
<Jei3.!.??
42ti
KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

MALABAR, FLORIDA
Preface to Second Edition

Second Edition 1986
Reprint Edition 1991
In revising the
first edition
the intent has been to improve the
book by enlarging its scope. The stress

methods
been greatly enhanced in accuracy by numerical methods. These
reference
Printed and Published by
KRBEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

KRDEGER DRIVE
MALABAR, FLORIDA 32950
Copyright
as a
repre-
available to a stress analyst.

sent a great addition to the analytical techniques
numerical methods with

Therefore, chapter 12 describing the most important
text new material and
the
Throughout
illustrative examples has been added.
new
1986 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
illustrative
Inc.
technical
Reprinted by Arrangement
book
can be of
errors have
All rights reserved.
handbook
analysis of pressure vessels has
No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including information storage and retrieval systems

without permission in writing from the publisher.
No liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein.
Printed in the United States of America.
It
little
examples have also been added. The writer believes that any
in
which the theory
is
not clarified by
illustrative
use to a practicing designer engineer. Also
examples,
some typographical
been corrected.
should be kept in mind that practical engineering
is
not an absolute exact
and unknown quantities so that

stresses can be made, particularly in
and
forces
of
estimate
reasonable
only a
practice do not have
involved problems. Almost all problems in engineering
science. There are too
many
variable factors
more
a single-value answer,
and usually they require a comparison of
alternatives for
solution.
Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data

Bednar, Henry H.
Pressure vessel design handbook / Henry H. Bednar.
p.
cm.
Reprint. Originally published: 2nd. ed.
New York Van Nostrand

:
proceed in every
Therefore, no definite rules can be given for deciding how to
designer must
The
inflexibly.
case, and the rules laid down cannot be applied
since he bears
judgment
personal
be guided by his former experience and his best
design.
the final responsibility for the adequacy of the
offered conto extend his gratitude to all readers who
would like
comments, particularly to Dr. A. S. Tooth of University of Strathclyde,
saddle supports.
Glasgow, Scotland for his comments on the stresses in shells at
The
writer
structive
Reinhold, cl986.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-89464-503-X (lib. bdg. acid-free paper)
:
1.
etc.
Pressure vessels Design and construction Handbooks, manuals,

I.
Title.
TA660.T34B44 1990
681'.76041-dc20
90-5043
CIP
10
Henry
H.
Bednar
Preface to
First Edition
for engineers who are enThis handbook has been prepared as a practical aid
vessels has to be done
gaged in the design of pressure vessels. Design of pressure
rules for satisfactory
accord with specific codes which give the formulas and
the codes leave
and safe construction of the main vessel components. However,
many design
solve
use
to
methods he will
it up to the designer to choose what
engiaccepted
latest
the
using
problems; in this way, he is not prevented from
neering analytical procedures.
in
scientific trainis based on many factors, including

knowledge of
data,
empirical
with
familiarity
judgment,
sound engineering
and available
years,
the
over
gained
experience
codes and standards,
Efficiency in design
ing,
work
design
technical information.
design
Much
of pressure vessels
of the technical information currently used in the

scattered among many publications and is not
is
available in the standard textbooks
on the strength of
materials.
practical vessel design.

This book covers most of the procedures required in
given here, and have
Solutions to the design problems are based on references
are encountered
they
as
long-time use; examples are presented
been proven by
solutions for a
in practice. Unfortunately, exact analytical
number of problems
compromises have to be made.
known at the present time and

calculation proMost engineering offices have developed their own vessel
this book will
that
hoped
is
it
However,
cedures, most of them computerized.
practical
are not
techniques, will conprovide the designer with alternative economical design

methods
in use, and will be
design
the
of
tribute to his better understanding
recomputer-generated
of
verifications
or
computations
convenient when hand
sults
have to be made.
the symbols as
particular system of notation has been adopted. Usually
defined as they occur.
and
used
are
sources
technical
particular
appear
in
they
Only the most important references are given for more detailed study.
No
Boiler
assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of the ASME
1
and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Pressure Vessels, Division
companies
The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the societies and
It is
for permission to use their published material.

to the editorial
Finally, the writer also wishes to express his thanks
and pro-
completion
duction staff of the Publisher for their contribution to a successful
of
this
book.
Henry
H.
Bednar
Contents
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION /v
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION /vii

1.
2.
DESIGN LOADS II
1.1.
Introduction /
1.2.
Design Pressure/
1.3.
Design Temperature / 3
1.4.
1.5.
Dead Loads/4
Wind Loads/
1.6.
Earthquake Loads/ 13
1.7.
Piping Loads/ 21
1.8.
Combinations of the Design Loads/ 22
STRESS CATEGORIES AND DESIGN LIMIT STRESSES/ 24

2.1. Introduction/ 24
2.2. Allowable Stress

2.3.
VIII, Division
2.4.
Range
for Self-Limiting
General Design Criteria of
Loads/ 25
ASME
Pressure Vessel Code, Section
ASME
Pressure Vessel Code, Section
1/26
General Design Criteria of
2/29
Design Remarks/ 38
VIII, Division
2.5.
3.
MEMBRANE STRESS ANALYSIS OF VESSEL SHELL

COMPONENTS/ 39
3.1.
Introduction/ 39
3.2.
Membrane
3.3.
Cylindrical Shells/ 46
3.4.
Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads/ 55
Stress Analysis of Thin-Shell Elements /43
3.5.
Semiellipsoidal Heads/ 59
3.6.
Torispherical
3.7.
Conical Heads/ 66
3.8.
Toroidal Shells/ 71
3.9.
Design of Concentric Toriconical Reducers under Internal
Heads/ 62
Pressure/ 73
ix
CONTENTS
xi
CONTENTS
4.
.
DESIGN OF TALL CYLINDRICAL SELF-SUPPORTING

PROCESS COLUMNS/ 80
4.1. Introduction/
4.2. Shell
External Constraints/ 242
9.4.
Internal Constraints/ 244
9.5.
80
9.6.
Thickness Required for a Combination of Design Loads/ 81
Thermal Stress Ratchet under Steady Mechanical Load/ 254

Design Consideration/ 256
WELD
Support Skirts/ 85
4.4.
10.1.
Introduction/ 259
10.2.
4.6.
Anchor Bolts/ 91
Wind-Induced Deflections of Tall Columns / 103
Wind-Induced Vibrations/ 107
4.7.
First Natural Period of Vibration/ 121
10.4.
Groove Welds/ 260

Fillet Welds/ 264
Plug Welds/ 277
4.8. Illustrative
10.
10.3.
Example / 129
10.5.
10.6.
SUPPORTS FOR SHORT VERTICAL VESSELS/ 143

5.1.
Support Legs/ 143
5.2.
Support Lugs/ 153
10.7.
10.8.
10.9.
6.
DESIGN OF SADDLE SUPPORTS FOR LARGE HORIZONTAL

CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSELS/ 161
11.
General Considerations / 161

6.2. Maximum Longitudinal Bending Stress in the Shell/ 161
6.3. Maximum Shear Stresses in the Plane of the Saddle / 165
6.4.
6.5.
Circumferential Stress
Horn of the Saddle / 169

Head Used as a Stiffener/ 172
at the
Additional Stresses in a
6.6.
Ring Compression
6.7.
Design of Ring Stiffeners/ 175
6.8.
Design of Saddles / 177
in the Shell
over the Saddle / 173
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
SHELLS DUE TO LOADS ON
ATTACHMENTS/ 186
General Considerations/ 284
11.2.
Noncorrosive Service/ 285
11.3.
Corrosive Service/ 290
11.4.
Bolting Materials/ 293
11.5.
Stainless Steels/296
11.6.
Selection of Steels for
8.
7.1.
Introduction/ 186
7.3.
Reinforcement of Openings for Operating Pressure / 186

Spherical Shells or Heads with Attachments / 188
7.4.
Cylindrical Shells with Attachments/ 193
7.5.
Design Considerations/ 208
7.6.
Line Loads/ 210
DISCONTINUITY STRESSES/ 217

8.1.
Introduction/ 217
8.2.
Procedure for Computing Discontinuity Stresses by the Force
8.3.
Cylindrical Shells/ 221
8.4.
Hemispherical Heads/ 226
8.5.
Semiellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads/ 230
8.6.
Conical Heads and Conical Reducers without Knuckles/ 230
Method/ 220
9.
THERMAL STRESSES/ 241

9.1.
General Considerations/ 241
9.2. Basic
Thermal Stress Equations/ 241
Hydrogen Service/306
Aluminum Alloys/ 309
NUMERICAL METHODS FOR STRESS ANALYSIS OF

AXISYMMETRIC SHELLS /312
12.1. Introduction/
312
12.4.
Element Analysis, (FEA) Displacement Method/314

Finite Element Analysis, Force Method/ 376
Method of Stepwise Integration/ 380
12.5.
Method of
12.2.
7.2.
Welding Processes/ 281

Weld Symbols/ 283
11.1.
11.7.
12.
Design Allowable Stresses for Welded Joints/ 278

Stress Concentration Factors for Welds/ 279
Defects and Nondestractive Examinations of Welds/ 280
SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS/ 284
6.1.
7.
DESIGN/ 259
4.3.
4.5.
5.
9.3.
12.3.
Finite
Finite Differences /381
APPENDICES
/ 385
Al. Wind, Earthquake and Lowest One-Day Mean Temperature Maps/
387
A2. Geometric and Material Charts for Cylindrical Vessels/ 389
A3. Skirt Base Details/ 391
A4. Sliding Supports for Vertical and Horizontal Vessels/ 392
A5. Glossary of Terms Relating to the Selection of Materials/ 394
A6.
A7.
A8.
A9.
A10.
Standard Specifications Pertaining to Materials/ 404
Flanges/ 405
Elementary Matrix Algebra/410

References/ 416
Abbreviations and Symbols/423
INDEX/ 429
PRESSURE
VESSEL
DESIGN
HANDBOOK
Design Loads
1.1.
INTRODUCTION
are referred to as
The forces applied to a vessel or its structural attachments
in vessel design is to
loads and, as in any mechanical design, the first requirement
which the vessel
determine the actual values of the loads and the conditions to
basis
of past experion
the
will be subjected in operation. These are determined
ence, design codes, calculations, or testing.

A design engineer should determine conditions and
all
pertaining data as
conservative. The principal

thoroughly and accurately as possible, and be rather
are:
vessels
pressure
of
design
loads to be considered in the
design pressure (internal or external),
dead loads,
wind
loads,
earthquake loads,
temperature loads,
piping loads,
impact or cyclic loads.
Many
must
possible; the designer

different combinations of the above loadings are
loads for an ecosimultaneous
of
probable combination
select the
most
nomical and safe design.

one of the following
Generally, failures of pressure vessels can be traced to
areas:
material: improper
as
selection for the service environment; defects, such
inclusions or laminations; inadequate quality control;

design:
tions
engineering computaincorrect design conditions; carelessly prepared

absence of
specifications; oversimplified design computations in the
and
available correct analytical solutions;
and inadequate shop
testing;
procedures; inadequate infabrication: improper or insufficient fabrication

as stainless steels;
such
materials
spection; careless handling of special
DESIGN LOADS
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN HANDBOOK
change of service conditions to more severe ones without adequate

provision; inexperienced maintenance personnel; inadequate inspection for
service;
Design pressure is the pressure used to determine the minimum required thickness of each vessel shell component, and denotes the difference between the
internal
openings in the vessel wall.

vessel shell
must be designed
and the external pressures (usually the design and the atmospheric presIt includes a suitable margin above the operating pressure
(10 percent of operating pressure or 10
is
5 psi.
Minimum
psi
minimum)
design pressure for a
plus any static head of
Code nonvacuum
For smaller design pressures the Code stamping
is
vessel
not required. Vessels
with negative gauge operating pressure are generally designed for full vacuum.
The maximum allowable working (operating) pressure is. then, by the Code
gauge pressure permissible at the top of the comoperating position at the designated temperature. It is based
definition, the
maximum
pleted vessel in
its
DESIGN TEMPERATURE
1.3.
Design temperature
is
more
a design environmental condition than a design load,
since only a temperature change
increased brittleness with falling temperature, and the accompanying dimensional changes are just a few of the phenomena to be taken into account for the
Code definition, the required thickness is the minimum vessel wall

thickness as computed by the Code formulas, not including corrosion allowance;
heat transfer formulas and,
By
is
the
minimum
ance; the nominal thickness
is
required thickness plus the corrosion allow-
the rounded-up design thickness as actually used
from commercially available material.

the nominal vessel thickness minus corrosion allowance
in building the vessel

If
The required Code
design temperature
is
larger than the
required thickness, either the design pressure or the corrosion allowance can be
is
not
less
For most standard
if
possible,
vessels the design
mean metal vessel

computed by standard
than the
wall temperature expected under operating conditions and
the
the design thickness
restraint or certain
material for construction. Decrease in metal strength with rising temperature,
design.
vessel thickness, exclusive
combined with some body
temperature gradients will originate thermal stresses. However, it is an important

design condition that influences to a great degree the suitability of the selected
of corrosion allowance, and the thickness required for other loads than pressure. In most cases it will be equal or very
close to the design pressure of the vessel components.
on the nominal
most severe combination of
engineering stress formulas, without consideration of large increases in stresses at

the gross structural discontinuities, cannot exceed the Code allowable stress.
sures-see Fig. 1.1).
the operating liquid.
to withstand the
coincident pressure and temperature under expected operating conditions. The

nominal stress in any part of the vessel as computed from the Code and standard
DESIGN PRESSURE
1.2.
increased, or any excess thickness can be used as reinforcement of the nozzle
The
corrosion.
supplemented by actual measurements.
temperature
is
the
maximum
temperature
of the operating fluid plus 50F as a safety margin, or the minimum temperature of the operating fluid, if the vessel is designed for low-temperature service
(below- 20 F).
vacuum towers
In large process vessels such as oil refinery
the operating fluid varies to a large
the temperature of
degree, and zones with different design
temperatures, based on expected calculated operating conditions, can be used
computations of the required thicknesses.

temperature for internally insulated vessels is determined by
metal
The design
heat transfer computations, which should provide sufficient allowance to take
care of the probable future increase in conductivity of the refractory due to gas,
for the design
standard atm
= 14.69
psia
\
atmos pheric
negative (psig)
absoiu te (psia)
(vacuum)
possibility
of a
loss
;al
at
absolute (psia)
1
^\ absolute zero pressure

(full
vacjum)
Fig. 1.1.
minimum,
the designer should assume a con-
50-100 percent higher than
that
given by the manufacturer's data, depending on operating conditions. A greater

temperature margin should be used when external insulation is used as well.
The
|
t
At
ductivity for the internal insulating material
(pstg)
stan dard
deterioration, coking, etc.
gauge
of
the shell should also
of the vessel wall
is
of a sizable lining section and the required rupture time

be considered. Extensive temperature instrumentation
usually provided.
For shut-down conditions the maximum design temperature for uninsulated

vessels and the connecting piping will be the equilibrium temperature for metal
objects, approximately 230F for the torrid zone, 190F for the temperate
zone, and 150F for the frigid zone.
DESIGN LOADS
The lowest design metal temperature for pressure storage vessels should be
taken as 15F above the lowest one-day mean ambient temperature for the
particular location, see Fig. Al .3.
The design temperature
for flange
temperature of the operating
through bolts
usually lower than the
is
fluid, unless insulated,
and
it
can be safely
as-
the design vessel temperature. However, the external
sumed to be 80 percent of
same design temperature
tap and the internal bolting should have the
as the
1.5.
WIND LOADS
Wind can be described
as a highly turbulent flow of air sweeping over the earth's
surface with a variable velocity, in gusts rather than in a steady flow.
When
the design computations are based on the thickness of the base plate
exclusive of lining or cladding thickness, the
maximum
service metal tempera-
ture of the vessel should be that allowed for the base plate material.
The design temperature of
vessel internals
is
the
maximum
temperature of the
is
usually horizontal; however,
it
may
possess a vertical
is
component when passing
affected by the earth surface
and increases with the height above the ground to some maximum velocity at a certain gradient level above which the wind velocity remains constant.
The shape of the velocity profile above the ground depends on the roughness
friction
open country, wooded hilly countrycan be expressed by the power-law formula
characteristics of the terrain, such as flat

side, or a large city center.
operating liquid.
The wind
can also be assumed to possess a certain mean velocity on which local threedimensional turbulent fluctuations are superimposed. The direction of the flow
over a surface obstacle. The wind velocity
vessel.
It
ycc z n
1.4.
DEAD LOADS
Dead loads
due to the weight of the
are the loads
permanently connected with the
vessel.
vessel itself
Depending on the
and any part
overall state, a vessel
can have three different weights important enough to be considered in the
Erection (empty) dead load of the vessel
is
the weight of the vessel without
any external insulation, fireprooflng, operating contents, or any external

tural
attachments and piping. Basically,
hoisted
on
Each such case has

2.
is
the weight of a stripped vessel as
some small-diameter columns the removable
the job site. In
(trays) are shop-installed,
it
struc-
and they have to be included
air
is
mass unit
q i0 =
where
the weight of the vessel plus internal or external
K30
is
all
by the
ing liquid, sections of process piping supported
equipment required
vessel, all structural
and inspection (platforms, ladders,

and any other process equipment (heat exchangers)
for the vessel servicing
trolleys etc.),
pV2l2
the elevation
is
30
ft,
the
at the height
is
of 30
ft
above the ground on
a flat surface
given by the equation:
2
00.00238 (5280/3600) V\ 0
= 0.00256 V\ 0
dead load of the
welding
at 30 ft height above the ground in mph, maximum

measured on the location over a certain period of time
above the ground in pSf
q 30 = basic wind velocity pressure at 30 ft height
3
p = 0.00238 slugs per ft air mass density at atm pressure, and 60F.
= basic wind speed

as
The magnitude of
attached to the vessel.

test
is
used to correct standard-height velocity readings for other
perpendicular to the wind velocity
the weight of the in-place completed
is
internals (trays, demister, packing, etc.) with operat-
Shop
moving
internals
insulation, fireprooflng,
3.
heights above ground with any given terrain profile (see Fig. 1 .2).
The velocity (dynamic) pressure representing the total kinetic energy of the
in the erection weight.
vessel in full operation. It
shell, after all
and
to be investigated separately.
Operating dead load of the vessel
permanent
terrain
Since the standard height for wind-speed recording instruments
power formula
design.
where the value of the exponent n depends on the

above the ground level.
is
vessel consists
only of the weight of the vessel
finished, filled with test liquid.
the basic
wind
velocity
K30
used in determination of the
design pressure q 3Q depends on the geographical location of the job site. The
wind pressure q 30 is used to compute the actual wind design loads on pressure
with the
and connected equipment. However, since the wind velocity V is influenced by the height above the ground and terrain roughness and the pressure
q itself is influenced by the shape of the structure, the basic wind velocity
used as a design load only
pressure q 30 has to be modified for different heights above the ground level
vessels
Field test dead load

internal insulation
test liquid instead
if
the vessel
The
is
ice or
is
the operating dead load with only external and/or
removed
for inspection purposes
of operating liquid. This load
expected to be tested
snow load
in field at
as well as
personnel with portable tools)
is
any
live
is
some
and
filled fully
future date.
load (weight of the maintenance
considered to be negligible.
and different shapes of structures.

In doing so either the older,
the
new
revised
somewhat simpler standard ASA A58.1-1955
ANSI A58. 1-1972
or
are generally used, unless the client's specifi-
PR ESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
DESIGN LOADS
HANDBOOK
The geographical
1.
and includes the shape factor 1.3 for

heights up to 500 ft above the ground.
1500
surface and the gust factor 1.3 for
flat
No
distinction
recurrence interval of the highest
mean
The wind design
ness or
-
located on the wind pressure map,
is
of the standard). The basic wind pressure p is selected. It is based on

maximum regional measured wind velocity V 30 (excluding tornado velocities)
(see Fig.
the
area of the job site
wind
is
made
for terrain rough-
in the area.
pressures p z> corresponding to the basic wind pressure p,

above the ground are given in Table 3 of the standard.
zones
height
for various
based on the seventh-root law to express the variaheight
factor
a
They include
1200
2.
900
wind velocity with the height above the ground.

factor B for round objects is equal to 0.6 and is applied to the
shape
The
3.
are actual
design pressure p z The shape factors, as they appear in the standard
in
included
shape coefficients divided by the flat surface factor 1 .3 which was
tion of the
the basic
wind pressure p.
windward surface area projected on the
4. If the
wind is A ft
assumed to act
direction of the
the area
30
is
at
vertical plane
normal to the
then the resultant of the wind pressure load over

the area centroid and is given by
V = wind
open,
flat,
flat
coastal region;
wooded
rough,
ft
Wind
gradient level
900
200
1500
ft
gradient
ft
open country at the standard height 30

the wind velocity is
ft is
level
exponent n
1/3
flat,
ft
velocity
profiles over three basic terrain roughness characteristics.
velocity
in
large city centers
1/4.5
1/7
wind velocity
area;
Pw =ABp 2
town; large city,

suburban areas
open country
900
Fig. 1.2.
Pw
V 30
If the
60 mph,
at the
above formula for cylindrical vertical vessels is not less than 13 psf forl/D < 10
the
and 18 psf for L/D > 10, where L is the overall tangent-to-tangent length of
in
vessel
nominal diameter.
the suburban area
is
the same,
i.e.,
= 100
Wind Loads
as
Computed
in
Accordance with ANSI A58.1-1972
the wind velocity at the standard level in the
The
is
K 30
D is the
and
= 60(900/30) 1/7 = 100 mph.
In the same region, the gradient wind velocity

mph, and the gradient level is 1200 ft; hence
suburban area
pressure forces are applied simultaneously, normal to all exposed

surfaces of the structure. The minimum net pressure (Bp z ) in the
The wind
windward
vessel
lb.
= 100(30/1200) 1/4
- 44 mph.
qP
effective
in psf at
wind velocity pressures on structures q F and on parts of structures

the following
different heights above the ground are computed by
equations:
cations dictate otherwise. Although the former standard
extensively used for
many
years and
it
is still
used
in
some
is
obsolete,
codes.
It is
was
it
q F = K z Gp<l30
therefore
some time to come the designer will encounter designs

where the wind loads were computed on the basis of the old standard. Also the
designer may become engaged in the construction of pressure vessels for petroquite probable that for
chemical plants
in
foreign countries
where long-term wind velocity data
lacking and the design procedures are specified
more
in
line
with the
where
are
now
Kz
obsolete specification.
Wind Loads
as
The procedure
Computed
in
Accordance with
for calculation of the
surface of the structure
is
as follows.
ASA
minimum
Specification A58. 1-1955
design wind load normal to the
GF
GP
= velocity pressure coefficient depending on the type of the terrain surface

computation,
(exposure) and the height above the ground z. To simplify
instance the
height zones of constant wind velocity can be assumed. For
over the zone
pressure q F at 100 ft above the ground can be applied
extending from 75 to 125 ft above the ground.
= gust response factor for structure
= gust response factor for portion of structures.
DESIGN LOADS
to include the effect of

variable gust response factors were introduced
The
rises in
sudden short-term
wind
velocities.
The values of
GF
and
GP
depend on
characteristics of structures. For

the type of the terrain exposure and dynamic
may become significant, detailed
action
gust
which
for
tall cylindrical columns,
shown in the Appendix to the

which depend on the first
values
contains
G
for
equation
the
standard. Since
F
turn depends on the vessel wall
natural frequency / of the column, which in
(wind, weight, and
thickness t to be computed from the combined loadings
involved in successive approximapressure), the additional mathematical work
computations of
GF
are usually required as
may render this standard less attractive than the previous one.
The q F and q P values have to be further modified by a net pressure
tion
Cf for
different geometric shapes of structures.
If the projected
to the
coefficient
windward
wind direction
may be computed by
is
ft
area of the vessel section

2
,
the total design
on
a vertical plane
wind load
P w on
normal
a vessel section
not change with the height above the ground,
GF - 0.65
Cf from Table 15 of the standard and the

wind load on the vessel sections of constant
wind design pressure may be evaluated by equation P w = CfAq F
4. Using the net pressure coefficient
ber of manholes, etc. are known and a complete layout is unavailable.

To arrive at some reasonable approximation of the projected area, some assumptions based on past experience must be made. An approximate layout
different
large
wind
loads,
is
drum with
time-consuming and not really
to computing
which
to increase the vessel diameter
is
top platform
as in
justified.
often used and
is
recommended here
to the so-called effective vessel diameter to
approximate the combined design wind load:
De = (vessel o.d. + twice insulation thickness) X Kd

The
Exposure A: centers of large

Exposure C:
coefficient
Kd
is
given in Table 1.1.
The required projected area>4
will
then
flat,
open
cities,
structure such as
Using as
A =De
rough and hilly terrains;

areas, suburban areas;
XH
wooded
where
grass country, coastal areas.
large petrochemical plants will
Hs = length
of the
shell section in the
zone of the uniform wind velocity.
However, the effective diameter D e can be derived by a simple procedure which

allows the designer to adjust D e according to the actual standard vessel layout.
belong to category C.
computing the minimum design wind load on an enclosed

a tall column can be summarized as follows.
for
criteria
the anticipated service
life
of the vessel and the magnitude
speed K30 is selected

of the possible damage in case of failure, the basic wind
location
and modified
job
particular
from Fig. 1 or 2 of the standard for the
book.
this
of
Al
Appendix
by special local conditions; see also
Table 1.1.
VESSEL OUTSIDE DIAMETER

INCLUDING INSULATION
COEFFICIENT
than 36
1.50
less
36 to 60
60
in.
in.
84 in.
84 to 108 in.
over 108 in.
wind pressure q 30 = 0.00256 V is computed.

The
effective wind velocity pressure q F is given by q F =K 2 G F q 30
3.
determined
from
K
and
selected
are
velocities
wind
z
constant
of
height zones
response factor G Fi which does
Fig. A2 of the standard for each zone. The gust
The
The
resulting
be equal to
The procedure
2.
approach
An approach
roughness categories selected are as shown in
b. Exposure B: rolling terrains,
1.
probable platforms, ladders, and connected piping
paratively simple, for instance a short vertical
Fig. 1.2.
Most
all
wind shears and wind moments at

heights above the ground can be computed. Unless the vessel is com-
made and with
is
c.
not possible for the designer to evaluate the projected windward area ,4 of
a tower and all appurtenances accurately. When a vessel is being designed only
the main features such as the inside diameter, overall length, nozzle sizes, num-
appurtenances such as top platforms with trolley beams,

using appropriate Cf and q F
piping, etc. can be computed in the same manner,
to the wind load acting
added
be
must
with allowances for shielding effect and
a.
the total
It is
Fig. 5.8, this
terrain
Computation of the Projected Area
pressure (Cf q F ) in the above formula should be not less

structural frames. The
than 15 psf for the design of structures and 13 psf for
on the entire vessel.

The three standard
in ft
can be
The minimum net
wind loads on
sketch of the vessel with
lb
computed from the equation
+ 1.95 (os/P).
projected area
equation:
Pw =ACfq F
is
basic
Source:
to
Ref. 6.
Kd
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.18
DESIGN LOADS
10
The formula above does not include special attached equipment such as heat
exchangers or large-top oversized platform with lifting equipment, whose wind
loads and moments are computed separately and added to the above.
manhole
caged
KA
11
ladder
Determine the wind loads acting on the process column shown
insulation
Example
thickness
Fig. 1.4 with an average wall thickness of 1 in., insulation thickness 1.5
located in the vicinity of Houston, Texas, using:
insulation
1.1.
in
in.,
thickness
15'
a.
ASA A58. 1-1955
b.
ANSI A58. 1-1972.
=K
= 8.3 ft. From Fig. 1 of the

a. Effective diameter D e
d X o.d.= 1 .30 X 6.4
standard the basic wind pressure is p = 40 psf. From Table 3 of the standard
the
wind design pressures
are
platform
o.d. vessel-
pipe
p z =30psf,
40 psf,
50 psf,
60 psf,
o.d.
Fig. 1.3.
Assumed column layout
for determination of the effective
De
According to an assumed typical section of a process column shown
Adjusted platform area. Assuming half of the platform, 3
each manhole, spaced at 15

(42
Wind
loads in
X 18)/(15X
12)
=4.2
ft,
ft
in.
wide
in.
the
ground
ft
100 to 499
w, = 0.60 X
83 X 30=
w2
w 3 =0.60X
w4
The increase in the column diameter can be taken as 12 in.

Assume the largest pipe in the top third of the column running to
above items can and should be adjusted according to the actual standard
layout as used.
From
psf;
a 6-ft-diameter
column with
lb/ft
= 0.60
8.3
X 40 = 200
lb/ft
8.3
X 50 = 250
lb/ft
= 0.60 X 8.3 X 60 = 300
100 years recurrence
b. Selected:
level.
For example, the effective diameter of
150
B X De X p 2
are
1-in.wall
Fig. 2 of the standard: basic
design pressures are q F =
From
Fig.
A2
T=
sec/cycle.
wind velocity
Kz G F q 30
ib/ft.
type-C exposure; damping^ factor
interval;
0 = 0.01; fundamental period of vibration

All the
ft
vessel
to the ground.
4. Piping.
50 to 99
30
above ground
at
the equivalent increase in the vessel diameter
Caged ladder. Assume one caged ladder running from the top of the
3.
ft
pounds per one foot of column height,
Vessel shell outside diameter with twice the insulation thickness, if any.
ft
49
to
in Fig. 1.3
the principal parts contributing to the total wind load are as follows:
2.
0 to 30
elevation
is
K30
= 100 mph;^ 30 = 25.6
of the standard:
thickness, 2-in. insulation, and a 6-in. nozzle in the top third with 1-in. insulation
is
computed
De
as follows:
(vessel o.d.
tf 3 o
1.0,
+ 2 X insulation thickness)
+ 2 X insulation thickness) + (platform) + (ladder)

= (74 + 4) + (6.625 +2) + 4.2+ 12 = 102.8 in. = 8.6 ft
+ (pipe
Gust response factor
is
o.d.
The factor^ = 102.8/78 =
.31 is in
agreement with the value
in
Table 1.1.
*so =
GF
tf 9 5
1.2,
= 0.65 +
.95
1.40,
^ 12 o
(oy/P) = 0.65 +
= 1.50.
.95
X 0.332 =
for enclosed structures:
os/P=
1.7[7X2/i/3)] [0.785 ?F/j3 + 5/(1 + 0.002c/)]
1/2
=0.332
.297
DESIGN LOADS
12
6'
Wind
l*4J
120'
el.
Pw
Wind load
M (Ib-ft)
<ib}
el.
(lb)
Shear
Hbl
Wind moment
M Ob-ft)
120'
60,000
6,000
6,000
lb/fi
y
6
(\b)
i.d.
Wind moment
/cs
300
100'
Shear
load
13
12,850
60'
10,000
70'
if)
II
2,190
60'
16,000
500,000
18,500
672,500
2,500
50'
5,475
3,000
f2
35'
15,040
60'
25'
2 5'
321 250
CM
II
30'
1,000
21,500
972,500
35'
22,500
1,082,500
30'
1,095
20,515
905,140
21,610
1,010,455
25,330
1,479,855
27,190
1,742,455
25'
2 5'
3,720
3,000
10'
's.
O
in
25,500
10'
,562,500
1,860
10*
1,500
1 D'
=L
27,000
0'
Fig. 1.4.
1,825,000
Fig. 1.5.
Conditions and resulting wind loads for Example 1.1a.
where, from
A3. r(2/i/3) = 7X80) = 0.149

l/2
/> = 0.092
K30 //= 1.12 X 1 X 100/1 =112
Fig.A4. 1.12(A: 3 o)
=
Fig.A5. 0.88 fh/(V zo y/ô) = 0-88 X 1.0 X 120/100^13 = 0.862 and h/c
Fig.
h/d= 120/6.5 =
Fig.
A6. structure
size factor:
<?
F = 0.1
18.5
S=
F = 25.6X
.0 for
1.297
Conditions and resulting wind loads for Example 1.1b.
w2
w so
= 0.66 X 8.3 X 40 = 2 19
lb/ft
w3
w 9S
= 0.66 X 8.3 X 47 = 257
lb/ft.
The method of determining wind loads on vessels of two or more diameters

the same as for a vessel of a uniform diameter. When the conical transition
section is no more than 10 percent of the total height, cylindrical sections can
is
h = 120.
be assumed to extend to the mid-height of the conical section. Otherwise, the
X 2 = 33.2
transition section should be considered as a separate section.
therefore
? F30 = 33.2
X l~34psf
1.6.
qFS0 =33.2X
1.2
= 40psf
1.4
= 47
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
General Considerations
q F9S = 33.2
Wind loads
in
pounds per foot of column height,
psf
w = C/ X De X
q Fi are
Seismic forces on a vessel result from a sudden erratic vibratory motion of the
ground on which the vessel is supported and the vessel response to this motion.
The
Wj =
w 30
= 0.66 X 8.3 X 34 = 186
lb/ft
principal factors in the
damage
to structures are the intensity
and the dura-
tion of the earthquake motion. The forces and stresses in structures during an
DESIGN LOADS
14
15
earthquake are transient, dynamic in nature, and complex. An accurate analysis

office.
is generally beyond the kind of effort that can be afforded in a design
To
simplify the design procedure the vertical
motion
is
component of
the earthquake
usually neglected on the assumption that the ordinary structures pos-
enough excess strength in the vertical direction to be earthquake resistant.

The horizontal earthquake forces acting on the vessel are reduced to the
sess
equivalent static forces. Earthquake-resistant design
is
largely empirical, based
on seismic coefficients derived from the performance of structures subjected

in
the past to severe earthquakes.
building codes
is
The fundamental requirement
that the structures in seismic risk zones
withstand a certain
minimum
set forth in
must be designed to
horizontal shear force applied at the base of the
any direction. Having assigned a minimum value to the base shear

based on the past experience, the problem which arises is how to resolve this
shear into equivalent static forces throughout the height of the vessel in order
vessel
in
to determine the shear
and the bending moments
elevations as well as the overturning

in
large part
moment
in the structure at different
at the base.
The
result
depends
Earthquake loads and shears for a
Fig. 1.6.
a uniform cross section
column of
rigid
and
weight.
on the dynamic response of the structure, which may be assumed
For design purposes

fixed at the top of
Values of the Coefficient
Table 1.2.
either rigid or flexible.
is
shears
loads
it
its
is
sufficient and conservative to assume that the vessel
foundation; no provision
is
usually
made
for
ZONE
ITEM
ZONE
c.
ZONE
ZONE
any effects
Vessel
of the soil -structure interaction.
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.25
0.50
1.00
Equipment attached
to vessel
Seismic Design of a Rigid Cylindrical Vessel
Source:
The structure and its foundation are assumed to be rigid and the assumed earthquake horizontal acceleration of the ground a is transmitted directly into the
vessel. The term rigid is used here in the sense of having no deformations.
Each section of the vessel will be acted upon by a horizontal inertial force
equal to its mass and multiplied by the horizontal acceleration a of the quake
movement,
Ref. 4.
c - a/g, an empirical seismic coefficient, depending on the seismic zone where

the vessel
is
located.
The usual value of c, when used, is given

The overturning moment at the base
Mb =P
acting at the center of the gravity of the section.

is
equal to
AP
The overturning moment
.2.
equal to
Pe
times the elevation h of
Xh.
at
times the distance of the center of gravity
of the vessel section above the section plane (see Fig. 1.6). Their resultant^ is
assumed to act at the center of gravity of the entire vessel and is given by the
The simple
rigid-structure
heavy vessel or
to apply
approach was used in early building codes. For a short

drum on two supports this design procedure is easy
a horizontal
and probably justified. However,
it
slender process columns, regardless of their
equation
Pe =Ma = (alg)W
cW
where
g=
is
the center of gravity of the vessel above the vessel base:
APÂWia/g),
an arbitrary elevation
Table
in
Mb
W - operating vessel weight during the earthquake
tall,
properties.
Seismic Design of Flexible Tall Cylindrical Vessels
The sudden
gravitational acceleration
cannot be reasonably applied to
dynamic
tall
erratic shift during
cylindrical vessel relative to
an earthquake of the foundation under a flexible

its
center of gravity causes the vessel to deflect,
since the inertia of the vessel mass restrains the vessel
from moving simultane-
DESIGN LOADS
16
17
equal to the product of the weight and empirical coefficients:
V = ZKCW,
where
W~ normal
operating weight most likely to exist at the time of a possible
future earthquake;
Z earthquake
zone factor, a numerical coefficient dependant upon the

is located and found from the seismic
seismic zone in which the structure
zoning maps in
Z = 0.25; zone
K - structure
Natural frequency
where
is
y-
Sketch of
mode
3 (see also Appendix Al); for location in zone 1,
2, Z = 0.50; zone 3, Z =
coefficient,
dynamic seismic forces; A" is based

on the earthquake performance record of the type of the structure; for
the uniform weight of
beam
cylindrical vessels supported at base the
shapes for a cantilever
beam of
for other structures
a uniform cross section and
C* flexibility
weight.
K may vary from 0.67
factor, a numerical coefficient
the vessel and given by the equation
mental period of vibration of the
foundation. The vibration initiated by the induced elastic deflection is then gradually reduced by damping or partial yielding in the vessel.
From experience and theoretical studies it can be assumed that a structure
ously with
its
with a longer
less total
tall,
and higher damping will be subjected to
with a
shorter Tand smaller damping capacity,
period of vibration
damage than
a structure
accuracy of
T is
equation, since
is
taken as equal to 2;
depending on the
C = 0.05/F l/3
where
is
of
flexibility
T is
the funda-
vessel, in seconds, in the direction
under
the factor Cis usually taken as 0.10; a great
not needed in computing the coefficient
C in
the above
inversely proportional to the cube root of
the true period (see Section 4.7 for the procedure used to
basic period of vibration of
7*,
and
tall,
compute
the
slender, self-supporting process columns).
beam of uniform
cross section
and weight are
The
building codes prescribe the distribution of the base shear
become complex and determined by

caused by vibration is then equal to
superposition.
The force on
matical analysis, based on
still
incomplete
field
earthquakes would not be justified
data derived from observations
in the practical design.
Appendix
Fx =(F-F,)w^/vv,*,
a vessel section
its
where
Ft = 0.004 V(hJDa )2 <
A9.'
0.15
V is
a portion of
K assumed
concentrated at
the uppermost level h of the structure to approximate the influence
of higher modes. For most towers Ft =0.15 K, since h/Ds > 6.12;
- the lateral force applied at levels h f , h x respectively;
Wi, w x = that portion of W which is located at or is assigned to levels /,
F/,
For practical design purposes the building codes [3, 5]* require all freestanding structures in seismic zones to be designed and constructed to withstand
the minimum lateral force V applied at the base in any horizontal direction and
in brackets refer to the references in
over the
illustrated
mass and the vector sum

of the accelerations associated with each mode. Each point under vibration can
experience a maximum dynamic shear. Obviously, an involved, detailed mathethe product of
height of the structures in accord with the triangular distribution equation
in Fig. 1.7. Since the vessel will try to vibrate with a combination of natural
frequencies, with the first frequency predominant, the resultant motion can
Numbers
s,
value
to 3.00;
will
for a cantilever
of the past
T< 0.12
hence does not change appreciably with small variations of 7, and the
assumed fixity at the base will tend to make the calculated T smaller than
it
be excited into a transverse vibratory motion, consisting of

relatively simple deflection curves called modes, with the first fundamental
mode predominant. Each mode has a unique period of vibration. The first three
freedom and
modes
consideration; for
has the strength to withstand the sustained deflections.

slender vessel represents a distributed system of multiple degrees of
provided that
first
numerical coefficient related to the inherent
resistance of a structure type to the
^[^Ji]*
per unit length.

Fig. 1.7.
ref.
Fx
respectively;
Ds
= the plan diameter of the
For check, the
vessel.
total lateral shear at the base
is
V - Ft +
F/.
at,
DESIGN LOADS
18
The force acting

vessel
laterally in
any direction on any appendage connected to the
given by the equation
is
Fp =ZCp Wpj
is
r=
p is the weight of the appendage and Cp is taken equal to 0.2. Force

applied at the center of gravity of the attached equipment.
where
Fp
be shorter than that of the stepped-down column

formula for a uniform-diameter cantilever beam,
will
(2.70/10 )(////))
Fig.
(wD/0 1/2 =(2.70/10 5 )(100/5) 2 (850X
(For more accurate computation of
Ft = 0.15 V=
in
1.3 kips,
and from
T see
the
Example 4.4
1.8.
5/0.5)
19
Using the
'2
in Section 4.7.)
sec.
Force
Fig. 1.8,
Since the higher modal responses contribute mainly only to the base shear,
moment b and the moments

h x above the base can be reduced by means of reduction coefficients/ and JXi and are given by the following equations:
but not to the overturning moments, the base
Mx
Ft =
(V~
t)
WjhilXwihi = 7.2w, Aj/4630 = 0.001 6wj*f.
at levels
The
transverse design shear
Vx
at
h x elevations
forces Fj above the section elevation h x
Mb =J (fthn+^Fih^,
where
0.45
</= 0.6/7
2' 3
<
ments
=J +
For structures where the
total
mass
is
(1 -
J)(h x /hf
predominantly concentrated at one
would seem reasonable to expect the structure

fundamental mode, J = 1 .0 is recommended.
the
it
Example
1.2.
vertical process
AM
AM
sections; not
number depending on
more than 10
at the center
and the seismic loads F, and the moments
From
Fig.
.8
(H
1.3
=4.3X
h x ) + "LFiQii
17 + 3
17 +
hx )
or
17/2 =47.6 kips-ft
2.4X 17/2 =
93.5 kips-ft
etc.
a cylindrical
x are
the total lateral force at the base
V=ZKCW=
0.05
is
sections are usually required,
the weight distribution.
assumed to be concentrated
is
the earthquake load distribution on a vessel with variable mass
usually divided into

the exact
level
concentrations or on a vessel of two or more diameters the entire vessel
section
sum of all
The weight of each
of gravity of each section
computed.
V equals
X 85 =
8.5 kips
where
A*
=2
W = 85
-
Z=
C=
In
for
kips, including steel shell, trays, operating liquid, insulation, etc.
for
zone 3
t/3
= 0.05/1 1 / 3 =0.05.
0.05/r
computing
column
it
would seem
5-ft i.d.
X 100
ft
to be conservative to
assume that the period T

w = W/H
high with uniformly distributed weight
Fig. 1.8.
lateral
1.0 the incremental
to vibrate primarily in
Compute the seismic loads and moments acting on

column of two diameters, as shown in Fig. 1 .8.
To determine
/=
/-I
and/or
equal to the
at particular section planes are
AA/X =
where Jx
is
Taking
Conditions and resulting earthquake loads for Example 1.2.
mo-
DESIGN LOADS
20
The
total
moments
acting at particular section planes are
'.
At the base
M = AA/ =47.6 kips-ft

M =M + AM = 141.1 kips-ft, etc.,
2
shown
in Fig.
.8.
the shear
is
Vb
as
Y = //,
moment
Total overturning
and the moment
V-F
is
used to
size the skirt
sections such as
= 670.8 + 4 = 674,800
h x = 66
for checking the stresses in the shell
or
ft
and the
Ft =V
M b =J[F H + (V-F )(2H/3)].

t
VorF, = 0.15Kand/=
Moments
6 at section
at
other
h x = 10
ft
1,
Mb -0J16VH.
critical
are used
skirt-to-shell weld.
Design Considerations
Example
Determine shear forces and moments due to seismic loads acting

on cylindrical vertical column of a constant diameter and uniformly distributed
weight
Ib-ft,
base and the anchor bolts.
at section
is
at base,
21
1.3.
(lb per ft), as
shown
in Fig.
.9.
the
only reasonable to assume that during a severe earthquake exceeding
absorb
the
dyand
yield
will
structure
the
assumed design value some part of
logical
the
most
are
bolts
anchor
The
failure.
major
namic energy, preventing a
It
is
structural part to prevent, through partial yielding,
any other damage to the
buckling of the supporting skirt or shell. If the anchor bolts are

vessel, such
to yield under
to perform this function they should be long and resilient enough
as
vessel, preferably
an extreme overload, and they should be firmly attached to the
through a full ring stiffener, as shown in Fig. 4.3, Type A.
Most codes allow an increase by one-third in the allowable stresses under

earthquake (temporary) conditions. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1, UG23d (1983) allows an increase of 20 percent in the maxi-
mum
allowable stress
Sa
for stresses in the vessel shell caused
combination with the wind

factor
k=
1.2
is
limited
Fig. 1.9.
by the allowable design temperature, Table UG-23.1.
the codes present only the

the equation for the force
independent variable,
vessel height
is
it
F,-
=(K-
loadings in
Division 2 allows an increase of 20 percent in allowable stresses for the pressure

realize that
parts and structural parts. At this point it would seem important to
loads
From
by
or earthquake loads. However, the stress increase
fV) w^/EH^/if, with h t the only
can be seen that the distribution of
triangular. If the total lateral force at base
throughout the
V - ZKCW
is
at
by
minimum
requirements, which should be increased
the designer according to his judgemnt after a careful assessment of
all
design
conditions.
any
horizontal plane at elevation h x above the ground at section x-x, the shear force
1.7.
PIPING
LOADS
is
Vx
= Y(FH +Fx )/2+Ft

= ?l(V-Ft) wH/(wH 2 I2) + (V~Ft )w(H- Y)l(wH 2 l2)]
= (V-Ft )(2HY- Y 2 )/H 2 +Ft
and the moment
is
Mx =Jx [FtY + (V-
Y + Ft
vessel should be
In addition to the wind loads the piping loads acting on the
supported
by nozzles
sections
pipe
evaluated. They consist of the weight of the
the pipes.
into the vessel shell and of the loads due to the thermal expansion of
vessel
the
time
of
at
the
estimated
to
be
have
The thermal expansion loads
can be assumed that the total sum of the piping reactions of all side
The
nozzles will have a small effect on the entire vessel and can be disregarded.
design.
2
t )(3HY
Y')/3H 2
It
DESIGN LOADS
22
23
the wind or earthquake

liquid head, the operating dead load of the vessel itself,
vibration, impact and
as
loads, and any other applicable operating effects such
Table 1.3.
NOMINAL SIZE OF
TOP NOZZLE
Mp
(in.)
(Ib-ft)
thermal loads.
Test design condition for a shop hydrotest, when the vessel is tested in a
the shop test
horizontal position, includes only the hydrotest pressure plus
3.
2110
4450
7900
4
6
8
weight of the vessel. For a field test performed on location, the design condition
includes the test pressure plus the static head of the test liquid, and the field
13000
19500
24500
34300
46300
61000
98400
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
test
dead load of the
vessel.
Wind
or earthquake loads need not be considered.
All insulation or internal refractory are removed.

operating design con4. Short-time (overload) design condition includes the
startup, or shutdition plus any effects of a short-time overload, emergency,

loads. At startup, the
design
increased
result
in
may
which
operations,
down
vessel
is
assumed to be cold and connecting pipelines hot. Wind or earthquake
need not be considered.

thermal thrust at the top nozzle can be considerable, and in such case should
be added to the other loadings acting on the
Mp
will
depend on the
The everage
where
by 3
is
size
vessel.
on the
approximately equal
of the nozzle, that
estimated as
The expansion pipe moment
is
of the process pipe.

ioM = 60Z>3 in lb-in.,
size
p
p can be
the outside diameter of the pipe connected to the nozzle, increased
in. (see ref. 7).
Table
.3
and the required
local reinforcement
p computed by the above equacomputed wind load. The actual moment
gives values of
tion in lb-ft and could be added to the
of the top
shell
head
may not be
as large.
COMBINATIONS OF THE DESIGN LOADS
1.8.
Many combinations of
loads considered in the design of pressure vessels
possible, but highly improbable; therefore
it is
practice to select only certain sets of design loads,
vessels. If a
severe loading combination does occur, the built-in safety factor

a
is
more
usually large
permanent deformation of some structural member,
without crippling damage to the

It is
be
which can most probably
occur simultaneously, as the design conditions for pressure
enough to allow only
may
consistent with good engineering
vessel itself.
standard engineering practice that
all
vessels
and
their supports
must be
designed and constructed to resist the effects of the following combinations of

design loads without exceeding the design limit stresses. (In
all
combinations
wind and earthquake loads need not be assumed to occur simultaneously, and
when a vessel is designed for both wind and earthquake, only the one which
produces the greater stresses need be considered.)
Erection (empty) design condition includes the erection (empty) dead load
of the vessel with

2.
full effects
of wind or earthquake.
Operating design condition includes the design pressure plus any
static
The maximum
stresses as
exceed the design limit

Chapter 2 of this book.
computed from
stresses; see
the above design conditions cannot
Table 2.1 or AD-150.1 and Fig. 2.2, in
STRESS CATEGORIES AND DESIGN LIMIT STRESSES
25
increasingly important consideration in the design of pressure vessels as it has

become apparent that the majority of fractures are fatigue rather than static-
the operating cycles
number of
loading failures. If the
is
larger than several
thousand, fatigue analysis should be considered. Here the allowable stress and
the stress range must be related to the number of loading cycles anticipated
during the service life of the equipment. Fatigue failures usually occur in the
zone of the
Stress Categories and Design

Limit Stresses
maximum
stress concentration.
The designer must not be content to understand the properties of the construction materials to be used in the vessel. He must also consider in detail the
nature of the loads acting on the vessel (mechanical, thermal, cyclic, dynamic,
static, temporary). Knowledge of these loads and the resulting stresses, obtained
analytically
INTRODUCTION
2.1.
maximum
After the design loads are determined and the
dividual stresses
require the
by type,
same safety
For instance, when
by
due to the
stresses
loads are computed, the designer must qualitatively evaluate the in-
design
since not all types of stresses or their combinations
is
loaded to and beyond the yield point
continue until the part breaks, unless strain hardening or
.takes place. In vessel design, stresses caused
main
their
reduced
On
in
characteristic
is
by such loads
stress distribution
primary and
are called
that they are not self limiting,
i.e.,
they are not
magnitude by the deformation they produce.
the other hand,
if a
member
is
subjected to stresses attributable to a
thermal expansion load, such as bending stresses in shell at a nozzle connection
under thermal expansion of the piping, a
permanent, local deformation
slight,
the shell wall will produce relaxation in the expansion forces causing the
in
stress.
The
stresses
due to such forces
are called
secondary and are
self limiting
or self equilibrating.
The
between primary and secondary loads and
stresses
is
be applied to the calculated values of stresses produced by self-limiting loads.
produced by
stresses
calculated stress levels shall not exceed
static loads,
such as the bending stresses at a gross
structural discontinuity of a vessel shell under internal pressure, have the
2.2.
stresses
of
its
and can be treated
from the dynamic (impact) loads are much higher
from
static loads
application
is
of the same magnitude.
load
is
dynamic
if
than
the time
smaller than the largest natural period of vibration of the
body.
structure
may be
load for which

is
it
subjected only rarely to the
maximum wind
has been designed. Therefore, an increase
in
or seismic
allowable stresses
permitted for such temporary loads in some codes. Fatigue caused by periodic
variation of mechanical or thermal loads over ODeratine cvcles has
become an
that the
ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE FOR SELF-LIMITING LOADS

vessels are the
at shell struc-
In the study of self-limiting stresses, fictitious elastic stress calculated as twice

the yield stress has a very special meaning. It specifies the dividing line between
the low cycle loads that,
when
successively applied, allow the structure to
"shake down" to an elastic response, and loads that produce a plastic deformation every time they are applied. This can be illustrated in an idealized stressbehave in elasticstrain diagram as shown in Fig. 2.1. Material is assumed to
to an applied thermal expansion load of the
a nozzle an elastic deformation occurs at some point in the
perfectly plastic manner.
vessel shell
from
to B. At point
mation to be
to
BCD. The
in Fig. 2.1
and a
the thermal load
is
plastic irreversible
deformation from
sufficiently reduced by the plastic defor-
with the internal
resisting stresses in the shell.
When
piping return to their original position, the stresses recover along
the nozzle and
cycle from
Due
in equilibrium
elastic portion
of the permanently
in intensity
is
stress limits or, in their
ture discontinuities.
same
similarly.
Code allowable
The most important self-limiting stresses in the design of pressure

pressure
stresses produced by thermal expansion and by internal
line
self-limiting properties as thermal stresses
Stresses
essential to proper vessel design.
absence, stress limits based on the current good engineering practice.
attached piping on
practical difference
obvious; the criteria used to evaluate the safety of primary stresses should not
Some
is
chief requirement for the acceptibility of a Code-designed vessel
factors in protection against failure.

a pressure part
a mechanical (static) force, such as internal pressure or weight, the yielding
will
and as accurately as possible,
Suitable precautions expressed in the design safety factors are the responsibility
of the design engineer, guided by the needs and specifications of the client. The
to
the limit or the
from
C to D represents prestressing in
strained shell fibers in

lies
compression
such a way that the next operating
o 2 =2o y represents
shakedown to be possible. At
entirely in the elastic range. Stress
maximum
stress range for elastic
high operating temperatures the induced hot stress tends to diminish, but the
sum of hot and cold stresses remains constant and is referred to as stress range.
The shakedown load, sometimes called the stabilizing load, is then the maxi-
mum
self-limiting load that,
when
applied to a vessel, will on removal leave such
26
27
Paragraph UG-23c states that the wall thickness of a vessel computed by

the Code rules shall be determined so that the maximum direct membrane
ay
stress,
< a, < 2o y
2cV
o3
>
2a K
as listed in
UG-22
(internal or ex-
ternal pressure, wind loads or seismic loads, reaction from supports, the effect of
temperature gradients, impact loads) that are expected to occur simultaneously
during normal operation of a vessel, does not exceed the maximum allowable
metal Code stress values permitted at the operating temperature. The direct
membrane stress can be here defined as a normal stress uniformly distributed
a, o 2 o 3 are fictitious stresses,
based on actual strains
and modulus of
due to any combination of loadings
e,
e 2 3
across the shell thickness of the section under consideration.
elasticity E.
The above requirement implies
the use of the maximum-stress theory of
on the assumption that for thin-shell pressure vessels the radial compressive stress o r due to the design pressure can be disregarded, and that the
more accurate maximum-shear theory gives approximately the same results. The
failure,
localized discontinuity stresses
Schematic
Fig. 2.1.
built-in
illustration of the stress-strain relation during a
moments of the
internal residual stresses that
shakedown.
any subsequent application
and the structure returns to the original state, a compressive yield from D" to
is introduced. At the next operating cycle the stress is in the plastic range
D'
plastic strains are particularly objectionable, since they lead to
Repeated
a failure in short time.
While the failure stress for the direct membrane stress o due to a mechanical
load is equal to the yield stress ayi and when the failure stress for the bending
stress
to
ob
From
be
is
ayt only a limited, one-time, permanent deformation from points
occurs from self-limiting loads up to the computed stress o equal to 2o y

the above discussion it can be concluded that different stress limits can
set for
this
1.5
by the
details
such as cone-cylinder junctions. Otherwise, detailed analytical stress
stresses
analyses of secondary or fatigue stresses are not required and no design stress
thermal
limits are imposed for them. Design limit stresses are not included for
of the same or a smaller load will cause only elastic stresses in the vessel. If the
plastic deformation from A to B" is too large, then when the load is removed
again.
expansion bending
stresses
and discontinuity bending
stress plus
primary bending
Table 2.1
gives
stress
recommended
(<1 .5Sa ).
design allowable stresses for stresses due to
various loads not included in UG-23c.

for secondary stresses in
As noted above, design
limit stresses
stresses are
not specified
combination with pressure
maximum
way we can
calculated stresses caused
achieve
more economical, but
by
still
different types of loads. In
safe design.
in the
Code. However, paragraph l.Sg allows higher allowable
at cone-cylinder junctions; this
would
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA OF THE ASME PRESSURE

VESSEL CODE. SECTION
VIII,
DIVISION
of the
ASME
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII provides the
necessary formulas to compute the required thicknesses and the corresponding
membrane
stresses
of the basic vessel components due to internal and external
leaves
up to the designer to use analytical procedures for comdue to other loads. The user furnishes or approves all design
it
puting the stresses
it
requirements for pressure vessels, U-2.
it
would be well
Code requirements
to
remember,
represent only the mini-
the designer should feel free to apply stricter design limits
when
nec-
essary according to his judgment and experience.
Code allowable
stresses are generally
used also for the design of important
nonpressure parts, such as support skirts for

While Division
stresses for stresses
indicate that different stress levels for dif-
ferent stress categories are acceptable. In conclusion,
mum, and
pressures,
stresses.
However, it is a general practice to provide detailed stress analysis for the vessel
components outside the Code approved details using either the maximumallowable stresses
stress or the maximum-shear theory of failure, and to select
stresses
computed
or
for
operations
for design conditions other than normal
membrane
primary
direct
or
stress
(<S
membrane
other than direct primary
a)
as previously pointed out, that the
2.3.
plus bending) are taken into account

and the Code approved design rules for
(membrane
Code low allowable
tall
columns, supports for func-
tionally important vessel internals, and also for the welds attaching such parts
with appropriate joint efficiencies. The allowable stresses for the less impor-
tant nonpressure replaceable structural parts
may
be higher than the Code
Reference 12 serves as a
parts at high
nonpressure
useful guide for selection of the allowable stresses of
stresses
and can be conveniently taken from
temperatures.
ref. 9.
VESSEL CODE, SECTION
| c c
various load combinations are allowed
a
v
c o
fc
3
*
a*
3 _.
2
el
s S
1 2*
5^
in
.2
g g
<*
corrosion,
ti
S25l
w>
3 u
ns<
5WJ
X X
-J
aa
Sh5c
5
**
..
w
.t:
*- t3
* 3 g *
9-
who
tion, but also for
and type of
certified
by
required to prepare
is
all
becomes the
responsibility of the
design computations proving that
its
ease of applica-
directional applicability to fatigue stress analysis. Specific
its
design details for vessel parts under pressure are provided, as well as the rules
and guidance for analytical treatment of some types of loadings. A set of conv
u 2
-7
is -e
>
> o
ditions
is
established
(AD-160) under which
quired. Evaluation of thermal stresses

3. Strict
>>
tional
tests
quality
is
a detailed fatigue analysis
is
re-
also required.
control must be maintained
by the manufacturer. Addi-
(ultrasonic, impact, weld inspection) are imposed which are not
"S
X X
The report must be
preference to maximum-distortion-energy theory not only for
al-s
en id
a tJ
the responsibility of the user.
of pressure vessels has to certify the design report. Stress classification and a
detailed stress analysis are required. Maximum-shear failure theory is used in
00
0 N
li
sufficient data per-
all
service (static or cyclic),
the design as shown on the drawings complies with the requirements of the
Division 2. Again, a registered professional engineer experienced in the design
**
; 5 5 ? u o
"3
is
manufacturer,
-a
3!
o B w u C
SS C
method of support, type of
structural soundness of the vessel
The
2.
^3 .2 *
S.3E*2.5^~-2-o3
w u C ?
'2
e n "
to
as follows.
Specification of the design conditions, including
taining to the
2 2
E E
IE
0.
are permitted to
registered professional engineer.

*S
ft
w
-a
C
- a s
-to
the factor k in Table AD-150.1.
by using
The most important points can be summarized
1.
^W
Division
73

v *>
Code
control requirements are imposed.
^-g
the
preserve the high degree of safety, strict design, fabrication, and quality-
To
to *o
IN to
in
achieve material savings in vessel construction. Also increased stress limits for
='5 3
DIVISION 2
VIII,
Higher basic allowable stresses than
s s 1 5 g 2
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA OF THE ASME PRESSURE
2.4.
sal .si
S *5 W
X o oS
<JH
5 ~)
<
US
IIS
V)
29
required in Division
it
w W
o
'3
u
oc
UJ
3 0
fc
f-
'
J*

u
3 3
OD
s*
Stress Categories
4)
One of
Q
8
a.
OA
c c
9i-o
o5
-9
& .5t2
"3 -3
0 C
-s
o o
^
5 1
c
o
aO
.s
U.
a,
5
_
J,
a. a.
O O
oo
S E
u g
5 *
O
0 3 .2
-
-o
.-1
*L
"2 S
p
E E/3 o E/3
33- =
0 c
0
o * E
E E
II
-3
6?
c S3
-
o o
UOH
I-
^
*j
1
'3
5 a
"3
tS
fi
*5
-tS
an accurate classification of
establishes different allowable stress limits (stress intensities)
for different stress categories.

Basically, the stresses as they occur in vessel shells (see Fig. 2.2), are divided
into three distinct categories, primary, secondary, and peak.
>
produced by steady mechanical loads, excluding disconmain characteristic is that it is not

self limiting. Primary stress is divided into two subcategories; general and local.
1
tfl
X OT K
" a.c
location. Division
is
the loads that cause them, their distribution, and their
0 "
^g3g, w 0=5
ca
'CrsMtntB-oiawo
uu
-o
nj
S.
the design requirements of Division 2
stresses according to
Primary
stress
is
tinuity stresses or stress concentrations. Its
30
General Membrane.
Primory
Locol Membrona
Description
(For eiamples,
Average primary
stress across
Average stress
across any
solid section.
ee
T.ble
Excludes discontinuities and
solid section.
Considers ditconlinuiiies
but not con*
centralions.
Produced only
by mechanical
loads.
Siren
Category
concentrations,
4-120.1)
Produced only by
mechanical loads.

(a) General
Secondary
Membrane
Banding
Component
primary stress
proportional
lo distance
from centroid
of solid
section. Excludes discontinuities and

concentrations
Produced only
by mechanical
loada.
Increment added
to primary or secondary stress by a con-
SeH-equilibrating
stress necessary
to satisfy con-
( 1 )
linuity of stfuciur*t*
at struc-
Occurs
Certain thermal
tural discontinuities. Can be
(2)
ical load or by
not distort ion ol
dilferentia) ther-
vessel shape.
stresses which may

caused by mechan- cause fatigue but
mal expansion.
Excludes local
stress concentra-
(Note
PL
4)
imposed on the
Any
vessel
by the equilibration of
yielding through the entire
thickness will not distribute the stress, but

carried to failure. General primary stress
is
divided into primary
method shows
stress and primary bending stress; the limit design
membrane
that a higher
can be applied to the primary bending stress than to the primary

membrane stress. Typical examples of general primary membrane stress in the
and stress due to vessel
vessel wall are: stress due to internal or external pressure
stress limit
of primary bending stress

0
shell
will result in gross distortions, often
weight or external moments caused by wind or seismic forces.
tions.
Symbol
stress, is
external and internal mechanical forces.
plus Bendinoof
primary
Pooh
31
is
(b) Local primary stress
A typical example
the bending stress due to pressure in

is
produced by
flat
heads.
the design pressure alone or
by other
self-limiting characteristics. If the local primary
It has some
exceeds the yield point of the material, the load is distributed and carried
by other parts of the vessel. However, such yielding could lead to excessive and
stress
unacceptable deformations, so it is necessary to assign a lower allowable
mechanical loads.
Combination
of stress
stress
components
and allowable limits
of stress
limit to this type
intensities.
of
stress
than to secondary
stresses.
An important
property of
remains localized and diminishes

local primary stress is that the maximum stress
Local primary stress
application.
rapidly with distance from the point of load
Both, however,
stress.
bending
and
divided into direct membrane stress
can be
local primary stress

have the same stress intensity limits. Typical examples of
internal pressure at
to
due
stresses
membrane
local
and
are stresses at supports
structural discontinuities.
Use
operating loads
2.
The
basic characteristic of secondary stress
yielding will reduce the forces causing

NOTE.l
appl-es lo the range of stress intensity When the secondary stress is due to a temperature
shall be taken as the average of the S
values
at which the stresses are be.no analyzed, the value of S
for the highest and the lowest temperature of the metal during the transient When part or all of the
- This limitation
excursion at the pome

tabulated <n Part AM
shall be taken as theS, value for the highest temperature of the
secondary stress <s due to mechanical load, the value ol S
metal during the iransiem
NOTE 2 - The siresses m Category 0 are those parts of ihe total stress which are produced by thermal gradients, structural
discontinuities, etc and do not include primary stresses which may also exist at the same point It should be noted, however,
directly and, when
that a detailed stress analysis frequently gives Ihe combination of primary and secondary stresses
divided into
membrane
stress
factor,
K. then P
MQTE
full
* O. Q - O. F
P IK~ II and the peak stress .ntens.ty equals P *P tK-D* KP
obtained from the fatigue curves, Figs 5-1 10 1. 5 1 10 2 and 5-110 3 The allowable stress intemuy
m - S, Pb
- Sa
>s
range ol fluctuation is 2 Sa
4 - The symbols P
=-
(or the
NOTE
representing the six stress
NOTE
5 -
The
P^. Pb
components o t
k (actors are given in
o/,
O,
or
and F do not represent

(b r/,. and rft
single quantities, but rather sets of
quantities
Table AD-150.1.
has been revised as follows:

This limitation applies to the range of stress intensity. The quantity lS is defined as three
times the average of the tabulated Sm values for the highest and lowest temperatures during
the operation cycle. In the determination of the maximum primary-plus-secondary stress
intensity range, it may be necessary to consider the superposition of cycles of various origins
that produce a total range greater than the range of any of the individual cycles. The value
of 3S
may vary with the specific cycle, or combination of cycles, being considered since
the temperature extremes may be different in each case. Therefore, care must be exercised
to assure that the applicable value of 35m for each cycle, and combination of cycles, is not
exceeded except as permitted by 4-136.4.
The above Note
Fig. 2.2. Stress categories and limits of stress intensity. (Reproduced from the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 2 (1977 edition) by permission of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
that
it is
and bending
stress,
self-limiting.
Secondary
stress
Minor
can be
but both are controlled by the
same limit stress intensities. Typical examples of secondary stress are thermal
stresses
and local bending
stresses
due
to internal pressure at shell discontinuities.
Similarly, if the stress in

(or P i * P
appropriate, thu calculated value represents the total o( P
L
b * Q and not O alone
Category F a produced by a stress concentration, the quantity F i* the additional sness produced by the notch, over and
above the nominal Stress. For example, it a plate has a nominal stress intensity. 5, and has a notch with a stress concentration
is
excessive stresses.
3.
Peak
stress is the highest stress at
some
local point
under consideration. In
distortion, but
case of failure, peak stress does not generate any noticeable
it
fractures.
Gen-
small-radius
tions due to local structural discontinuities such as a notch, a
fillet,
cracks, stress-corrosion, and delayed
can be a source of fatigue

only for vessels in cyclic
erally, the computation of the peak stresses is required
stress are thermal stress
peak
of
examples
Typical
service as defined by AD-160.
and stress concentracladding
integral
steel
stainless
plate
with
steel
in carbon
a hole, or an incomplete penetration weld.
Combination of
Stress Intensities
According to the shear theory of
failure used in Division 2, yielding in a
member
under loads begins if the maximum induced shear stress equals the yield shear
maximum shear
stress developed in a test sample under simple tension. The
largest algebraic
the
one-half
equals
consideration
under
point
the
stress r at
32
difference between any two out of three principal stresses (a Xi

point.
ct 2
>
at that
^3)
occurs on each of two planes inclined 45 degrees from these two
It
principal
For
stresses.
maximum
oi
shear stress t
is
>02>o li
by
maximum
r = (o 3
-a
)/2.
definition the equivalent intensity
Twice the
The procedure
for
< \ Su
2.
Local membrane
computation of the
stress intensities
can be summarized as
The maximum allowable
stress intensity.
PL
stresses
is
The maximum
under investigation the designer selects an orthogonal

and r.
a point
coordinates: L,
f,
set
of
The stresses due to the design loads and moments are calculated and decomposed into orthogonal components o r o L and o t parallel to the coordinates.
2.
According to the types of loads, the

sified and combined in the following way:
3.
stresses or their
components
are clas-
= sum of all general primary membrane stress components

Pi = sum of all local primary membrane stress components
Pb - sum of all primary bending stress components
Q - sum
F - sum
of all secondary (membrane and bending)

of all peak
Pb
as
stress
is
limited to
stress intensity.
when applicable.
The maximum
stress intensity
membrane
stresses plus the
primary bending
.5S m times the factor k
Primary plus secondary

based on the primary or
local
PL +P b + Q) cannot exceed the value

operating conditions, usually less
under
computed
of 35 m All stresses may be
2S
(3S
severe than the design conditions
m < y ).
secondary
stress plus the
stress
(Pm or
Peak
If fatigue analysis is
intensity.
stress
maximum
conditions, the
stress intensity
bined primary, secondary, and peak
required for cyclic operating
S must be computed from
stresses
(Pm or
PL
Pb
components
the com-
Q + F)
under
fatigue curves.
Pi Pb> Q> and F can represent a triaxial stress combined with shear, and as
such they would be defined by six stress resultants. In this case the principal
*
>
stresses (a 1(
a 2 ,a 3 ) must
ever, the coordinates (L,
first
r, t)
be evaluated for each category separately. Howcan be and usually are chosen in such a way that
the stresses o L> o r , o t are already the principal stresses of the particular stress
category.
Table AD-150.1
Stress Intensity
k Factors for Various Load Combinations.

Calculated Stress
Load Combination
(Sec AD-110)
Condition
Design
A The
detign pressure, the dead
Limit Basis
* Factors
Based on the corroded
1.0
thickness at design
load of the vessel, the contents
The maximum
4\
(e
intensity S is
operating conditions. The allowable value Sa for this peak stress
with
the use of the
operations
cyclic
for
analysis
of
methods
the
obtained by
components.
stress
4.
5.
Pm
stress intensity
.5S m times the factor k when applicable.

for S
bending (P b ) stress intensity.
3. Primary membrane {P m or PL ) plus primary
or PL stresses plus the bending
stress intensity S based on P
stress
At
).
is
derived from
follows.
1.
Sm
materials.
of combined
stress or stress intensity.
<%S
when applicable (S m
y or
the basic allowable design stress value (in tension) for approved
times the factor k from Table AD-150.1
Sm
33
pm)
-g->
Code
stress intensity
under consideration,
5
is
is
calculated for the particular stress type
or combination of types (e.g.,
PL
Given principal
stress intensity limits.
Then S
Pb + Q)
of
and compared with basic
o ly o 2) o 3
stresses
of the vessel,
in the
the mechanical equipment, and
external attachment loads

6 Condition A above plus wind
category
metal temperature
the imposed load
1.2
1.2
metal temperature
thickness at design
load
call
= a
1
-a 2
S 2 3=o 2 ~o 3>
C Condition A above plus earthquake load
S 31 =a 3 -a|.
thickness at design
metal temperature
(NOTE: The condition
the absolute value of the largest of these differences:
of
structural instability or
buckling must be considered)
S = max (|SiaUSUS3il).
Operation
The actual operating loading

This
conditions.
is
the basis
Based on corroded
See AO 160
and Appendix 5
thickness at operating
pressure and metal
of fatigue lift evaluation
optratmg temperature
Basic Stress Intensity Limits
One of
Tnt
the requirements for a design to be acceptable
intensities
shown
I
as
will
is
that the
computed
stress
not exceed the allowable stress intensity limits of Division 2. As
in Fig. 2.2 there are five basic allowable stress intensity limits to
General primary membrane
computed on
basis
of Pm
stress intensity.
stresses
The maximum
cannot exceed a
be met.
stress intensity
stress intensity equal to
A The
required test pressure, the
dead load
of
the vessel, the
1.25 for hydrostatic

test
and 1.15
contents of the vessel, the imposed load of the mechanical
pneumatic
equipment, and external attach-
limits.
AO-151
for
test.
See
Based on actual
design values at
tet temperature
for special
ment loads
Reproduced from the ASMS Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 2
(1977 edition), by permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
34
sum of
In addition to the above conditions the algebraic
not exceed
stresses should
4S m
+ ca + a 3
< 45 m
all
35
1000
three principal
500
400
300
definitions apply in the above discussion:
The following
100
Membrane
stress
normal
is
or compression)
component (tension
stress
(0
uniformly distributed across the thickness of the wall section.
Bending
stress
is
normal
component
stress
>
linearly distributed across the
thickness about the neutral axis of the thickness of the wall section.
Shear
stress
is
a stress
component tangent
to the plane of the section
50
40
30
20
10
10
50
20
100 200
and usually
Permissible
stress (in contrast to the primary bending stress) is a bending

of displacements, physical continuity of the
compatibility
stress needed for
for overall equilibrium of forces acting on a
needed
not
but
loads,
shell under
Secondary bending
two
tion of
typical
example
is
the discontinuity bending stress at a shell junc-
different wall thicknesses under pressure.
regardless of
any other
is
stresses that
occur in the part.
Endurance Limit denotes the alternating

(more than 2 X 10
stress
which a specimen can
infinitely
cycles) sustain in a fatigue test.
number of cycles
X 10 5
10 6
6
5 X 10
4xx steels, with ultimate

Fig. 2.3. Design fatigue curve for low carbon, low alloy and series
"= 30 x 10 6 psi. Source:
strength <80 ksi and temperature not exceeding 700F and
reference 2.
plotted against the permissible
puted assuming
the theory predicting that yielding in a

Maximum
principle stress induced at some point
maximum
the
when
structural part begins
yield stress in a simple tension test
the
equal
to
value
the
reaches
in the part
principle stress theory
5 X 10
2 X 104
assumed uniformly distributed across the thickness of the wall section.
structure.
5000 10*
500 1000 2000
however
it
cycles N,
Sa has been com-
of the materials and has the dimension of
represents the stress only
exceeded. Beyond the
modulus of
number of operating
elastic behavior
elastic limit,
it
if
stress;
the elastic limit of the material
represents actual strains multiplied
is
elasticity, ficticious stresses (see Fig. 2.1).
For fatigue analysis only the stresses that vary during the cycle have to be conoperating
sidered. The stresses due to steady loads, which do not vary during an
their efstresses
and
mean
cycle, need not be considered since they are taken as
technique.
modifying
curves
a
by
fect was included in the fatigue design
Fatigue Strength denotes the average maximum alternating stress which a specimen can sustain for a given number of stress cycles.
Stress
Significant stress
means
a stress or a stress
component
that cannot be omitted
with respect to other stresses without effecting the design.
Stress range
SB
'
\^
all
materials subject to cyclic loads break at stresses
much lower
than the
rupture stresses produced by steady loads. This phenomenon is referred to as

alternating mechanical or
fatigue. When the design conditions involve varying or
thermal loads and under the Code Div. 2 rules a fatigue analysis has to be made
(Appendix 5) the permissible design stress must be based on the Code Div. 2
fatigue strength.
The Code
Div. 2 allowable stress cycling data are expressed
the design fatigue strength curves
lowable
stress
Sa
N (see
Fig. 2.3).
Sa
amplitude (S fl/f in Fig. 2.4) of the alternating
is
the
maximum
stress range
Sr
by
|,
stress
stress intensity
ax
tan
in.
One varyinq*
load cycle
al-
It's
amplitude
or alternating
\A
Fatigue Design.
Nearly
not
by the
Fig. 2.4.
Fluctuating stress due to varying load.
time
stress CATEGORIES AND DESIGN LIMIT STRESSES
36
There are two procedures to be followed

intensity
S ait
in
computing the alternating
37
See Code Div. 2, Par. G-106, Example No. 6 for an illustrative problem in fatigue
stress
analysis.
Fatigue strength reduction factor or Factor of stress concentration infatigue K.

1.
The principle
cycle. (This
is
stresses (o u
Any abrupt change of
o 2 and a 3 ) do not change directions during a
the usual case in the design of pressure vessels.)
The
stress
compo-
nents S (o t o L or r tL r Lr T rt ) during a cycle due to the fluctuating loads are com

puted at a point in the part under investigation as functions of time, and the prin
ciple stresses {a x
0 2 and a 3 )
are evaluated.
to be included in the computations.
If
the
stress
concentration factors have
maximum
algebraic (absolute) differ-
The
>
is
stress
The
plotted for better clarity.
maximum Sa is found from

is put equal
as computed. If computed
Code fatigue curve and Sa >
to Sa the maximum allowable number of operating cycles TV for the part can be
read from the fatigue curve. Sa has to be adjusted if the part material has a different modulus of elasticity than E given on the Code fatigue curves.
2.
The principle stress directions change during the cycle. First, all stress components due to variable loads at a point under investigation of the vessel S are
For the required number of operating cycles TV the
tinuities
nent of the cycle
SQ
is
computed and identified
as S' (a't o'L a'r
principle stresses corresponding to S' are then
half of their
5 aU
maximum
.)
or
S S
S0
computed (Oi a 2 o 3 ) and oneany time in the cycle is
algebraic (absolute) difference at
is
then the ratio of the fatigue strength without
values are usually
with the given
stress concentration.
computed and modified by experimental
Code
stress
concentration factors are acceptable under
rules.
Fatigue Curves. The ASME developed a set of generalized S a - TV fatigue curves.

The permissible alternating stress intensity Sa from those charts must be multiplied by the ratio E (given in chart)/ (used material).
The curve in Fig. 2.3 can be expressed by equation [132]
:
2xio 6 T' 17
[KSa
- 11
000
computed
where
N = design allowable cycle life, cycles per operating life

K = fatigue stress reduction factor (an alternative term for factor of stress concentration in fatigue). When KSa < 1000 the plate can be assumed to be
1
below endurance
limit.
[135].
Cumulative Damage. For several loads with different alternating stress amplitudes
a tin* 311 damage relationship is assumed and cumulative damage is
nJN
Stress intensification factors
have to be taken into account by using appropriate stress concentration
Next, the algebraic difference between the stress component (at any
point in time) S and the maximum (or minimum) corresponding stress compo-
equal to
theoretical K
not available, the theoretical
structural discon-
factors.
The
joint, threads) along the path of
data that include the effect of material ductility. If the experimental data are
the
the
all
computations. The factor K
a stress concentration to the fatigue strength
>
evaluated as functions of time for a complete cycle. Again
weld tee
accounting for the effects of the structural discontinuities have to be used in
of
cr
o2
ence in the cycle between the principle stresses (oi
3 as functions
=
intensity
5
stress
/2.
the
alternating
then
-o
o
rl3
to5
time) is equal
2
x
M3
Usually, a diagram (principle stresses versus time)
a section (fillet
the stress flow will reduce the fatigue strength.
as follows:
+ n 2 /N2 + .... +
njN <
t
From
reference 7 the fatigue curve can be expressed as:
N' = {K'l&Srf
where K' and n are the material constants. For
K' = 780000 and* = 5.

N* = number of cycles to
where
n t = number of
load
steel
with U.T.
< 60000 psi:
stress cycles during the operating life
of the vessel due to the
failure in fatigue
0 = stress intensification factor

Sr - calculated stress range based on cold E.
Nj = maximum permissible number of cycles for the alternating calculated

to the load Distress intensity
(sa) due
Comparing both curves we can find the approximate safety

fatigue curve in Fig. 2.3.
factor built in the
38
2.5.
DESIGN REMARKS
material for ordinary carbon steel or lowcan safely be said that the savings in
to the rules of Division 2 will be more than
alloy steel vessels designed according
It
costs.
by the additional engineering and fabrication
as Division
long
and
as
often
as
Since Division 2 is not used
offset
1,
most
vessel
designers are more familiar with Division 1

small external loadings such as
'Geometrically simple important vessels with
some savings in accordance
reactors could probably be designed with
spherical
with the rules of the Division 2.
3
Membrane
Stress Analysis of
Vessel Shell
3.1.
Components
INTRODUCTION
closed
structures with shapes resembling curved plates,
pressure vessels are
design
vessel
pressure
In
shells.
to
as
or open, are referred
pressure. Most pressure vessels in inclosed containers for the containment of
shapes: spherical or cylindrical with
dustrial practice basically consist of few
torispherical, or flat end closures.
hemispherical, ellipsoidal, conical, toriconical,
bolted together by means
The shell components are welded together, sometimes
In structural analysis,
all
of flanges, forming a
shell
with a
common
rotational axis.
surfaces of revolution,
Generally, the shell elements used are axisymmetrical
line, called a meridian
straight
simple
formed by rotation of a plane curve or a
the meridian (see Fig.
of
plane
the
in
rotation
or generator, about an axis of
meridional plane and contains the principal merid3 1)
The plane
is
called
Only such
ional radius of curvature.
shells will
be considered
in
all
subsequent
discussions.
be specified using the form ot

For analysis the geometry of such shells has to
principal radii of curvature, and the wall
the midwall surface, usually the two
be
point on a shell, e.g., the point a in Fig. 3.1 can
thickness at every point.
and the radius/?. In engineering strength of materials

thickness is quite small in comparison with
a shell is treated as thin if the wall
the wall thickness t to the minimum
the other two dimensions and the ratio of
10. This also means that the
\0oxRJt>
curvature is R /t>
located by the angles 0,
principal radius of
<p
external loads in the shell

compressive, or shear stresses produced by the
thickness.
wall
the
over
distributed
equally
can be assumed to be
tensile,
wall
(membrane) shells in
Further, most shells used in vessel construction are thin
that bending stresses
is
characteristic
important
whose
R t 500r,
the range 10f
in close proximity
only
intensity
high
are
of
loads
external
due to concentrated
<
<
length or the decay length,

to the area where the loads are applied. The attenuation
significantly reduced, is limited
are
stresses
the
where
load
the
from
distance
the
112
and quite short-e.g., for a cylinder, (Rt)

The radial deformation AR of the shell under a load
.
is
assumed to be small
Section
Rt
RL
i>
Section
-A
R$
or
R$
or
radii
Rt
of curvature
R^ = R t ).
sin 0, radius
RL
and
fl f lie
of the parallel
on the same
line,
41
B-B
- longitudinal (meridional) radius of curvature of the surface, also
for sphere,
tangential (circumferential) radius of curvature of the surface, also
Both
MEMBRANE STRESS ANALYSIS OF VESSEL SHELL COMPONENTS
40
R2
K
but have different lengths (except
circle.
= shell thickness.
= angle in the meridional plane section between the plane normal to the meridional
plane and the axis of rotation.
e = angle in latitudinal plane section
between meridional plane and reference meridional
plane ixz).
Area abed, the differential
two
parallel circles, since
shell
it
is
latitudinal planes. All radii are

Fig. 3.1.
R L d<t>
element
R t dd,
is
cut out
by two meridians and
convenient to investigate the stresses in the meridional and
mean
radii
of shell wall
in
corroded condition.
(a) General external load
symmetrical
axkilly
with respect to the wall thickness (<t/2) and the
below the proportional
maximum
stresses
remain
(b) Shell plane
stress.
on the shell, the loading on a shell

element can be divided into three components; Pq, P# and/9/? as shown in Fig.
3.2a. A thin, elastic shell element resists loads by means of internal (body)
is
and
stress couples, acting at the cross sections
of the differential
element, as shown separately for clarity in Fig. 3.2b, c, and d. The surface forces
act
on the
For uniform internal pressure
membrane
surface, outside or inside, while the
of the element. Since the element must be
body
forces act over the volume
in equilibrium, static
equations can be derived.

In general, there are 10 different internal stress resultants:
equilibrium
(c)
clement of an
a differential
stress resultants
A^,
Ne
in
P<t>-Pe
Transverse shear stress resultants
and
QB
s b and
PR
= P.
tension or compression and
shape of the clement N$ e =

= #6* = 0 and
For axisymmctrically loaded shells, N^ Q
acting
stress resultants
shell.
components P R Pq, P& acting on
in shear. Neglecting the trapezoidal
limit of the shell material.
If a general external (surface) load
10
Definitions pertaining to shells of revolution.
NQ
N$ $t N Q(t)
Membrane
state of
<t>-
de =
For axisymmctrically loaded
M+
Qe
shells
0.
resultant couples
9%
e0 Torque
Bending stress resultant couples
0 and torque
and Mqq = 0 for axisymmetrically
couples are neglected in bending shell theory.
e<t>
(d)
loaded
shells.
Fig. 3.2.
Stress resultants (tension shear), bending
and twisting stress couples

components PR
under general load

tial element of an axis symmetrical shell
at a differen-
and P e
42.
#0, Nq
NQ
= membrane forces acting in the plane

<t>
!of the shell surface,
43
MEMBRANE STRESS ANALYSIS OF THIN-SHELL ELEMENTS
3.2.
lb/in.
Q<i>>
Qe -
M$>Me
Mqq.Mqq
- bending
- twisting
stress couples, lb-in./in.
From
be obtained.
solution of such a system of differential equations within the given

is
very difficult and can be accomplished only
(N^ B Ne<p)
,
sure are equal to zero,

stress resultants
when
boundary
for a
membrane
analysis to be valid can be
<p
(see Fig. 3.2b).
simplifies the solution.
must be applied
assumes that the basic
summarized
The membrane
the resultant stresses in shell are:
way that the

Membrane
internal stress
stress analysis
compression, and shear
the shell plane and that a thin shell cannot respond with bending or transverse
shear forces. In practice,
all
thin shells can absorb
some load
in
bending, but
these bending stresses are considered secondary and are neglected. If under a
concentrated load or edge loading conditions the bending stresses reach high
values, a
if
more
detailed analysis has to be
made and
the shell locally reinforced
necessary.
2.
Any boundary
reactions, such as those at supports,
must be located
in the
meridional tangent plane, otherwise transverse shear and bending stresses develop in the shell boundary region.
3.
The
can be computed from basic static equilibrium equations and
in such a
shell resistance forces are tension,
some
the internal stresses are due
=Ne
All external loads
reactions are produced in the plane of the shell only.
in
applied to
for a xisym metrical loads such as internal pres-
which further
~N
as follows.
rigorous
Once the stress resultants are determined the stresses in the shell
can be computed.
Fortunately, most vessel problems occurring in practice can be solved with
satisfactory results using a simplified approach. The main reason for this is that
under certain loading conditions which occur in practice with shells of revolution, some stress resultants are very small and can be disregarded or, because of
axial symmetry, are equal to zero.
shear stress resultants
The main conditions
stress
special cases.
Membrane shell theory solves shell problems where

only to membrane stress resultants Nq.Nq, and
such a way that the reacting
changes in curvatures
strains,
resultants to the midshell surface displacements can
a vessel act in
in Fig.
equations for static equilibrium.
a linear stress-strain relationship
(Hboke's law) the additional required differential equations relating the
conditions
shown
the geometry of the shell before and after
and twists can be established, and assuming
on
3.2b will be predominant and the bending and

transverse shear forces so small that they can be neglected. Here there are only
which can be determined from the
three unknowns, A^,
d) and Nqq
9<t>y
stress couples, lb-in./in.
deformation under the load, the direct and shear
practical cases the loads
stress resultants
which must be in equilibrium with the external forces. Since there are only six
equations of static equilibrium available for solution, the problem becomes four
times statically indeterminate.
most
In
transverse shear, lb/in.
The
shell including the
boundary zone must be
action of the stress resultants.
Any
free to deflect
under the
constraints cause bending and transverse
shear stresses in the shell.

4. The change in meridional curve is slow and without cusps or sharp bends.
Otherwise bending and transverse shear stresses will be included at such gross
geometrical discontinuities.
o L = 0$ =N$lt
longitudinal stress:
o t = o9 = Ne /t
tangential stress:
Bending
shell theory, in addition to
resultants (Fig. 3. 2d)
unknowns exceeds
the
number of
the
membrane
stress
longitudinal stress
tangential stress
shear stress
o L = a0
o t = oe
t0
stresses, includes
bending
(Fig. 3.2c). Here the
N$
and
from the deformation
Ne
-Q^/t.
stress
and addirelations.
and the resultant moments
in shell are:
=N0 /t 6A/0 /r
=Ne /t 6Me /t
is
number of
the static equilibrium conditions
resultants
Mtf>,Me are determined the stresses
The membrane
the wall thickness
membrane
and transverse shear forces
tional differential equations have to be derived
Once
stress resultants are
the wall thickness. This can be
is
about
assumed
Rjt>\0
assumed uniformly distributed across
if
the ratio of the radius of curvature to
and the change
in the wall thickness' if
any
very gradual.
6.
The
radial stress
or
is
small and can be neglected.
plane state of stress
is
assumed.
The middle surface of the entire shell is assumed to be continuous from

one section of the shell component to another across any discontinuity. In
practical vessel design two shell sections of different thicknesses are welded
together to give a smooth inside contour. At the junction the lines of action of
are not collinear and this eccentricity introthe meridional stress resultant
7.
duces additional
8.
The
stresses.
loadings are such that the shell deflections are small (AT?
the elastic range.
<
f/2)
and in
44
To summarize,
a shell will carry the load
by membrane
stresses
only if it
is
thin,
properly shaped, and correctly supported.
Membrane
Stresses
of fundamental importance
This last equation (the first equilibrium equation) is
subjected to loads symshells
membrane
axisymmetrical
for stress analysis of
radius of curvature
principal
The
rotation.
of
the
axis
metrical with respect to
negative
(if it points
be
axis),
vessel
the
toward
it
points
be positive (if
RL
Produced by Internal Pressure
45
can
vessel axis), or become infinite (at an inflection point). In the

above analysis the radial stress a r was assumed to be negligible (average o r = ~P\2 ).
The second equation of equilibrium required to solve for o t and aL can be
obtained by summation of the forces and stresses in the direction of the axis
away from the

The most important case
in the vessel design
subjected to internal pressure of intensity

sure
is
an axisymmetrical load;
is
a thin-shell surface
P (measured
in psi).
The
of revolution,
internal pres-
can be a uniform gas pressure or a liquid
it
pressure varying along the axis of rotation. In the latter case usually
tions are
stresses
performed to find the
two
calcula-
due to equivalent gas pressure plus the
stresses
shell
element under uniform internal pressure
axisymmetrical the entire
finite shell section
can
be used at once as follows:

2irR(to L sin 4>)=PnR
is
Due to uniform pressure and axisymmetry there are no shear

on the boundaries of the element abed (N$ e = e0 = 0). The stresses oL
and o t are the principal stresses and they remain constant across the element
(dN e lbd)dd = 0 and (3^/30) tf0 = 0. The first equilibrium equation in the
in Fig. 3.3.
direction normal to the shell element (see Fig. 3.3)
sin (dd/2)]
[2R L
Substituting sin (de/2)
sin
(#)]= 2o
(ds 2 l2)IR t
and
ds x
t sin
sin (d<pl2)
Substituting this value into the
is
sin (c?0/2).
= (l/)(a f
If e t
radial
(ds t I2)/R L
growth
AR
vo L )
equilibrium equation yields
is
the unit elongation in the tangential direction, the
can be derived as follows.
2tt(K +
PdSi ds 2 = {o t /R t )tds d$ 2 + (o L IR L )tds ds 2

l
first
o t = (PR t lt)[\-(R t l2R L )],
(dd/2) + 2o L ds 2
AR) = 2nR +
2irRe t
AR=Re
P/t = (o t !R t ) +
a L =PR/2t sin0=/K,/2r.
stresses
P[2R t
is
due to the liquid weight.
freebody diagram of a
shown
of rotation. Since the shell
= (RlE)(o t
vo L \
(oJR L ).
where
E is
The
is
the modulus of elasticity.

biaxial state of stress
third equation required for static equilibrium of a
in the tangential
stresses
resultant
the
load
and
since
satisfied,
automatically
of rotation.
direction are defined as symmetrical with respect to the axis
change in the radius
that
a
out
point
to
important
seem
At this point it would
the membrane-stress
of curvature will introduce in the shell bending stresses that
=R =R
example R L
t
analysis assumes negligible. Taking a spherical shell as an
unit shell
and stresses o = o = o =?/2r due to the internal pressure, the
L
elongation e t
is
given by the following equation:

et
The change
in curvature
= (olE)(\ -) = (PR/2tE)(\
from
\IAR=(\lR')-(\iR) =
to
R'=(R
AR)
i>).
= R(\ + e t )
is
given
by
-(e t IR)l(\+e t )-e t IR = -(Pl2tE)(\ - u).
For a thin spherical plate with equal curvatures in two perpendicular directions
curvature is given
the unit edge bending moment causing the change \/AR in the
2
3
rigidity of the
=
flexural
= D{\ +v)IAR where D Et /\2(\
v ) is the
by
46
shell.
Substituting for
47
axis of rotation
l/AR
yields
M = -D(\
A negative moment
.
The bending
'.
- v2
){Pj2tE) = -(?f 2 /24).
compressive stress in outside fibers.

2
a=PR/2t or
o b = 6M/t = ?/4
will cause
stress
is
\olo b
= 2Rlt.
Section a-a
(latitudinal)
Obviously the bending
stress
o b can be neglected,
as
was the
radial stress
or
Fig. 3.4.
Asymmetrically Loaded Membrane Shells of Revolution
asymmetries in the load application, a shear stress resultant Nqq

be induced in addition to two other membrane stress resultants N$ and e
Stresses in cylindrical (closed end) shell
under internal pressure P.
If there are
will
The problem
as in Fig. 3.2b.
ferential equations
ditions will be
of
static
sufficient
will still
be statically determinate, since three
From
the
first
equilibrium equation,
dif-
(oL
equilibrium in the plane with proper boundary conto
compute
all
three
membrane
stress resultants
so that
without calling upon the midsurface displacements. However, the longitudinal

o L and the tangential o t stresses will no longer be the principal stresses in shell.
In the design of pressure vessels such an asymmetrically applied load
wind
force
puted
on a
stresses
cylindrical column. Using membrane
tall
are identical or close
elementary beam theory, which
is
enough to the
a concise
14, 17, 18,
3.3.
is
the
theory the com-
stresses as
o t =PR/t.
The
radial
growth of the
computed by
discussion of asymmetrically loaded
The interested reader will

membrane shells in refs.
and 23.
radius
= (R/E)(o t
vo L )
- vj2).
is
cylindrical shell
is
the
most frequently used geometrical shape
internal pressure. In the
in
terms of the inside
Rf
ot
=PRlt=P(Ri
+ 05t)lt.
in pressure
developed by rotating a straight line parallel with the axis of

rotation. The meridional radius of curvature R L - 00 and the second, minimum
The
shell thickness
is
therefore
is
radius of curvature
is
the radius of the
conditions of static equilibrium
shown
in
or
a L = PR/2t,
l(o t - 0.5?).
Fig. 3.4. In the longitudinal
direction,
2nRo L t=PnR 2
t=PR
R =R.
The stresses in
? can be computed from
formed cylinder
a closed-end cylindrical shell under internal pressure

the
no end rotation of a cylindrical shell under

above formulas, E is the modulus of elasticity.
The tangential (governing) stress can be expressed
There
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
vessel design. It
is
= (PR 2 IEt)()
Under Uniform Internal Pressure
The
shell
AR=Re
generally used for stress computations in
process columns under the wind or earthquake loads.

find
stress
+ (o t IR)=Plt.
The Code stress and shell thickness formulas based on the

mate the more accurate thick -wall formula of Lame:
SE =
(PRdt) + 0.6?
or
= PRtl(SE
inside radius approxi-
0.6?),
48
using 0.6P instead of 0.5?, where

the allowable
Code
stress.
is
Code weld
the
joint efficiency and
is
support
Both o t and o L
are principal stresses,
without any shear
stress
on the
side of
If a spiral-welded pipe (Fig. 3.5)
is
r
K
subjected to internal pressure
P, determine the normal and shear forces carried
by
a linear
support)
pears as in the following example.

3.1.
{line of
the differential element. However, at other section planes the shear stress ap-
Example
t stiffener
line of
See also reference 169.
49
inch of the butt
weld.
\ben\
^\ stiffening
line
f|v4 ^-1
L =
two
distance between
lines
of support
L s - sum of the half of distances from
iY.
port
// =
on each
stiffener to the lines of sup-
side of stiffener
depth of head
\ weld
Fig. 3.6.
seam
Fig. 3.5.
replaced by -P. However, thin-wall vessels under external pressure fail at stresses
lower than the yield strength due to instability of the shell. In addition
much
At point 0,
l
=PR/2
and
=PR
temperato the physical properties of the construction material at the operating

(collapsing)
the
critical
ture, the principal factors governing the instability and
lb/in.
pressure
Normal tension
Pc
are geometrical: the
and the outside diameter
is
DQ
unsupported
shell length
L, shell thickness
assuming that the shell out-of-roundness
is
f,
within
acceptable limits (see Fig. 3.6).

5
The behavior of
= (/?K/4)(3- cos
Shear
thin-wall cylindrical shells under uniform external pressure/
differs according to cylinder length.
lot).
Very Long Cylinders. Subjected to a critical pressure PC1 the shell collapses
two lobes by elastic buckling alone (see Fig. 3.7), independent of the
supported length L. The stiffeners or the end closures are too far apart to exercharacteristic
cise any effect on the magnitude of the critical pressure. The only
equation [118]:
ratio is t/D 0 and the collapsing pressure is given by the following
1
is
into
h = Wx
As a practical
not
rule the
less, for fabrication
- ly) sin
minimum
2a] /2 =
(PR/4)
sin
2a.
thickness of carbon steel cylindrical shells
is
and handling purposes, than the thickness obtained from
Pc =
the following empirical formula:
min.r=
where
is
[(Z),-
+ 100)/ 1000]
[2E/(\
-v 2 ))(tlD o y
in.,
the shell inside diameter in inches.
Under Uniform External Pressure
To compute membrane compressive
stresses in a cylindrical shell
external pressure the internal pressure formulas can be used,
if
under uniform
the pressure Pis
Fig. 3.7.
lobes
Two-lobe collapse of a pipe under external pressure. The
may be irregular.
50
where
E is
the
modulus of
elasticity
and for
accuracy:
= 0.3:
2A2E
Pc
= 2.2E(tlD 0 f.
(a)
The minimum unsupported length beyond which Pc is independent of L

the critical length L c and is expressed by the equation
Lc =
and
for v
1.14(1
-^)
1/4
0 O (JVO
is
where 0.45(///>o )
Pc
0,s
Intermediate Cylinders with
2.
L Cl
L<L C
plete circumferential belt at
If the
formula
length
is
carbon
for
steel shells (for v
= 0.3) in
refs.
Sc
Short Cylinders.
If
of
failure
fluence of
is
common
120 and 121

the -cylinder will
Pc
At
this
point the
or negligible. In the design of the

1
and 2 have
fail
by
of the material.
= (S y tlR Q ). This type
only in heavy-wall cylindrical shells.
thin-wall pressure vessels only the cases
in-
vacuum
practical significance.
theoretical elastic formulas for the critical pressure
Pc
at
which
SJE
is
number of
here treated as a variable factor
A,
this
geometric chart can be
physical properties of the

used for all materials. To introduce the particular
relating the value of the
required,
material, an additional material chart is
the particular material.
for
pressure
to the collapsing
c
collapsing ratio
curve
(SJE)-(S
strain-stress
C = Pc D/2t) for
The material chart is actually a
in terms of the
coordinate
the
obtain
To
the material at a design temperature.
four, the hoop
of
factor
safety
with
a
pressure P
SJE
allowable working
is
=PJ4
again employed:
inter-
mediate cylinders would collapse under radial uniform external pressure or

under uniform radial combined with uniform axial pressure, are derived in refs.
25 and 118. However, their solutions depend on n, the
<L C
(2)
Both equation (1) (vertical) and (2) (slanting) are

values as variplotted with SJE values as variables on the abscissa and (LlD 0 )
Appendix
(see
ables on the ordinate for constant ratios (t/D 0 ) in Fig. UGO-28.0
A2). For better clarity the plot is labeled as (D 0 /t).
formula
The
in the tangential stress
L>L C and
for cylinders with
formulas can be used:
L on Pc becomes very small
CO
0)
psi
L becomes short enough

stress
= 0.3,
at collapse:
S c IE=\30(tlD o y KLlD o )
plastic yielding alone at high stresses close to the yield strength
The ordinary membrane
practical cases, using v
SJE=\.\(tlD 0 f
Since
3.
obtain a set of two equations giving the tangential
for cylinders with
K and the number of lobes n that would produce

D 0 jt and LjR 0 can be read from the charts plotted
for given
all
and (b) are substituted for pressure
P = 2S(t/D0 ) we
decreased below the
the value of the collapse factor
minimum P c
dependent on two characteristic ratios (t/D 0 ) and (L/D 0 ).

In the formula for Pc from reference 106.
the
[(LID 0 )- 0.45(r/D o )
can be disregarded and for
Pc
Pc =KE(t/D o y
$
Pc = 2.60E(tlD o ?' KWo)-
and the number of lobes in a comcollapse n will tend to increase and will become
the critical pressure
can be simplified to
stress
'
2 3/4
(1 " v )
(tlD 0
1/2
If equations (a)
critical distance
called
= 0.3
L c = l.llD 0 (D o /r) 1/2
51
lobes at
and they are cumbersome for a routine design.

To eliminate the dependency on n and to simplify the whole procedure of
computation for the wall thickness t for the vacuum .vessels at different design
temperatures, the Code adopts the following procedure (UG-28). For cylindrical
Sc
=Pe D0 l2t = (4Pa )Do l2t
and
collapse,
L<L
formulas are replaced by the U.S.

with
C the more accurate elastic
Experimental Model Basin formula, which is independent of n and is of sufficient
shells
Pa Dolt = Sj2.
The material chart is then plotted against the same abscissa SJE, called factor/!
design temperature
(see Fig. A2.2 in Appendix A2), for a specific material and
together. Since
plots
the
two
ties
Factor
A
factor
B.
as ordinate P Djt. called
a
52
the
modulus of
the geometric chart

stress ratio
P = B/0J5(D o lt)
for
In practical design
is
D Q lt >
when
the
factor
P = B/Q.15(D 0 /t). When
B by 0JSDo /t, which
in.)
critical
reduces the safety factor to
St.
max.
(to avoid tripping the ring)
J_
3.
D Q /t
to obtain the factor
from the geometric
maximum
the
new
(2) designing a
(the
A. Using the factor
allowable
external
minimum
for carbon steel shells
B = 0.15P(Do lt). From the
A move
pressure
vertically
is t
Stiffener ring for
Fig. 3.8.
vacuum
vessels,
is
cylindrical vessel to withstand the
moment of inertia of the
stiffener,
= (D t +
I=0.035DlL s PjEin\
material chart
on the geometric chart
to
and horizontally to the LjD 0 axis. The maximum stiffener spacing

or the maximum allowable unsupported length of the cylindrical shell will be
L - (L/D 0 ) DQ Several trials are usually needed to obtain the most economical
the
h =
weld
critical pressure.
under external pressure. From the material chart
and compute the factor
find the factor
DQ \t the
L/D0 and
10.
and
external pressure P, assume
D0 it
ratios
(1) checking the existing vessel for allowable external
for cylindrical vessels
100/1000
which
at
used to determine the uniform allowable external pres-
factor
compute L/D 0 and
determine
To summarize,
for several temperature intervals.
S c /ZT(factor A ) will be produced in the shell at some
The material chart

P by dividing the
pressure,
reduce for temperatures above 300 F, the
starts to
used to estimate
is
sure
chart
elasticity
must be drawn
material curves
53
line
and substituting P c = AP and
P=
5 psi for
vacuum
vessels,
I=2.\DlLjEin\
combination of
shell thickness, stiffener size
Stiffener Size.
and stiffener spacing.
In computing the adequate size of a stiffening ring Levy's
formula for buckling of a circular ring under uniform external pressure (L S PC )

in lb
per inch of circumference with the
moment
of inertia Is
is
is
the approximate
thickness
ts
moment of
based on the calculated distance
used:
ts
(L s Pc ) = 3EIs IRl=24EIJDl
If the
or
inertia required for the stiffener.
for a plate stiffener
with h = St s
L s and
E-
0M6SD o (JLjD o )
operating temperature
be made by multiplying
is
6
28 X 10
t*
higher than
can
(Fig. 3.8)
and
The required
now be
estimated
psi:
As =
8fJ.
room temperature,
6
l
by (28 X \0 /E') i* where E'
,
is
the correction can

the value of
at
operating temperature. For a preliminary estimate of stiffener sizes of different

/,
- (DlL s tl\2E){Pc D 0 l2t) = (DUstll2)(Se lE).
materials, see ref. 32.
To
The collapsing strength of the
ring
is
taken as 10 percent higher than the strength
of the ordinary shell (12
ring can be increased for
computation by the
1.1
14).
The
thickness of the shell reinforced
of the stiffener and the effective shell thickness
Is
A s /L s where A s
is (r + A s lL s ):
ratio
is
by
For
E for
carbon
steels see Fig.
decrease the size of the stiffener the
the stiffener to be included into the required
=DlL s (t + A s lL s )Al\4w.\
is
rs
= (D 2o L s )(t +
A s lL s )All0.9
neutral axis of
read from the material chart for the material used
(UG-29). In the above formula,
monly used shape
As
has to be
first
estimated.
The most com-
for ring stiffeners are bars with a rectangular cross section and
cut-outs of plate, as
shown
in Fig. 3.8.
moment
shell sections adjacent to
of inertia (Fig. 3.9). Then
the area
shaded area
where the value of
A2.2.
Code allows
Using general formula for the required
Fig. 3.9.
in.
4
.
54
stiffener rings act as external lateral restraints, increasing the critical col-
The
lapse lateral pressure
Pc
(psi)
by shortening the unsupported length of the
shell
On
ther-
sections.
on the outside of the
vessel.
mally insulated vessels, they must be adequately insulated. If placed inside the
vessel, they would obstruct the flow, cleaning etc. If any gaps between stiffener
and
shell occur, the applicable
Code procedure to
establish the
maximum
un-
Sometimes the same
vessel, reinforced
with heavy stiffeners,
is
subjected oc-
casionally to inside operating pressures. Large discontinuity .stresses in the shell
can develop adjacent to the stiffeners, and they should be checked [51]
The stiffener-to-shell weld (Fig. 3.8) must carry the load PL S (lb per inch of
the stiffener circumference), and has to be designed accordingly.
intermittent on both sides of the stiffener with the

(8f for external rings)
is
fillet
weld
Code permitted spacing
removed, the cylinder returns into original unstrained condition. At the critical
is in neutral equilibrium. At any further increase of
Lc the
shell deflection increases not in proportion to the load. The strained cylinder
passes into unstable equilibrium, caused by inelastic action at some section of
If the ratio
fail
Under Uniform Axial
by buckling
However, the
plastic yielding
equal to the yield
Lc
NLc
is
than the theory predicts, between 40

drical shells occur at stresses
theoretical
load. To adjust the formula with the
predicted
to 60 percent of the
experimental results an empirical constant is introduced:
oLc = 0.605
where the empirical factor
K=
of the material
Rjt
- 0.901 (1 - e' a )
test values 0.5 is
and
can be taken as
l/2
a = 0.0625(i?/f)
taken as equal to
K then:
when
aLc -Q3EtjR.
compressive stress under
the cylindrical shells will
the critical collapse stress
for the critical
(mirumum)
fail
is
rather
close or
The allowable Code compressive

the same
stress for axially
loaded cylindrical
shells
is
as the allowable stress for spherical shells:
elastic
buckling stress for the
with the ends simply supported can be derived using the strain
=NLc lt = EtlR[3(\
- v2
)]
1'2
and for
= 0.3
Sa = 0.0625 Et/R
for the elastic range
Sa - B (read from
the
Code material
and
charts) for plastic range.
Clearly the limiting stress in the above formula
is
the yield stress of the con-
struction material. However, if safety factor equal to 10, as used in
= 0.605 Et/R.
the critical axial compressive load in lb/in. of circumference.
sion
The length
compressive stress aLcy in contrast to overall or interstiffener collapse

stress under lateral pressure, does not depend on the unsupported shell length I.
is
Code
divi-
applied against the critical theoretical stress oLc then this allowable
compressive stress will govern in a considerable range
responding to the
3.4.
critical
of
KEtlR
K for shells with L/R < 5
axial
of a half sine wave of the deflected shell equals to:
The
buckling of fabricated cylin-
failures in
much lower
energy method [131]
oLc
show that the
stress.
The general equation

cylindrical shells
test results
Pressure.
at a critical longitudinal
proportionate limit. At lower ratios of
by
some
or material.
Basis for establishing External pressure Parts.
R 0 /t becomes too large (>300) thin wall cylindrical shells under
pressure will
elastic strains at
points in the shell increase into plastic strains. It is

collapse will be initiated at the section with the largest imperfections, geometric
If the average
Cylindrical Shells
by any small disturbance. The
the shell, leading to collapse
Appendix Q.
stress the cylinder
usually satisfactory.
Only an outline of the analysis of the effects of the external pressure on the
cylindrical shells has been presented here-the minimum required to design a
vessel under external pressure. The interested reader will find a detailed development and description of the Code charts in ref. 26 and a detailed discussion of
cylindrical shells under external pressure in refs. 18, 25 and 1 18. See also Code
1
stress
intuitively obvious that the
supported length of the gap will apply.
Div.
o Lc (or load Lc ) the cylinder is in a stable equilibrium,

throughout the cylinder is below elastic limit. If the load
critical stress
is
stiffener rings are generally placed
The
Below the
meaning, that the
55
critical stress
o Lc
is
Fc
= irDt oLc
oiR Q jt. The
total load cor-
SPHERICAL SHELLS AND HEMISPHERICAL HEADS
Whenever process design
or storage conditions permit or high design pressure
requires, a spherically shaped vessel
is
used. Although
it
is
more
difficult to
56
fabricate than a cylindrical shell,

cylindrical
On

it
large-diameter cylindrical vessels, hemispherical heads will introduce negli-
gible discontinuity stresses at junctures.
around an
spherical shell
is
developed by rota-
jE
voJE)=PR 2 ltE\(\
where E is the modulus of elasticity.

Both stresses o L and o t are uniform across the
axis (see Fig. 3.10).
radii are the
same and the
stresses
o t and o L
are the
same. From
the equation specifying the static equilibrium at section a-a in Fig, 3.10,
nR 2
cos
stress
cylin-
formula for the sphere thickness can
be used to compute the thickness of the hemispherical heads. If the radial

growth of the cylinder and connected hemispherical head were the same the
discontinuity stress would be eliminated. However, the thickness of the shell
would not be
(a L cos a) t2nR cos a -
such an extent that the
The
Code
shell thickness in tension.
UW-13.1) be minimized by a design taper between the head and the
drical shell to
Spherical Shells or Heads Under Internal Pressure.
fully utilized. If
AR C
AR S then
ccP
(PR 2 /2Et c )(2
we conclude
~ v)/2]
discontinuity stresses at the cylinder-hemispherical head junction can (per

Fig.
Both principal
under the same pressure, with minimum exposed surface.
shell
tion of a circle
AR = R(o
requires only half the wall thickness of the
57
= (PR 2 l2Ets )(\
- v)
- v)
that
or
o L =PR/2t.
fJ
= rc(l-f)/(2-f) = 0.4lrc
But
where
oJR
+ o t tR=Plt,
ts
tc
= thickness of the hemispherical head

- thickness of the cylindrical shell.
so that
Spherical Shells and Heads
o t =PR/2t = o L
The Code
stress
formula, based on the inside radius and the joint efficiency E:
The membrane stresses

be computed from the
-P
SE
= PRil2t +
QAP
or
Under External Pressure
PRrfQSE ~
0.2/0,
for P.
shells or
However,
heads
will
in spherical shells
stress
as in the case
fail
or heads under external pressure can
formulas for the internal pressure
of thin cylindrical
/>,
substituting
shells, thin-wall spherical
the yield stress in the shell
by buckling long before
is
reached.
where
0.1
is
the correction factor.
The
radial
growth
AR
is
To
establish
spherical shells,
the
maximum
allowable external pressure P'a
hemispherical heads or sections of a spherical
to be able to develop characteristic lobes

procedure has to be used, as described below.
cos a
axis of
" rotation
at
collapse, the
Spherical shells have only one characteristic ratio

side radius
and
is
the shell thickness.
The
sure P'c for perfectly formed spherical shells

2
P'c = (tlR 0 )
R 0 jt,
in
the design of
shell large
where
RQ
is
shells P'c
the out-
theoretical collapsing external presis
given by
2El[3(\-v
1/2
)]
and for v = 0.3,
For commercially fabricated
enough
convenient Code
2
can be as low as P'c = 0.3 E(t/R)
58
For thin fabricated

equation
is
59
with permissible out of roundness the following
shells
used, including the safety factor for the allowable external pressure:
P'a =(Ell6)(tlRo)
In order to use the material
Code charts
2
-
for cylindrical shells to determine the
allowable external pressure P'a for spherical shells in the elastic-plastic region,
made. The material charts
the following adjustment in computations must be
were plotted with S c /2 =
Sc
maximum
where
is
Pa D 0 /t = B
S c jE-A
(ordinate) against
the critical stress in a cylindrical shell
at'
a abscissa,
and
collapse
Pa
is
the
allowable external pressure for cylindrical shells. The abscissa for a
spherical shell can be
S'c = P'c
computed from
Fig. 3.11.
R 0 /2t = 4P'a R 0 l2t = (2R 0 /t)l(EIl6)(tlR 0 f
oL
is
maximum
at
(a L !R) + (o t /R) = Pit for
0 = 0 O From
-
giving
o t = -a L
P=
0, obtain
s'jE-o.nsi(Hoit)*A,
where S'c
mum
is
the critical stress in a spherical shell at coDapse- and P'a
allowable external pressure on a spherical
shell.
is
the maxi-
disregarded,
P are
However, since a spherical
can sustain twice as high pressure at the same strain as a cylindrical
shell
The shear and bending stresses at the section at 0 are

(b) Membrane stresses due to the internal pressure
o t = o L =PRj2t.
shell in
B must be adjusted correspondingly, i.e., multi2B = PaD0 /t and the maximum external pressure for spherical
tangential direction, the factor

plied
shells
by 2
so that
and heads P'a
is
Both membrane
then given by the equation
from
stresses
P and q
have to be superposed. The ring flanges
a gross structural discontinuity
on the cover represent
where
large secondary
To evaluate them a more

analysis would be required. However, away from the ring flanges at a
1/2
the simple membrane stresses will be significant.
greater than (Rt)
bending and shear
P'^BKRolt).
stresses will
develop.
involved
distance
The
permissible axial buckling load for an arbitrary shell of revolution
approximated by that of a sperical
shell
R t of the
tangential radius of curvature
with a radius equal to the
is
safely
maximum
3.5.
shell at the location.
SEMI ELLIPSOIDAL HEADS
Semiellipsoidal heads are developed
Example
3.2.
spherical cover subjected to internal pressure
in the
by
a flanged
opening, as shown in Fig. 3.11.

applied at the top ring flange
P has
uniformly distributed force q (lb/in.) is

connected pipe. Compute membrane stresses
cover due to the internal pressure and the force q.
(a)
Membrane
equation
stress
q2nR
sin
<p 0
used end closures

psi
l2-nR sin
sin
rotation of a semiellipse. Heads with a
in vessel design, particularly for internal pressures
and for the bottom heads of
q.
The equilibrium
tall,
above 150
slender columns. In the following analysis,
components with no
restraints at
edges under uniform pressure P.
0 = oL t
sin
Under Uniform
Since both
=q
by
to minor axis h (Fig. 3.12) are the most frequently
is
or
oL
semiellipsoidal heads are treated as separate
due to the axisymmetrical load
in the axial direction at angle
2:1 ratio of major axis
0 o /r
sin
stresses
0.
RL
Internal Pressure
and
vary gradually from point to point on the ellipse the
o L and o t vary gradually
also.
The main
radii
of curvature
RL
and
60
'are given
The
by
= [R*lh 2 +
R L =R 3 h 2 lR A
t
(1
-R 2/h 2 )x 2
tangential stress
112
o t can be determined from
(o t IR t ) + (o L lR L )
61
= Plt
o t = (PR t lt)[\'(R t l2R L )].
or
At point
2
At point l,R t =R L = R /h and at point 2,R L = h jR and R t =R. The stresses
stress on the sides of the
shearing
o L and o t are the principal stresses, with no
2
ot
= PR 2 l2th=o L
differential element.
The longitudinal
=PRj2t
o L can be found from the equilibrium equation written
stress
for the latitudinal section
A-A
2nR a ta L
sin
in the vertical (axial) direction:
0 = nR\P
aL
or
and
at
point 2,
2
2
o t = (PRlt)[\-(R /2h )].
=PR tl2t
At point
From
the equation for a t at point 2
remains tensile;
oL
For standard 2
=PR 2l2th
if
:
\2h
>\oiR>
ellipsoidal
can be seen that as long as R}\2h < 1 o t

1.41//, a, becomes negative, in compression.
it
heads with
R-2h
2
o t =(PRlt)[l-(4h i2h
and
2
)]
=-PR/t.
at point 2,
The
radial displacement at point
a L =PR/2t.
AR =R(o
AR
is
lE
positive for (R/h)
is
2
uoJE) = (PR l2tE)[2
+ c
<2
and negative for
(R lh
(K/fc)
) - v]
+ v
> 2. Since
there
head the only gross disare no discontinuities in a uniformly thick ellipsoidal

shell, which increases
continuity is the juncture of the head to the cylindrical
axis of
rotation
the stresses in the knuckle region.

rm
X =
Membrane
ft,
\
1
r?1i
Y
Code
inn
p
tensile stress, if
used alone in design for various R/h ratios without
at the head-shell junction,

including the effects of the discontinuity stresses
the design procedure the
simplify
would result in too low a head thickness. To
of ellipsoidal heads to
thickness
the
formula
for
the stress design
knuckle ring
relates
modified by the
the tangential stress of the cylindrical shell of the radius R,
is based on many
which
K,
factor
intensification
stress
empirical corrective
tests.
The Code equation
for the
maximum
allowable stress in the head becomes
^0 /
SE = (PDil2t)K + Q.\P
~
R a /sin 0, tangential radius of curvature.

= longitudinal (meridional) radius of curvature.
Fig. 3.12.
Geometry of
a semiellipsoidal head.
where the factor QAP modifies the stress for use with the inside diameter >,2
2:1
and factor K = [2 + (D/2h) ]/6 and E is the weld joint efficiency. For
to that of
equal
nearly
=
very
is
thickness
the
head
1
and
K
ellipsoidal heads
COMPONENTS
MEMBRANE STRESS ANALYSIS OF VESSEL SHELL
62
low discontinuity stresses at the headellipsoidal head is a satisfactory construction
region as in the cylindrical

same maximum membrane stress in the crown
tonsphencal head
available
The most commonly used and commercially
the connected cylindrical shell. With
give the
shell junction the standard 2
shell
-at all
type
pressure levels.
In large, thin-wall heads with ratios R/t
> 300
and Rjh
> 2.5,
a failure in the
o t in compression can occur either

knuckle region due
wrinkles
in the meridional direction
(circumferential
through elastic buckling
the yield stress or through
than
less
much
stress
a
at
thinning)
wall
without any
parameter here is the
plastic buckling (at lower ratios Rjh). The main dividing
to the tangential stress
ratio R/t.
The
between the two modes of failure is not clearly

transition, elastic-plastic range, where both types of failure
division line
defined and has a
compressive,
can occur. The combination of tensile, longitudinal stress o L and
failures
most
when
tangential stress o becomes significant during hydrotests,
t
occur.
Unfortunately, there
is
no completely
reliable analysis available for predicting
pressure at this time.

a buckling failure of a semiellipsoidal head under internal
refs.
guidelines
in
the
22,
30, 31 61, and 62.
However, the reader will find some
,
is
with the
minimum knuckle
radius equal to 6 percent of L t In spite of the

and torispherical heads, the sudden change in
.
between semiellipsoidal
from L to r introduces large disthe radius of curvature (point a in Fig. 3.13)
semiellipsoidal heads. Howstandard
the
in
continuity stresses which are absent
is shorter
depth of dish
the
and
fabricate
to
expensive
ever since they are less
used for low
heads, torispherical heads are quite frequently
similarity
than in ellipsoidal
design pressures
(<300
The knuckle region
psi).
is
quite short, and the dis-
influence on the discontinuity stresses

continuity forces at point a have large
with
junction. Also, bending stresses in a knuckle
at point 2 the head-cylinder
thickwall
the
across
more hyperbolically
sharp curvature will be distributed
beam. The local plastic strains induced
curved
in
a
as
much
linearly,
than
ness
tend to cause the knuckle radius to

a head with a better
by high discontinuity stresses at point a

thus forming
merge more gradually into the crown radius,
shape to
As
resist
the internal pressure.
heads, to simplify the

in the design of semiellipsoidal
an adequate head thickness
the
procedure of finding
Code introduces an empirical correction

on
The membrane stress distribution in an ellipsoidal head due to pressure acting
stress
spherical
the
in
-P
for
P
substituting
computed
by
the convex side can be
buckling
formula for an equivalent radius of the crown section of the head, unless
governs.
The design pressure on the convex side of the head is usually much smaller in
magnitude than on the concave side, and the Code design procedure (UG33d)
The procedure is
has to be used in determining adequate thickness of the head.
the
based on the analogy between the maximum allowable compressive stress in
maximum
the
and
crown region of the head with an equivalent crown radius R
with the
allowable compressive stress in the externally pressurized spherical shell
same
radius.
No
buckling will occur in the knuckle region because of the induced
occurs.
high tensile tangential stress before deformation in the crown region
3.6.
TORISPHERICAL HEADS
two circular arcs, a knuckle
crown segment with crown radius L (see
Torispherical heads have a meridian formed of

section with radius
r,
and a spherical
Fig. 3.13).
H - depth of dish
-
Under Uniform
The maximum
Internal Pressure
inside
crown radius
for
diameter of the adjacent cylindrical
Code approved heads equals

Under internal pressure
shell.
the outside
this
would
63
sin
Fig. 3.13.
4>
= corroded thickness
= (R - r)l(L - r)
Geometry of a
torispherical head.
64
factor
pensate
into the formula for
membrane
stress in the
formula for the
maximum
Code
Since the tangential compressive stress in the knuckle region of a torispherical
head is much larger than that in a semiellipsoidal head, the possibility of failure
allowable stress in the head becomes
SE
o t = (PLl4t)[3-(Llr)].
crown region, to com-
for the discontinuity stresses at the shell-head junction. The
would seem to be higher. Large,

lapse by elastic buckling, plastic
= PLiM/2t + 0.\P
Because the moduli of

the same, there
t=PLiMI(2SE~
65
is
thin-wall torispherical heads are
elasticity for
no advantage
known
to col-
yielding, or elastic-plastic yield in hydrotests.
ordinary and high-strength steels are almost
to using high-strength steel for large-diameter,
thin-wall torispherical heads.
0.2P),
predict a possible failure under internal pressure the following approximate
To
formula for the collapse pressure of
where
head with
a torispherical
large
d Q \t
ratios
can be used [29, 107]:
A/=i[3
for rt
~ 0.06L/,
Membrane
M=
stresses
.77 and
E is the
due to
a /r
1/2
f)
PJoy
weld joint efficiency.
inside pressure in the
= [0.43 + l.S6(rld)](t/L) + 34.8 [1
at
Pc =
oy ~
d=
t
therefore
yield strength of the used material, psi
vessel diameter, in.
= head thickness,
in.
radius, in.
For standard torispherical heads with L t
o t = (PLlt)[l-(H2r)].
calculated
Pc = o y {[0.8836 +
stress in the
knuckle at point a, while in the spherical cap the stresses are both in tension and
equal to Oi = o t =PL/2t. The actual compressive stress o t will be affected by
and the
-d Q
and
r(
= 0.06tf o the equation can

,
be written
membrane compressive
the tensile stress in the adjacent spherical segment,
0.00081
collapse pressure, psi
L = crown
maximum
r = knuckle radius, in.
(o t lL)+[(PLl2t)lr]=P/t,
the
point a in Fig.
{o t IL) + {oL lr)~Plt
is
4.83(r/d)] (tlL)
where
knuckle
3.14 are calculated as follows:
The above o t
final average at
point
a could be estimated [22] as an average stress equal to
24.7149(f/tf 0 )] (t/d 0 ) - 0.00081}.
The above equation could be used

ellipsoidal heads
if
to estimate the collapsing pressure in semi-
values for r and
L approximating
closely
the ellipse are
substituted.
D/2h = 2 have torispherical properties equivalent to

head with LjD = 0.90 and r/D = 0.17 [2]
The use of the above empirical formula [107] in preference to the formula
Semiellipsoidal heads with
a torispherical
from reference 29,
PJi =
is
[0.33 + 5.5(r/rf)](r/L)
justified here because the
practice the actual

r
Membrane*
pressure stresses in the

knuckle of a torispherical head.
[1 -
computed
Pc
2.2(r/d)](tIL)
is
minimum
0.0006,
closer to the test results. Also, in
head thicknesses are always taken 1/16
(nominal thickness) than the

Fig. 3.14.
+ 28
in.
to 1/8 in. thicker
thicknesses taken in computations to
account for the possible thinning of plate in some locations. This would make
the Drucker's formula too conservative.
66
Determine the maximum allowable internaLpressure for a standard

torispherical head, d 0 = 10 ft, t = 0.25 in. minimum, ay = 32,000 psi.
Example
67
3.3.
a,
w l cos a
d 0 /t= 120/0.25 = 480.

Code allowable pressure
is
P = 2SEtl(LtM+Q2t)
=
(2X
= 35
5000 X 0.25)/(120 X
.77
+ 2 X 0.25)
psi
axis of rotation
Code
yield
a = half apex angle
is
^ = 35 X 32/15 = 74
R t = Rfcos a, tangential radius of curvature

Rl = , longitudinal radius of curvature
psi
Fig. 3.15.
Buckling pressure
Pc
= 32,000{(0.25/120)[0.8836 + 24.7149 X 0.25/120]

= 36.5
The equilibrium condition
0.00081}
2nRa L t
psi.
had to be subjected to a hydrotest of

thickness would be necessary.
head
the
If the entire vessel
an increase in
P-
35
1 .5
= 53
psi,

As
in the case
maximum
of semiellipsoidal heads the Code procedure for computing the

P uses the analogy between the compres-
external allowable pressure
crown region of the head with the allowable compressive

the sphere of equivalent radius, and must be followed (UG33e).
sive stress in the

in
Geometry of a conical head.
is
stress
in the vertical direction at section a-a yields
cos a =
nR 2 P
and
o L = PRjlt cos a.
The above stress formulas are the cylindrical formulas where R has been replaced
by K/cos a.
The end supporting force to L =PR/2 cos a lb/in. at section a-a in Fig. 3.15 is
shown in the meridional line as required if only membrane stresses are induced
in the entire conical head. In actual design, where the conical head is attached
to a cylindrical shell, the supporting force PR/2 lb/in. is carried by the cylindrical
shell, as
shown
in Fig. 3.16. This
arrangement produces an unbalanced force
(PR tan o)/2 pointing inward and causing a compressive stress in the region of the
junction. Obviously, the larger the angle a, the bigger the inward force. This
inward force has to be taken into consideration when discontinuity
3.7.
CONICAL HEADS
Under Uniform
Internal Pressure
generated by the rotation of a straight line intersecting the

axis of rotation at an angle a which is the half apex angle of the formed cone.
If the conical shell is subjected to a uniform internal pressure P the principal
conical head
stress
stresses at
ot
is
at section a-a in Fig.
ii
n
i
R
'S//*tana)/2
^
/\ot
3.15 can be determined from the equations

P
o L i +
oJR t
= Pit
and
o t = PR tjt = PR/t cos
ot.
Hill
Fig. 3.16.
Force diagram
at cone-cylindei junction.
68
cone-cylinder junctions are investigated. The angle a
(UA5b and
therefore, limited in
Code
rules
Otherwise the Code uses the membrane stress formula for conical
c).
(UG32g)
shells
shell
is;
design to 30 degrees, and the junction has to be reinforced per
Code
maximum
to determine the
stress
and thickness of
a conical
with the joint efficiency E:
69
an equivalent length L e = (L/2)[l + (D L IDS )] of a cylindrical shell of the

diameter D L (L e =Hl2 for conical heads) and the effective wall thickness
= rcosa(UG33f).
f*
Usually the sharp cone-small-diameter cylinder junction, points in Fig. 3.17,

requires reinforcement for discontinuity stresses (UA8c).
The
stiffening ring for
the small cylinder (necessitated by external pressure) should be placed as close
SE = PDi/2t
cos a + 0.6?,
to point
sion (b +
where 0.6?
D(
the correction factor accounting for using the inside diameter
is
in the stress
formula. If a special analysis
can exceed 30 degrees. However, beyond a
is
presented the half apex angle a
> 60 degrees
the conical shell begins
to resemble a shallow shell and finally a circular plate.
The
radial
growth
at section a-a
L e)
where
The
E is
the
forcement the
DL
is
and
te
for the external pressure, unless
required; where there
is
additional rein-
equal to (R L t L ) lf2 l2. The resultant disstresses at the point B are in tension and oppose the
maximum
membrane
distance b
is
compressive membrane stresses due to external pressure. The force component
is
2
jE)- (uoJE)] = R P[1
- (v/2)]
\tE cos a,
in Fig. 3.17 points
outward. The half apex angle a
is
here limited
60 degrees. The interested reader will find the development of the Code design method for reducers under external pressure and other loads in ref. 126.
to
modulus of elasticity.
rotation of the meridian at section a-a
is
= 3PR tan ajlEt cos
vertical
component V
at
any point
on
the reinforcing ring
V = Mc/I = MR
conical head or a conical transition section under
determined by the same
Code procedure
where the actual length of the conical section L
moment
equal to
in Fig.
=M cos dlnR
d/nR 3
cos
lb/in.
as for cylindrical
3.17
is
replaced by
and
T2
=M cos d/nR
~M cos 6 itR
cos**!
cos
a2
Since a 2 >ot i9 the resultant radial force
H=T
sina 2
// = 7W(tana 2
tan
The maximum
force
sin
H on the ring tension side will be:
^
)
cos
6/nR 2
lb/in.
H on the ring occurs at
that the ring resists the
d = 0 and 180, on the assumption
load without bending.
The outward radial force H induces a circumferential force Fin
D L = outside
Ds = outside
Fig. 3.17.
is
[22]:
The required thickness of the

is
Frustums under External Moment.
intersecting cone frustums in Fig. 3.18 are subject to an external
Two
a.
Under External Pressure
external pressure
Two Cone
Forces on a Ring at Juncture of
M. The
shells,
with
additional reinforcement at point
(PR tan a)/2
AR=R[(o
dimen-
should be no larger than the Code allowable distance between the
stiffeners for the larger cylinder,
continuity
maximum a = (R s ts) lf2l2. The
with the
as fabrication allows,
the ring equal to:
diameter of the large cylinder
diameter of the smaller cylinder
Conical shell reducer with outside stiffeners.
HRdB
= FdBj2 + Fdd/2 and
F = HR ~ M(ton
ct 2
tan
cos 6/irR lbs per arch length
in.
70
71
Cone
cos (0
d0/2)
Reinforcing ring
Fig. 3.19.
Clearly an assumption
by
is
made here that the unbalanced force// is counteracted

by membrane forces only, in ten-
the ring, and the conical shells are stressed
sion and compression.

If
the cone
a cylindrical shell
then the angle
ol
0.
TOROIDAL SHELLS
developed by the rotation of a closed curve, usually a circle about an

shell, such as
axis passing outside the generating curve. While an entire toroidal
Section a -a
Two conical frustums with
by
replaced
max.
3.8.
Fig. 3.18.
1 is
a ring at the juncture.
toroid
is
an automobile
tire, is rarely utilized
segments of toroidal
by
shells are frequently
itself in
the design of pressure vessels,
used as vessel components.
Since the radial forces have no tangential component the tangential shears in the
juncture
is
due to the increment
From
element Rdd.
in the circumferential force
Fig. 3.19 at point
we
Fin
a differential
get tangential force acting
on the
Membrane
Cross Section under Internal Pressure
ring:
5 = Af(tan
which
ct 2
tan
otj
)[cos (6 - d8/2) - cos (0 + dd/2)]
Figure 3.20 presents the geometry of a toroid.
juR
ct 2
in the vertical direction
tan c^) sin OdOjirR per differential arc 6
and
S=
[A/(tan
The above
ring
a -
is
a2
tan a x )jitR
sin
in lbs per arc
forces have to be taken into account
of length
when
is
R 20 )P =
(o L t sin <t>)2nR
1 in.
sizing the reinforcing
and the connecting welds. The required cross-sectional area of the ring
H max. R/Sa where Sa
find the principal stresses,
expressed as follows:
n(R 2
7
To
a t a ring-shaped toroidal section is isolated and

internal pressure P and membrane stress o L
between
condition
equilibrium
the
longitudinal o L and tangential
for small angles reduces to:
5 =Af(tan
Stress Analysis of a Toroid with Circular
the allowable stress of the ring material.
is:
and
a L =P(R 2
Rl)l2tR
sin
0 = (Prlt)[(R +
R 0 )I2R]
72
[o t IW*nii)]+(a L lr)
axis of
73
= Plt
rotation
the stress o t can be determined:
=P(R
ot
R 0 )l2ts\n
or
a t = Pr/2t.
To summarize, both
they
stresses
stress in a straight cylinder.
3.9.
o L (variable) and o t (constant) are
are the principal stresses. Stress
oL
at
point b
more accurate
is
analysis
in
tension and
equivalent to the
is
offered in
ref.
maximum
23.
DESIGN OF CONCENTRIC TORICONICAL REDUCERS

UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
For a transition section between two coaxial cylindrical shells of different diameters a conical reducer with a knuckle at the larger cylinder and a flare (reintrant
knuckle) at the smaller cylinder
is
very often preferred to a simple conical sec-
tion without knuckles. The main reason
for this
is
to avoid high discontinuity
stresses at the junctures due to the abrupt change in the radius of curvature,
particularly at high internal pressures (>300 psig). This can be further aggravated
Rt =
R/sin 0, tangential radius of curvature

meridional radius of curvature
Rl =f
by a poor fit of the cone-cylinder weld joint. The conical transition section with
knuckles has both circumferential weld joints away from discontinuities and
usually a better alignment with the cylindrical sheDs; however, it is more expen-
sive to fabricate.
Fig. 3.20.
Geometry of
a toroidal shell.
The knuckle
at the large cylinder
can consist of a ring section cut out of an
ellipsoidal, hemispherical, or torispherical
At point
where
R0
- r,
in a
o L =(Prl2t)l(2R 0 ~r)l(R 0 -r)]
At point
2,
where
R =R 0
b,
where
R0
form of toroidal
rings of the
same
plate thickness as the conical section.
In the following discussion the required radii for the knuckle r L and the flare
computed using the principal membrane stresses as governing criteria for

the case where the same plate thickness is used for the entire reducer.
The Code specifies only the lower limit for the knuckle radius r L "rLi shall
not be less than the smaller of QA2(R Li + 1) or 3r while rs has no dimensional
requirements" (Fig. UG36). The stresses in the conical shell section at point 1 in
Fig. 3.21 are given by
rs are
r,
o L =(Prl2t)l(2R Q +r)l(R 0 +r)]

At 'point
head with the same thickness and
shape as required for a complete head. More often, both knuckles are fabricated
o L =Pr/t.
Note
that
fact that
is
by
it
is
the geometry of a toroid, oL is the longitudinal stress despite the

tangential to the circle. The meaning of a L and o t for the toroid
Oi - PL i I2t c = PR j I2t c cos a

and from
the reverse of that for a straight cylinder.
From
the equation
{oL
+ (atlL x )-Plte
74
75
we have
o t =PLiltc =PRilt c cosa
oL
=PRJ2t
small cylinder
and the cone thickness

tc
2'*,
aL
=PL 7 l2t c
=PR
ISa
E cos a = (PR L lSa E){[\
Minimum Knuckle Radius

The knuckle at point
membrane stress o L as
- (r lR )
L
L
(rL
cos a/* L )]/cos a}.
r/.
3.22 will be subjected to the same longitudinal

the conical section on the assumption t c = t KL
1
in Fig.
oL
=PLj2tKL
and from
(o L lr L )
+ (a t /L l )=Plt KL
we have
Ot-iPLjtK^ll-iLJlrt)).
Since L
will in practice
be always larger than 2r L
ot
will
be negative
(in
component of
compression) membrane stress and maximum at 1. The inward
the vertical
on
pressure
internal
o L o L sin a, will be partially balanced by the
point 1 is
at
curvature
of
radius
It
projection of the knuckle ring. The principal
of the
geometry
the
fixed
by
alike
and
shared by conical and knuckle sections
terms
of R L
in
computed
be
now
r
can
cone. The second radius of curvature L
,
~rL + rL
*i
j
|
cos a
cos a) =
^1 -
zinJRjMX -cosa)
cos a
[1
(1 -
cos a)j
assuming
"!
(1 - cos a)
'
p + (/>/*,)(!- cos a) 1
*2
*
Fig. 3.21.
Membrane
cos a
j
stresses in conical transition section with knuckles. All
to the shell-plate midsurface in corroded condition.
dimensions are
tc
KL
From
stresses
a t and o L by inspection
the tangential stress
76
will
govern and can be expressed
a t = (PL x
KL )[\
lt
[(2r L cos
terms of R L
at
point
- rL
RL
+r L
+ rL
{R,l2rL cos
(r L sin
a)/2r L cos a]
a//? L ) -
2]/2 cos
either r L
a}
ajR L )
> 0.12 [R L
+ 5 cos a)
or
(f/2)]
3f.
to be increased.
would have
large or t KL
Flare Radius rs
Similarly, the
(r L sin
*l/0
would become too
Minimum
or
= (^L/-^){[(i? L /rL ) +
For instance, for a = 30 degrees, rL = 0.188/^

membrane stress {2S a E) is
It can be seen that if the allowable compressive
selected the knuckle radius r L does not differ a great deal from the minimum rL
were limited to 1 .5S a E,
as required by the Code. However, if the tangential stress
a)]
cos a)
- r L cos
= -(PRLltKL){[(RLir L ) +
rL
t:
(Lj2rL )] = (PRJtKL cosa)[l
~ {PltKL cos a)(R

L
in
77
membrane
stresses at point
2 in Fig. 3.23 are
2
2]/2 cos a}
o L =(PL 2 /2t Ks )
In replacing
must be met:
the
Code
mum
The
-a f with
rules;
the
maximum
and, second, the knuckle radius r L should be kept to the mini-
required, since the larger r L

stress
-o t
S a two criteria
allowable compressive stress
is
the
maximum
knuckle. However, since there
is
calculated compressive
membrane
stress in the
continuity between the knuckle and the conical

1
be smaller and
will
could be estimated as the average of o t in the cone and knuckle [22]
It
also
has to be remembered that the stresses o t and o L do not represent the entire
stress profile, but are only stress components used as design criteria in absence
of a more accurate analysis. The discontinuity stresses would have to be super-
imposed to obtain the complete

is
fabrication,
cos a/R s )] /cos a}
the
which
would occur
failure
and
o t = (PL 2 /t Ks )[\+(L 2 l2rs )]
= (PRJtKs){Wslrs) +
always
(.r
s sin
a/tf ff)
in turn
+ 2]/2 cos
t Ks
rather in local yielding than elastic
on the above reasoning it would seem acceptable to use for the

maximum allowable stress (2Sa E) <Sy where Sa is the Code allowable stress
in tension and E is the weld joint efficiency. From the condition t KL = t Ci
From
+ rs - rs cos a)/2rs cos a]
a)},
in tension.
Using the allowable
approaches a cylinder with
Rs
a+
cos a)lt Ks cos a] [(2rs cos
= [P(R +
S
stress for
a t equal to (2Sa E)
state of stress.
a section of a torus
an increasing radius R 0 in Fig. 3.20, the maximum allowable compressive stress

Sa should be the same as required for cylinders. With small ratios r L /t KL as used
in
- (r
s
the higher the fabrication cost.
section, the final tangential stress in the knuckle at point
Since a knuckle
= (PR s I2t Ks ){[\ + (rJR s )
the substitution should be in accordance with the intent of
first,
= (PR s l2S a E){[(RJrs ) +
the condition that
(PR s l2S a E){[(RJrs ) +
t Ks
(rs sin
tc
we
(rs sin
< Syy t Ks
a/R s ) + 2)/2
is
given by
cos
a}.
get
a/*,) + 2]/2 cos
a}
.buckling. Based
>
(PRJ2Sa E){[(R L lr L )
+ (r L sin
a/R L )
2]/2 cos
(PRJSa E){[\
a}
(rJR L )
(r L
cos
a/R L )] /cos a}
J,
\
2)
After simplifying,
(I
+ 4 cos a
- 5
and the minimum radius r L
cos
in
a) r\ -
2R L (\
+ 2 cos a) r L +
terms of the given
RL
R\
and the angle
=0
ot is
(PRJSa E){[\
{rJR L )
+ (r L cos a//? L )]/cos a}
78
the
minimum
79
can be computed in terms of tl s and a:
flare radius rs
sin
with (K L
- /*
+ [2R S
at
2Sa Et c cos
rs
Psm 2
Again
is
it
- r
L
+rL
R2
cos a)]rs +
+ rL cos a) = Ry = (5 a f c cos a)/P, the minimum
where
4 cos a(R L
not made
a-PR s
(2S a Et c cos
\
[\
less
than
QA2[R S
+ (r/2)] or
sin
is
a
f2
aj
stresses
'
based on membrane
components only, on which the discontinuity
/1
given by
3/.
has to be remembered that the above analysis
pressure stress
is
R S2
a- PR S\ 2
Psin 2 a
0,
have to be
*L
superposed to obtain the entire stress profile.
from the above equations the
Clearly
Membrane
In order to
Stresses in Knuckles
compute the
Due to External Loads
stresses in cylindrical
knuckle and
and conical sections due to
the radii rs and rL
exter-
moments, and weight), standard formulas for

used and the resulting stresses are combined with
nal forces (wind, earthquake
bending and compression are

the pressure stresses.
To
obtain
some
To be
due to external loads
about the combined membrane stresses and
in the
knuckle region the following procedure has been
load due to the external loads
is
Note
determined:
1.
M and
where
is
I:
W are
external
2R
or to
2:
Cone
ref.
should be used
to the external
in
moment and
(Rl -
> (Rs +
See Fis- 3 - 24
Both values of
is
added
Third, substituting
to the internal pressure
Pe
P:Pe ~P + AljD.
into the knuckle stress equations the increased
brane stresses a t are computed. The stress at point
tan 0 =
sin
2.
(Rl
~ *l)
(*L
" rL ) - (R s
7=
(r5
a =y - p
tan 0 =
is
o t = (PLjt) + (Pe L 2 It)(L 7 !2rs )

where
t is
rs )
(R s + rs)-Ui L -r L )
mem-
is
o t = (PL l lt)-(Pe LJt)(L l i2r L )<2Sa E.

2
+ r L ) cosff
7=
(rs
a)
a
stress at point
Rl
ot,
< (R s + r s)- Not shown.
sin
and the
with
taken here uniform around circumference.
Second, the "equivalent" internal pressure Pe causing the increased longitu2

dinal stress is computed. From / = (P'nD l4)lnD the additional internal presis
in Fig. 3.24
subsequent computations. The longitudinal force in shell due
moment M
dimension a
load at point under investigation, and
respectively (see Fig. 3.21).
< 2Sa E
the uniform corroded thickness of the conical reducer.
should
101.
angle. Generally the
= (4M/ttD 2 )' (W/nD)
2R 2i
less)
interested reader will find proposed design formulas for the thicknesses of
The
a -y+0
equal to
sure P' = Al\D
reducers with very small knuckle radii (3/ or
process sketch of a process column and the cone half apex angle
convenience the computation is here included.
-successfully used.
First, the longitudinal unit
safe, toriconical
various reducer types in
stresses
intensification of the stresses in the
due to internal pressure can be reduced by increasing
be treated as sharp cone-cylinder intersections.

Note
criteria
flare regions
cs 0
and
Rs
given
on the
has to be computed. For
DESIGN OF TALL CYLINDRICAL SELF-SUPPORTING PROCESS COLUMNS
81
technithe correct interpretation of the engineering drawings by the fabricator's

cal staff.
SHELL THICKNESS REQUIRED FOR A COMBINATION

OF DESIGN LOADS
4.2.
4
Design of
The
Tall Cylindrical
Self-Supporting Process
Columns
shell thickness
of
tall
slender columns, as
computed by
the
Code formulas,
based on the internal or external pressure alone, is usually not sufficient to

withstand the combined stresses produced by the operating pressure plus the
weight plus the wind or seismic loads. According to Code Division 1, the shell
computations are based on the principal stresses-circumferential

the design pressure or longitudinal stress due to the design pressure
due
to
stress
wind or earthquake load. Since the longitudinal stress increases
weight
plus
plus
from top to the bottom of the column, the shell thickness has to be increased
thickness
4.1.
INTRODUCTION
Tall
cylindrical process
columns
built
today are self-supporting,
supported on cylindrical or conical shells
(skirts)
with
i.e.,
they are
base ring resting on a
concrete foundation and firmly fixed to the foundation by anchor bolts em-
bedded
in
concrete. Basically, they are designed as cantilever beams.
third of the vessel
construction
wires
is
and
still
number of guy wires
designed as an overhang
by means of the guy wires,

additional space required
design impractical in
sels
at
elevation
taking part or
in the
ground,
beam with one
fixed end and one support,
axial force
as are possible vibration difficulties.
for the
guy wires and
modern petrochemical
all
designing
by an outside
them
as
However, the
their anchorage renders this
then compared with the Code allowable stress values in tension or compression permitted at the design temperature. In computing the shell thickness at
memselected elevations it is often advantageous to proceed on the basis of the
brane unit force
Assuming
The
plants.
tall,
slender ves-
guided columns, which are supported
service platform built
(lb/lin. in.)
that a
then to use the unit stress o L
(psi).
slender vessel resists the external loads as a cantilever
tall
the external loads produce bending and shear stresses in the vessel shell.
beam
direct shear having a small value
is
disregarded in computations. The princi-
pal stresses governing the cylindrical vessel thickness required

1
cases the cost of special material required for special
may be reduced by
some
an angle anchored
process column held by guy
stacks.
tall
on the column. The thickness of the

of the foundation, and the number of anchor bolts are reduced
shell, the size
some
at
used today for
with the guy wires exerting an
In
Detailed stress computations consider the effects of each loading separately.

The pressure tangential (circumferential) stress and the combined longitudinal
stress are
Several decades ago they were sometimes designed with a guy ring in the top
below the elevation, where the summation of the longitudinal stresses becomes
larger than the circumferential stress due to the design pressure alone.
(the
maximum
The tangential
stress failure
stress
a t due to the pressure
up from the ground and
by Code Division
theory) are given below.
ot =
is
given
by
PD/2t<Sa (ps\)
of the wind load.
The main dimensions of
a process
column,
i.e., its
overall length
and
inside
where
diameter, as well as the operating pressure and temperature, sizes of nozzle connections, type of trays, and other internals are determined
by the process
engi-
neer and transferred to the vessel engineer on an analytical data sheet with a
sketch of the process column, including
all
material specifications and corrosion
The
vessel engineer
He
of the support, and the

ing
responsible for the mechanical design of the process
is
will originate the
showing
all
size
computations of the
shell thickness, construction
of the anchor bolts, as well as an engineering draw-
other required structural details in addition to the above.
The engineering drawing

working drawings, which
serves the fabricator to prepare
are routinely
checked by the
all
necessary shop
vessel engineer to secure
diameter,
= corroded thickness of the
Sa = Code
allowance as selected by a metallurgist.

tower.
D = mean corroded shell

P- design pressure, psi
in.
shell, in.
allowable stress, psi, reduced
by joint
efficiency
The unit force is I, = PD/2 < Sa t (lb/lin. in.).

The combined stress in longitudinal direction a L due
weight W, and applied
consideration
is
moment
given as follows.
with
and
if
required.
to the pressure
M taken at
dead
the elevation under
PRESSURE VESSEL. DESIGN HANDBOOK
82
On the windward
Substituting for o t and oLi
side,
2
oL = (PD/4t) + (4MlnD t)
= (PD/4) + (4M\^D 2 )
and the
(W/irDt)
W/nD)
= (PD/4t) + (4MlirD 2 t) + (W/nDt)
Ib/lin. in.
and the shell thickness is therefore

2
allowable
t = [(PD/4) + (4MlitD ) + (W/irD)] /Code
-
W/nD)] /Code allowable
leeward side,
oL = (PD/4t)
= (PD/4)
(4M/irD
) -
The maximum compressive

line
on the leeward
side
is
somewhat
larger
than the thickness calculated previously by
maximum
stress theory.
(4M/nD 2 1)
stress
stress
which
On the
get
2
iPDllt)- [(PD/4t)- (4MlirD t)-(WlirDt))
psi
shell thickness is
= [(PD/4) + (4M/nD 2 )
2.
we
83
The design procedure for tall process columns of two or more diameters is the
same as for a tall slender vessel of a uniform cross section, except that stress anal-
W/itDt) psi
(W/iiD)
stress in the shell is
when the
ysis of the intersections
lb/lin. in.
induced
internal pressure
is
at the
bottom tangent
equal to the atmospheric
shell sections
be taken into consideration, as indicated in sections 3.9 and 8.6.

weight
In addition to external pressure and their own operating
vessels are subject to additional loads such as
tural design to
pressure:
of the reducers with the cylindrical
Code requirements has
tall
should
vacuum
wind and earthquake. Their
struc-
to be supplemented with a check for inter-
due to the effect of the combined loads, axial and bending, and
adequately sized, the
the external pressure. Assuming that the stiffener rings are
and A)Amagnitude of the critical collapse stress depends on two ratios: L/D 0
stiffener collapse
oL =
or for
(4M/nD 2 t)
(W/kDt)
< Code allowable stress,
are
The Code graphs from which the allowable external pressure P is computed
axial
in
increase
the
to
based on uniform external pressure alone. However, due
vacuum vessels:
0l =
(PDl4t)
(4M/irD 2 t)
(WjnDt) < Code allowable
The maximum axial buckling can occur locally at a section where the above
combined longitudinal stress oL reaches the magnitude of the critical buckling
Therefore, oL cannot exceed the Code allowable stress for cylindrical
stress.
shell in axial compression (UG 23b and d).
If the failure of a thin-wall cylindrical shell occurs by bending the several formed
waves at the location of the collapse, then the stress would be similar to waves
formed around the circumference under a uniform axial collapse load. It can
therefore be safely assumed for all practical purposes that the buckling under
combined loads (bending plus axial) occurs, where the maximum stress becomes
equal to the
critical
buckling stress for axially loaded cylindrical shells
[1
18]
in
elastic or plastic range.
At
this point
ness, based
it
will
be interesting to compare the Code Division
on the above maximum
stress
shell thick-
equations and the shell thickness as
computed on the basis of maximum shear theory as used in Code Division

The maximum shear stress on the leeward side under internal pressure is
T~(at
- <Xl)/2 or
at ~
Ol< Code allowable
stress.
the ability of the vessel shell to take full design external presmeans that the shell thickness
sure (15 psi for vacuum vessels) is reduced. This
reference 27 enables the dein
The computational procedure
compressive
stress.
2.
stress,
must be increased.
signer to use the Code charts
pressure
and
in
computing the
maximum
external "equivalent"
the corresponding thickness.
different design approach has been suggested in reference 164. Here, an
method is used to predict the sufficient strength of cylinlateral

drical shells under the combined action of compressive axial loads and
value
the
critical
on
loading
of
one
type
of
The
effect
uniform external pressure.
equation
given
an
by
applied,
is
simultaneously
loading,
of
type
of the other
empirical "interactive"
representing an interaction curve, involving ratios
oJoLc
and o t lo tc where oL
,
and a t are calculated compressive operating stresses and o JC is collapsing stress

under lateral external pressure alone and aLc is the collapsing stress under axial
load alone.
The
interaction curve will terminate at points (1
0) and (0, 1) on oL /oLc and
o t jotc axes. It will primarily be a function of the loadings and the geometry of
cause
the structure and represents all combinations of a f /a te and o L jOLc that will
deterbe
can
/o
value
of
o
maximum
the
L Lc
a failure. Thus if oô^ is known,
mined from the
curve.
The
straight line interactive equation
may
be used, pro-
84
vided that the same safety factors in tangential and longitudinal directions are
used.
Then
otlk(o tc /S.F.) + oL lk(aLc IS.F.)<l,
4.3.
where oLc lS.F. and oLc /S.F. can be taken as the Code allowable compressive
stresses; k is the Code allowable factor equal to 1.2 when applicable. S.F. is the
safety factor in the strength design
increased before the structure will
i.e.,
fail
number of times
the
the load might be
due to of stress, ususally established with
Since the S.F. in axial Code allowable stress
It
S c /2),
is
lateral
and end pressures which
SUPPORT SKIRTS
Design of the Support Skirt Shell
The support skirts are welded directly to the vessel bottom head or shell, as
shown in Fig. 4.1. The factors determining the skirt thickness tsk can be summarized
respect to yield stress, buckling stress etc.
direction (B -
The Code stress a^/S.F. is taken under equal

makes the result again too conservative.
85
as follows.
higher than in the tangential
the above formula gives too conservative results.
has also been pointed out in reference 164 that the
method needs more exHow-
perimental verification, particularly on large welded steel cylindrical vessels.
ever, based on up-to-date test results, the straight line equation seems adequate
and conservative. The interaction curve method eliminates the need for theoretical derivation of the maximum combined stress.
Example
From
4.1.
100 feet high with
reference 27 a
tall
vacuum
10 feet
vessel,
in
butted weld
blends smoothly
into head contour
diameter and
of SA285B.
The total vertical weight is 200,000 lbs and the moment of external forces at the
bottom t.l. is 2,000,000 ft-lb. Design temperature is 200F. Check if the shell
thickness is adequate under combined loadings by the interaction method.
stiffeners
6 feet apart has a
shell thickness
0.375
in.
(a)
2
oL = (TO/4 + AMi-nD + W/irD)lt
= (15 X 120/4 + 2000000 X
Type
12/tt
120
+ 200000/tt 12)/0.375
1.
{b)
Straight
psi in
B=
0.6 and
D0 jt = 320
compression
= 27,000
psi,
S.Y./2 = 13500 psi
= 0.00042
15 max.
psi in elastic range
tl(ko tc /S.F.) + oL l(ko Lc IS.F.) =
8280/(1
psi in
psi (in plastic elastic range), S.Y.
L/D =
B = 6300
.2
.0
and taking k =
X 10500) + 2400/(1 .2 X 6300) = 0.98
1 .2
&
<
more conservative than the result in reference 27.

would be obtained by using S.Y./2 for OiJS.F.
result
able result
is
1 .0
is.**
P.
(a)
Type
The
weld blends smoothly
= 0.125/(i? o /0 = 0.125/(60.375/0.375) = 0.00078
10500
a fc /S.F. for
joint efficiency " = 0.55,
into shell contour
compression
o r =PR/t ~ 15 X 60/0.375 = 2400

oLc /S.F. for
Weld
based on the weld leg equal to t^.

lap
= 8280
Flared
Skirt butted to the knuckle portion of the head.
A more accept-
2.
.
(b)
Straight
Flared
Skirt lapped to the cylindrical portion of the shell.
Weld
joint efficiency
based on the weld leg equal to tsk.

Fig. 4.1.
Types of support
skirts
and skirt-to-head welds.
~ 0.80
86
1.
The maximum
weight
longitudinal
slress
due to the exjernal moment
In Fig. 4.1 two typical constructions of support skirts and their attachment
is the most often used design for tall vessels.
and
W at the base is
welds are shown. Skirt type 1(a)
The
aL =
(WlirD sk tsk ) (4MlitD*k tsk )
centerlines of the cylindrical skirt plate and the corroded shell plate are
approximately coincident.
psi.
If the skirt plate is thicker
plate, the outside diameter of the skirt

2.
The longitudinal compressive
the vessel
is
stress at
tested in vertical position,
oL =
"
the base under test conditions,
if
the bottom
is
W T /TiDsk tsk
3.
The maximum
weld, with the weld joint
stress in the skirl-to-head
depending on the type of the
often determines the support
skirt
effi-
and weld used (see Fig. 4.1), quite
In
Type
2(a) the skirt
4.
Code allowable
skirt thickness
flection; usually
t sk
for
sk
tall
is
should be satisfactory for the allowable column de-
towers
is
chosen not
less
become
excessive and
may
too high
have to be
is
is
attached to the flanged portion of the bottom head in
does not obstruct an inspection of the head-shell weld seam.

more difficult to fabricate and is used mainly for high external
loads, high design temperatures, or cyclic operating temperatures.
stress
= weld efficiency.
The
is
it
between the outside diameter of the

where
than the bottom shell
to the outside diameter of
under the imposed external moment
support, the stresses in the head can
such a way that
skirt thickness,
[WnDsk ) + (4MlirDlk )] IE X
made equal
analyzed more thoroughly.
This type
t Sk
shell. If the uplift
is
and the anchor bolt spacing becomes too small for the bolt size, the skirt is
designed as flared Type 1(b). The localized bending stresses induced in the head
by a Type 1(a) skirt are considered acceptable. However, with a Type 1(b)
skirt
ciency
87
essential.
flared skirt
shell
of Type 2(b)
is
good
and the inside diameter of the
fit
skirt
used for very high columns with extra
high external moments.
than the corroded bottom
shell section plate thickness.
5.
Support
skirts for large-diameter vessels,
which have to be
Skirt Base Design

stress-relieved in
base types are illustrated. In Type
the field in a vertical position, must be checked to determine whether the
In Fig. 4.3
thickness will withstand the weight under high-temperature conditions.
the anchor bolts are located off the centerline of the skirt plate.
6. If a large access or pipe

stress at a section
opening
oL = tf/f*[(!rf&/4)
If
oi
is
is
located
in
the skirt shell the
maximum
through the opening can be checked:

"
(WW2)]
two most frequently used
top stiffening ring
is
skirt
continuous
provided to reinforce the support skirt shell against un-
desirable localized bending stresses.
m*D* -
Y)tsk
too high the opening has to be reinforced (see Fig. 4.2).
The disadvantages of the Type B

by the access openings for the
shell
between the openings

a minimum. The bolt
for buckling.
circle is
skirt
base are the weakening of the skirt
bolts and the necessity to check the plate
Both dimensions e and
equal to the
the weld connecting the pipe sleeve to the skirt
is
should be kept to
of the skirt shell, and
mean diameter
stressed in shear only because
of the holding-down bolt force.

Base Ring Design. To distribute the
concrete foundation a plate base ring
is
vertical
load over a sufficient area of the
used. In addition
it
serves also to
accom-
modate the anchor bolts. For the determination of the base ring thickness of
both Types A and B the method in the AISC Manual is generally applied. The
load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire width b (see Fig. 4.3).
The effect of bolt holes and any reinforcement by the vertical stiffeners is disregarded. If the bearing pressure p due to the dead-weight load W combined
with the external
Fig. 4.2.
Plan section through a large access
opening in the support
skirt.
moment
is
2
p - [(W/nD sk ) + (4M/irDsk )]/b
kips/in
2
.
88
where n is the dimension in Fig. 4.3 and S b

2
S b - 20 kips/in. the formula becomes
89
the allowable bending stress. For
is
centerline
of hole
for^
tb
anchor bolt
2
min.
in.
nLiih
h
>
c/
i.d.
tb
of base ring
o.d. of
in.
for a
lower allowable
stress S'b (psi) as
follows:
=(0.l5pn
The maximum allowable bearing

crete depends
X 20000/5 i) l/2
Fb
in.
pressure between the base ring and the con-
on the compressive strength
f'c
of the grade of concrete used.
If
the specified compressive strength (usually between 2 and 5 kips), then,

f'c
b for direct
per AISC Manual, Section 1.5.5, the allowable bearing pressure
bolt circle
'
vertical
base ring
c/,
The above formula can be corrected
stiffener
''1
top stiffening
'ring
'///////*///
V,7 f > >"'7~7
= (0.15 pn 2 )
is
base ring
Type
dead load
is
Fb =02Sf'c
when
the entire area of the concrete support
is
covered and
F=0375/;
washer
when only
pipe
Fb =Q3
sleeve
d,
-J
d=
i.d.
f'c
one-third of the area of the concrete base

is
<F
of base ring
maximum
value of
bearing
(AISC Manual, Section
1 .5
.6).
base ring
o.d. of base ring
Skirt-to-Base
c
= wrench
o.d.
+ clearance
Type B
Fig. 4.3.
covered.
generally used and recommended, and the
can be increased by one third for bearing

pressure p
b The above value of Fb
pressures produced by combined dead loads plus wind or earthquake loads
bolt circle
d0 -
is
Types of skirt
base.
Ring
Weld.
In
Type
the holding-down force of the anchor
by welds connecting the top ring, vertical

bolts is
stiffeners, and the base ring plate, in Type B by the weld between the pipe
sleeves and the base ring plate. However, the weld between the skirt and the base
transferred into the skirt shell
ring
is
assumed to carry the
total load
and designed
as a
primary strength weld,
preferably continuous.
then the
maximum bending stress
in the
base ring plate
2
2
o b =(pn l2)l(tll6) = 3pn
and the required base
plate thickness
given
by
On the windward
ltl<S b
side
lx
of the vessel the weld has to

2
= (4M/irDsk
)
(W/irD sk )
resist the full uplift load,
Ib/lin. in.
the leeward side for the down-load condition any size of weld would
theoretically be sufficient. However, since most skirts are so large that their
On
is
f>=(3p/iVS
is
l/2
ft
in.,
ends cannot be machined accurately enough to produce a uniform bearing,
it
90
would seem
justified to size the
skirt
difficult to estimate the
of the weld
full
= (4M/nD 2k ) + (W/nDsk )
h
assuming that the
weld to take the
is
down-load:
for axially loaded
columns per the AISC column formula should not exceed

P/2a
lb/lin. in.,
not in contact with the base ring, since
it
would be
approximate number of contact points. Then w, the
a =
r
/2
//vv
in.,
(n
where the allowable weld unit force fw
(lb/lin. in.
of one-inch weld)
/w = 133 Sa X 0.55
for
fw ~
for the test condition
.20
Sa X
0.55
17000
0.485 (L/rf
psi,
(I/a)
0.25), the cross-sectional area of one stiffener,
v (n
L = length
=
<
where
size
leg, is
91
of the
112
in.
stiffener, in.
= 0.289f k>
trie
radius of gyration of the stiffener, in.
P = the maximum bolt load, lb.

0.25) = effective width of the stiffener,
in.
is
and \\ in., depending on bolt size. Where

from external loads the top ring section can be omitted between bolts and the design reduces to a bolting chair. The
minimum size for bolts ( to 1 in.) is selected and the anchor bolts serve merely
The thickness t v
no uplift or only
wind or earthquake
is
usually between
a very small uplift results
to locate the vessel in place.
and S a
ever
is
is
the allowable stress for the skirt base plate or skirt shell plate, which-
smaller.
Skirt Material
Top
The continuous top ring with anchor bolt holes and

welded to the skirt shell as shown in Fig. 4.3, Type A, helps to distribute the
bolt holding down reactions more evenly into the skirt shell. To determine the
required thickness t r would require an involved stress analysis, including the base
Stiffening Ring.
ring, vertical stiffeners,
and
from the concentrated load
skirt section.
at the
The thickness
tr
edges of the bolt holes.
could be computed
rectangular plate
with dimensions n and c can be roughly approximated by a beam with the longer
ends fixed, load
on the
plate,
and minimum section modulus
Based on the above simplifying assumptions the thickness
tr
where
Ab
is
the
maximum
=[Pc/4S b (n-f)Vt 2
Sa ) and S b
is
{n - /)/6.
can be estimated by
Since this
same
is
skirts are
carbon
for thicknesses
steels,
in.
A283
gr.
and above.
a very important structural part the allowable stresses used are the
as for the pressure parts.
The heavy base rings are also fabricated from A285 gr. C with yield strength
Sy = 30000 psi. Since the allowable bending stress for structural steels with Sy =
36000 psi in the AISC base plate formula is 20000 psi, the allowable bending
stress for A285C to be used in the AISC formula can be determined as follows:
S = 20000 X 30/36 = 16700
psi
weight only
in. t
bolt load (approximated
times the bolt allowable stress
tr
Z=
The most frequently used materials for support

C for thicknesses up to | in. and A285 gr. C
by
.25 times bolt stress area
.33
S=
.2
X 16700 = 22200
X 16700 = 20000
psi
psi
weight plus wind

test
weight
the allowable stress in bending
for the top ring material.
Higher allowable stresses are acceptable for the base ring than for the skirt
because minor deformations of the base ring from overstressing would not
shell
Vertical Stiffeners.
The
vertical stiffeners in Fig. 4.3,
Type A,
are
welded to
the skirt and top and bottom base rings. The distance c between stiffeners
minimum
kept to the
that fabrication allows for the
computed bolt
size.
On
the
leeward side the stiffeners are stressed in compression and their thickness can be
computed
as that
simpler and
column.
of a plate supported on three sides with one side
more conservative approach
If the thickness t v is
is
free.
to treat the stiffener as a plate
assumed, then the
maximum
cause any damage.
is
allowable unit stress
4.4.
ANCHOR BOLTS
Self-supporting columns must be safely fixed to the supporting concrete foundations with adequately sized anchor bolts
embedded
in the concrete to prevent
92
overturning or excessive swaying from lateral wind or earthquake loads. To

compute the tension stress in the bolts and their required size and number one
bolts.
The maximum
F = Tnd/N = (4M/dN) -
of three methods can be applied: (1) a simplified method, using generalized

design conditions and ignoring dynamic effects and necessary preloading of
bolts; (2) a
more complete method, considering

on bolts.
initial
preload on bolts; and (3)
F on the bolt at distance x = d/2
force
and the required bolt area
(W/N)
from the axis y
93
is
lb/bolt
is
disregarding initial preload
Ab =
Simplified
moments
acting
on
a tall
slender vessel are
shown
The anchor
Assuming that the column
clearly counteracted
uplift force
follows.
given
per bolt due to the outside
The maximum tension on the
bolt circumference in lb. per lin. in.
(W/O
= (AM/ird 2
(W/nd)
effect of the external overturning

sizing the
4M/nd 2
stress,
anchor bolts and,
is
larger than
W/nd
there
is
= bolt tensile stress area,
in.
M - overturning moment at base due to wind or earthquake,

W=
weight of the vessel, operating
d=
bolt circle diameter, in.
(W Q )
or'erection
(W e ),
gives acceptable results
and
is
Sa
is
very simple to apply.
lb
Ib-in.
is
initial
tightening of
required to reduce the variable stress range or any other impact
on the nut under operating conditions.
The maximum
turning
moment
force per bolt resulting from the
M and
the
initial
combined action of the
over-
preload could be found by an approximate
analysis with the following design conditions assumed, as follows.
~ nd l4, linear section modulus of the bolt circle,

nd circumference of the bolt circle, in.
The initial bolt preload together with the weight of the vessel is large
1
enough to maintain a compressive pressure between the vessel base plate and the
.
x =
generally accepted for
outside diameter of the base ring, in.
di = inside diameter of the base ring, in.

= total number of anchor bolts in multiples of 4
C=
it is
conservative allowable stress
if a relatively
Since wind and earthquake loads are essentially dynamic,
effect
ZL
bolt preload, and the dynamic
moment. However,
Preload in Bolts Considered
the bolt nuts
d0 =
does not try to establish more
it
initial
a positive uplift force inducing tension
with magnitude depending on the distance x spanned by half the anchor
Ab
it
is
lb/in.
Initial
If
simplified, since
accurately the actual design conditions, the
used in the design,

-
is
it
between the base ring and the foundation.
friction
is
by
T = (M/Z L )
by the
Obviously, this approach
y in Fig. 4.4, the maximoment M is determined as
about the axis
will rotate
bolts are not designed for the horizontal shear force since
in Fig.
4.4 as assumed for the anchor bolt analysis.
mum
Method
forces and the
The
{(4M/d)~ W]/NSa
2
in.
concrete pedestal under design loads.
distance of an anchor bolt
from the neutral axisy.in.
Sa - allowable design stress for the anchor bolts, psi
2.
As long
as this
compression exists
at the
contact area the skirt base and the
pedestal behave as a continuous structure and the support base will rotate about
the neutral axis of the contact area (axis.y in Fig. 4.4).
Under moment
becomes
M the
maximum and
the
minimum
pressure
area
Sc =
m/A c
+ (W/A c ) (Md0 l2Ic ),
where
A c =n(dl-df)/4
/c
=*(dJ-d?)/64
on the contact
94
and Fi
is
minimum
the
initial
bolt load
due
to pretightening of the^bolt nut, lb/bolt.
to maintain the compression
(Md0 A c /2NI c )
Fi =
is
when S c =
95
The
0:
2
{WIN) = Sdo M/N(d 0 +d})- (W/N)
or, after simplification,
F( =
(4M/Nd)
(W/N).
The external moment A/ in the above equation is the maximum design moment.
Actually, it fluctuates from zero to some maximum value. The maximum force
on the bolt due to
this
moment
is
given by
Fa =(4M/Nd)-
(W/N).
However, since the anchor bolt forms an elastic joint with the skirt base on the
concrete pedestal, pretightened by the force Fit only a part of Fa will be carried
F = initial bolt preload, lb/bolt

Fa = applied operating load, lb/bolt
F = combined total load on a bolt, lb/bolt
Fc = compressive load on the vessel support
t
by the bolt [33]
The
total variable load
diagram
in Fig.
M can be visualized from the
moment
per bolt under
4.5. Using the diagram, the following equation can be derived:
c'F^c'F,- e\F-
F,)
F = Fa
Fc = Fa
+ Fi
S=
(F,/A b ) +
Substituting the components for
Fa we
of elongation of the bolt,
rigid, c'
lt,fA s
of the bolt material,
Es
As
in. /lb
where l b
is
is
the bolt length,
is
(F
CFa
Force-deflection diagram for anchor bolt and support base.
(CFa /A b ).
Table 4.1. Stress Concentration Factor Kior Threaded
(American Standard) Steel Fasteners Subject to
Tesnile Loads.
get
However,
is
quite small.
if for
instance c
The actual
is
value
one sixth of
is
modulus of
is
for hard elastic joints
evaluate.
the
Fam ~ CFJ2, steady load component of CFa in bolt

Far = CFa /2, variable load component of CFa in bolt
F/) e'/c'
ROLLED
FASTENER
CUT
FASTENER
Annealed
2.2
2.8
Quenched and tempered
3.0
3.8
the stress concentration factor from Table 4.1 applied to the variable
component only.
The factor C = cj(c + e)
of C would be difficult to
is
the support steel area in compression, and
Eb
the modulus of elasticity of the vessel base
F = F +Fam KFm%
where
= F^
- rate of compression of the combined supports, in./lb. If the concrete foundation
Fig. 4.5.
tensile stress in the bolt
Fc
c'
Ifr/A fyEfj, rate
elasticity
= Fi +[c'/(c' + e'))Fa = Fi +
and the minimum
a bolt; at point a,
assumed to be
Fe -F,-(F-Fiie'lc'
under
e'
E s \s
96
e\ then
C-
maximum
0.]43 and the
tensile stress at the thread root
would be
The
97
bolt thread, bolt head and ring surfaces are usually cleaned in the field
before assembly with oily shop rags. This would result in friction factors: thread
f = 0.1 and surface friction f2 = 0.15 used in the above formula for the
minimum required torque T. Ordinarily, simple manual wrenching without veri-
S = F/A
friction
= [Fj + (0.143
FJ2) +
X 0.143 Fj2)]/A b
(2.2
Measured control of
fication of the actual bolt stress meets all practical needs.
= (F,/A b ) + (0.229 FJA).
the bolt stress
is
employed only when there
is
some
special or important reason
for doing so.
From
initial
Fig. 4.5
load Fg there
apparent
Far
it
how
is
obvious that
is
not
initial
and thus improving the fatigue
moment
tive to the total force
The required bolt
long as the force
Fa
does not exceed the
a substantial increase in the total bolt
important the
to. the excessive
as
M beyond
preload
life
is
of the
in
load F.
It is
also
reducing of the variable force
bolt.
Any
the separation point
force load per bolt due
is
algebraically addi-
Ab
is
usually defined as the
maximum
load a bolt can
percent of proof load
is
quite
common; however,
there
is
a possibility that too
high a preload can impair the fatigue strength of the bolts. If an anchor bolt
it is
usually
by
elongation. Loading
beyond the
fails,
yield point results in loss of pre-
tension in bolt due to permanent deformation.
F(de).
area
The proof load of a bolt
withstand without a permanent deformation. The preloading of bolts up to 75
is
given
by
Example
A b =F/Sa
4.2.
M - 1.2 X 10
erection weight
Neglecting the term with the factor C, the expression for the required bolt area
reduces to
anchor
bolts.
tall
ft-lb.
We
As a
column (Fig. 4.6) is subjected to a wind moment at base

The operating weight W0 is equal to 200,000 lb and the
is 150,000 lb. Determine the required size and number of
estimate, assume
first
N=\2.
Required bolt area under operating conditions
Ab
is
= [(4M/d)- W]/NS a
= (1/12 X 15,000) [(4X
1.2
X 10 6 X 12/79)
200,000]
or approximately
= 2.93
Ah
in
(4M/d)- (W)
NS,
Use 12 2^-in.-diameter bolts with
stress area
Ab
- 3.25
in.
computed by the simplified method.

it would seem that the simplified method combined
with conservative design bolt stresses (because some terms were disregarded)
which
is
From
the form as
the above discussion
represents a satisfactory design.
An
additional design safety factor
is
the use of the highest wind velocity
that occurs at infrequent intervals. If a loss of initial tension in the bolts occurs
because of creep under heavy winds, the bolts have to be retightened,
all
bolts
6.5'
100'
equally as possible.
The minimum approximate
initial
torque for the required
T'Fi(l +N'd b )/2irN'\b.-m.
is
given
by
10'
-d = 73
where
-d
-d
N' ~ number of threads per inch of the

d b - nominal bolt diameter, in.
bolt
Fig. 4.6.
= 79
= 85
Maximum
bolt
98
stress
c(cos 8
under erection dead load
cos oc
is
S = (729,114- 150,000)/(12X 3.25) =14,850

Bolt spacing
99
psi.
is
(ttX 79)/12 =20.7
Maximum bearing pressure on
contact area
in.
is
Sc = (NFi/A ) + (W/A c ) + (MdoiVc)

= (12 X 3.25 X 15,000)/1490 + (200,000/1490)
(1.2
X 10 6 X
12
X 42.5)/(1.168 X 10 6 )
= 393 + 134 + 525 = 1052
Maximum
Initial
psi.
allowable bearing pressure on concrete
Tension
Fb
=0.3 X 3000 = 900
Fb
.33
in Bolts
using f'c =
3000
psi.
weight only
psi
X 900 = 1200
is,
weight plus wind.
psi
Neglected
Section a-a
Nuts are assumed to be hand
tight
on
no
bolts, with
initial
load on bolts. Be-
cause of the column weight a certain compression between the base of the
Es Ec -
column and the concrete foundation will exist, but can be partially overcome by
the .external moment M. The vessel base will partially separate from the pedestal
and will be held down by some anchor bolts on the windward side.
is resisted by a portion of the anchor bolts and the bearing
The moment
pressure between the vessel base and the foundation. The total bolt area can be
Ss = maximum allowable tensile stress for steel

Sc = maximum allowable compressive stress for concrete
Ss = stress in steel at variable angle 6 from a to n, in tension
modulus of
modulus of
n = Es/Ec
replaced
by an equivalent
As
elasticity
of steel
elasticity
of concrete
S'c = stress in concrete at variable angle $

r = bolt circle radius
area of steel cylindrical shell:
= NA b =
nd
ts
or
ts
from 0 to
a, in
compression
Fig. 4.7.
= NA b lna
and
as
shown in Fig. 4.7.

The result is a composite
cantilever
beam with an unknown steel area in
and unknown concrete area in compression (section

given external loads W and M.
a-a
of Fig.
The design procedure used to compute the required

beam theory.
4.7), subjected to
steel area
As
k = \i[\+(S s /nSc )).
tension
under the assumption that both

is
similar
maximum allowable stresses Ss and Sc

maximum allowable stresses occur simultaneously
This equation will specify k in terms of
at the
mpst remote elements from the neutral
axis. Further,
to that erhployed in reinforced

First, the location
shell es
=Ss/Es
and
of the neutral axis

in concrete e c
tances from the neutral axis. If
established.
is
=SC /EC
Ss and S c
are the
then from similar triangles (Fig. 4.7, section a-a)

e s /e c =
(SJEa
WJE
The
cos a = [(d/2) - kd) /(rf/2)
strains in the steel
=1-2*
are directly proportional to the dis-
e)
we
(1 -
maximum
get
k)d/kd
allowable stresses,
and
S's =
S'c
Ss
=SC
(cos
a-
cos 6)1(1 + cos a)
(cos 6 - cos a)/(l - cos a).
Since the allowable stress

will
100
move from
the
Ss
axis
larger resisting steel area
nS Cy
larger than
is
the position of the neutral axis
toward the compression area. This
and
will
produce
Substituting the above result into the previous expression for 7\ the thickness
of the
steel shell
can be computed:
lower total number of anchor bolts than com-
puted by previous methods.
M-
The summation of elemental forces on the steel area in tension, 2 / \S'S dA Si

can be represented by a force resultant T located at the center of tension at a
distance
from the neutral
From
the
W(zd) \
(jd)
["
[(7T -
+ cos a
a) cos a + sin
axis. After integration,
and the required bolt area
= Ss ts d[(n - a) cos a +
sin ot]/(l
is
+ cos a).
A b =ts nd/N in. 2
summation of the moments of the elemental forces about the neutral
axis the distance
From the summation of the

the minimum base ring width
can be determined:
101
on the
vertical forces acting

tc
vessel,
T+W- C = 0,
can be determined:
ff
"0
S s dA s
r (cos
a) cos
a+
- cos 6)
(3 sin
= [(T + W)/Ss d]
tc
a cos a)/2 + (n
a)/2
To accommodate
'
[(1
the anchor bolts
a- a
- cos a)/(sin
t c is
usually
made
cos a)]
larger than required
by
computed location of the neutral axis. To maintain

axis
and the validity of computations the area A s is
neutral
of
the
the position
increased in direct proportion to A c However, the stresses in bolts will decrease
in inverse proportion to A c If t c and A c only are increased the neutral axis
shifts toward the compression side and A s becomes oversized and can be decreased. In order to find the minimum A s a redesign would be required.
Only an outline of this method has been presented here. The interested reader
the above equation for the
2 [
(7r
Similarly the bearing force resultant
- a) cos
C and
a+
sin
the distance
Z, 2
'can be computed:
C=
tc
dS c
[(sin
or
cos
ot)/(l -
cos a)]
and
will find
^2 = idf2) [a cos
The distance jd between the
(3 sin
forces
a cos a)/2 +
T and C is
jd=L
The distance zd of
the force
the
(a/2)] /(sin
a cos
a).
any additional information
method
is
of the loads
as static. If
by
42-45. The main shortcoming of
high allowable stresses are used, the design can lead to
unconservative results, and this

given
in refs.
the omission of the initial preload in the bolts and the treatment
is
probably
why
this
approach has not been
generally used.
In practice, a considerable preload always has to be applied, and the bolts used
C from the^
+Z, 2
in excess
should be of sufficient size to permit retightening
requirements in order to prevent large stress fluctuations.

axis
is
given
by
of
On
minimum
design
few occasions
in
the writer's experience, excessive swaying of process towers developed simply
because the anchor bolts were not pulled up tight enough by the erection crews.
zd -Li +rcosa.
From
Allowable Stresses for Carbon Steel Anchor bolts

the
summation of moments of
force C, the value of the force
can
known forces about the location of the

now be computed in terms of the known
all
loads acting on the vessel:
The standard material used

with a
minimum
for
anchor bolts
tensile strength
is
of 60,000
carbon
psi.
steel type
A307
gr.
or B,
Bolt threads, standard coarse
thread series or eight-thread series, should preferably be rolled, with forged nuts
M-
W(zd)- TQd) = 0
of heavy
series.
two nuts (one
T=[M-
W(zd))/(jd).
be expected.
Sometimes
a corrosion allowance
as a lock nut) per bolt are
of
in.
is
specified and
used where frequent heavy winds can
102
stress in tension for the
The allowable
threaded part of the anchor bolt
is
matter of safe design, subject to engineering judgment. The allowable stress for
A307 bolts in the AISC Manual is 20,000 psi. This high allowable stress would
require an accurate stress analysis with well-defined static loads. Noting that
wind and earthquake loads
dynamic
are
103
base ring
loads,
always a possibility of overload,

a failure of a process column would cause a large loss of property,
bolt material is comparatively cheap,
there
is
inspection of the anchor bolts
any repair in the field
it is
is
is
often inadequate, and
permit a slight
adjustment of the bolt to fit
filled later to
very costly,
the hole
in
the base ring
tack wetd nut to washer and bolt
reasonable to accept lower allowable stresses.

common engineering practice to select the allowable stresses for carbon
It is a
steel
anchor bolts
as follows:
Fig. 4.9.
Sa -
under operating conditions
,000 psi
S a = 15,000 X
= 18, 000
1.2
WIND-INDUCED DEFLECTIONS OF TALL COLUMNS
4.5.
under empty (erection) condition.
psi
sustained wind pressure will cause a
magnitude of the deflection
typical details of installed anchor bolts are
The required length L of the

designed by the civil engineer.
strength of the bolt.
bolt diameter.
tall
column to
deflect with the wind.
The
seriously influence the performance of a
process column and has to be limited to a certain value. If too small a deflection
at the top of the column is specified by the client's specifications, the shell
Types of Anchor Bolt
Some
may
bolt
It
Minimum
The dimension h
length of the bolt, the higher
embedded
its
shown
in Figs. 4.8
is
and 4.9.
the concrete foundation
has a holding power equal to the
bolt spacing
is
in
is
full tensile
usually set at 10 times nominal
usually specified as 12 in.; the longer the free

resilience, i.e., its ability to absorb
an impact
load without permanent deformation.
thickness must be increased and the price of the tower will increase. Most
engineering specifications ask for a
column height.
The deflection
at
the top of
maximum
slender columns
(HjD
>
ft
of
is
routinely
are often computerized; however, a
need may
tall
checked. Deflection computations
deflection of 6 in. per 100
such calculations to be made by hand.

matter what short-cut analytical method
5)
arise for
No
is
used, the computations are
comparatively lengthy and subject to error. The method should be, flexible
enough to permit easy inclusion of such variables as shell thickness, modulus of
elasticity due to changes in operating temperature, and wind pressure above the
ground. The method should also be as simple as possible and permit the use of
the results from previous computations of the wind moments and the wind
loads for the determination of the shell thicknesses.
There are a number of methods which can be used.
The method of superposition can be applied here to advantage. The vessel is

assumed to be a cantilever beam firmly fixed to the concrete pedestal. The effect
of foundation movement is considered negligible. The six basic formulas used in
this
method
are
shown
in Table. 4.2.
Consider the cantilever beam of Fig. 4.10. Using the formulas in Table 4.2
Fig. 4.8.
Anchor
bolt for small vessel.
the individual deflections in Fig. 4.10 can be easily evaluated:
104
ii K/'i
=
1
7,
/,!
^2
<LL
El 2 I
^1
2 J
&A
l2
105
'w 2 L 2
7 2
^3
2-
7 3
_ (L, + L 2 )L 3 \W 3 L 3
6
1
fl,
Eh
QsL*
1
3
2 J
W> (
= total wind load on sections
wi,
A,- 4 =
Ql
Eh
(L,
A,-,=
+L 2
+/,,-,
<) 2 Z, 2
A l_ 2l Ai_ 3
)Z, f
Cantilever
Beam Formulas.
END ANGLE 6 AT
FREE END
Wi.
- wL
+ A/ 2
;etc.
/,
at point
due to the wind loads
IV/,
end load Qt
and end moment M.

,
etc.
= deflections at point
67
due to the end angles 6 2 G 3> etc. induced by the

end loads Q 2 Q3, etc., and end moments
2
,
wind loads
W 2 W3
Af 3 ,
the ends of the respective sections.
etc., at
etc.,
Schematic diagram of load and deflection for sections of a cantilever beam using
the superposition method.
END DEFLECTION
The
W
and so on, where
= deflection of section
Fig. 4.10.
TYPE OF LOAD
w2I 2
Eh
Table 4.2.
of column height.
.8
W2
wjt i,
in lb per ft
above the
/, equal to the summation of all HMoads
- piping thrust, if any. Q 2 =
+ Q i Qz = W 2 + ? 2 etc
X
= end moment acting at points i, due to the loads above the point.
x
+
=
=
+A/
A/
+
(W
L
L
/2)
piping moment, if any.
3
t
3
2
QX X
2
Mj]
QjU
i.
wind loads
are the unit
= shear load at point

point.
Mf
Lj \WjL,
w2
WL
total deflection at the top
of the column
is
y =yi +^2 +y* +
BEI
A i-2
A -3
A i-
y is based on modulus of elasticity E at a design temperature,

y at another operating temperature (with ") is equal to y
multiplied by E\E\
If the deflection
Ql?
J"
27
37
MZ,
Ml 2
1EI
the deflection
Example
4.3. Evaluate the deflection at the top of the process
the wind loads
144
psf.
shown
in
Fig. 4.11.
Modulus of
elasticity
is
column with
F = 30X
10
106
Mj
Qj (lb)
W, (lb)
5' i.d.
(lb ft)
(ft
5/,(lb-ft
4 ')
2
>
WIND-INDUCED VIBRATIONS
4.6.
Section
(/)
Introduction
Early in this century
6,500
107
9.05 X 109
2.1
it
was observed that some
tall
cylindrical
chimneys were
vibrating with a high frequency perpendicular to the direction of comparatively
low-velocity winds. Since this type of vibration proved to be destructive to such

6,500
97,500
structures the
who
5,800
2.64
X 10 9
11.4
phenomenon
attracted the attention of
This type of vibration affects
379,500
of
18,700
1,600
tall,
slender cylindrical vessels. For instance, they have relatively thick walls,
with high
,000,500
2.1
first
frequency and resisting strength. Also, external piping, ladders,
and platforms tend to disrupt wind flow around the vessel, and vibrations tend
to be damped by the operating liquid in the vessel and in connected piping.
However, some process towers can be subject to wind-induced vibrations, and
9.05 X 109
may have
821,500
17,100
0'
to be checked for them.
Tall stacks are routinely
Design data for Example 4.2.
Fig. 4.11.
unlined steel stacks far more frequently
does process columns. There are several reasons for the relative immunity
X10 9
13.76
3.18
tall,
it
than
4,800
investigators
safe design of tall, slender cylindrical structures.
50'
12,300
number of
attempted to formulate a rational theory applicable to the economical and
tion
is
checked for cross-wind vibration.
usually required, however, to determine whether a
detailed examina-
tall
process column
needs to be checked for vibration-inducing aerodynamic forces.

Deflection at the top of the column in feet
figured as follows.
is
Basic
y\
6,500 X 30
=
8
y* =
2.1
X 30 X
30 2
10
0.0024
5,800 X 30
11.4X 10
ft
X 144
to a uniform stream of wind, a detailed study of the
6,500 X 30
97
3
is
30 X 30
1
1.4
X 10
5,800 X 30
4,800 X 30
X 10'
13.76
10
_4
12,300 X 30
11
90 X 10
9.05
U4,800 X 30
X 10 9
and incompressible. The flow pattern

is
observed
very low Reynolds numbers.

is
a dimensionless parameter expressing the ratio of
the inertia forces to the viscous forces in a particular fluid flow.
When Re
small, the inertia forces of the stream are small, the stream behaves in a
,
1
is
more
= 0.0216
2
surface pressure lower than the pressure
of the surrounding flow (min. full vac-
uum)
+ 379,500 =0.0770
L"
9
y
9 05 X I0 I
1
-f-
X 10 9
2
379,500
60 X( 30
X 30
12,300
real fluids at
The Reynolds number Re
30 2
13.76
+ 97,500
is ideal, frictionless,
symmetrical from front to back of the cylinder. The same flow
with
6300 X 30
is
wind flow around the
necessary. Fig. 4.12 shows the fluid pattern around a stationary
cylinder if the fluid
Principles
In the evaluation of forces acting on a long, stationary, circular cylinder normal
cylinder
Aerodynamic
,600
X 10
17,100
3
X 10
821
0052
2
[ifi^ + 12^2Llo + 821|S oo]

Total deflection
: 0.0905
= 0.2235
= 2.7
Fig. 4.12.
ft
Pressure distribution around a long
cylinder for ideal fluids.

in.
and
are front
rear stagnation points, respectively.
and
108
manner and the flow tends to be laminar. When Re is large, the inertia
compared to viscous forces and the fluid flow becomes turbulent.
Re has the same numerical value for two geometrically similar systems
viscous
the cylinder parallel to the direction of the flow, called drag.
forces are large
front section remains nearly the
If
same
front are
systems can be expected to be similar.
normal to the direction of the flow
For atmospheric conditions of

is
given
air
or lb sec /ft
4
,
air
where
Cp
values.
The value of
which
is
can be taken
mass density
outside diameter of tne cylinder, ft (characteristic linear dimension)

= 3.8 X 10~ 7 lb sec/ft 2 or slug/sec ft, viscosity of air.
the projected area
The
lower
it
(psf),
as
Cp
is
well established and, except for very low
equal to 0.9-1.1, until the critical range
numerical values are substituted into the above equation for
Re>
10
Re
s
,
Re
values,
beyond
drops to 0.3-0.5.
total drag force
Re
values,
consists of the friction
and the pressure component
Df. The drag force
is
Dp
component Df, predominant
Dp
at
due to the pressure resultant
for blunt bodies will be
much
larger than the force
dealt with in the design of pressure vessels as the
wind
load.
= 6,320 Vd,
for
wind velocity V
Re = 9,210yd,
for
wind velocity Kin mph.
Re
on
equal:
the drag coefficient, experimentally determined at various
on the cylinder. Usually,
When the above

Re, we get
pressures in the rear and in the
pressure acting
D = CD pV 2 /2
dju
is
The pressure on the

However in the rear, wake
flow around a long smooth cylinder the
where
,
no longer balanced. The unit
by equation
Re=pVd/ti
3
3
p = 2.4 X 10~ slugs/ft
V - wind velocity, ft/sec
The
action changes positive pressure to negative.
(including the position of the object in the stream) the fluid flow pattern in both
Reynolds number Re
as in Fig. 4.12.
109
in ft/sec, or
Development of the Force on
a Cylinder Transverse to the Direction of
Flow
Because of friction a boundary layer of retarded fluid forms on the cylinder
Development of the Force on
a Cylinder Parallel to the Direction of
Flow
surface.
A separation
of the flow occurs near the rear of the cylinder and a wake,
a turbulent region with a lower flow velocity than the surrounding free stream,
Re
The pressure distribution around the cylinder in Fig. 4.12 is given by p = q(\ 4 sin 2 a), where q = pV 2 /2 is the dynamic pressure at the stagnation point A
where the flow velocity is zero. The net force resultant acting on a unit length
develops. With high
of the cylinder
immediately behind the separation points
is
zero.
In actual air flow the friction and the air compressibility will change the flow
The streamlines do
The pressure pattern will resemble
4.13, indicating the development of a force acting on
pattern around the cylinder and the pressure distribution.
not follow the body contour back to the
more
that
shown
in Fig.
rear.
the separation points of the flow
the transverse diameter of the cylinder
By
friction
move forward toward
and the wake width increases
(Fig. 4.14).
the higher-velocity enclosing layers set the lower velocity fluid

in rotation.
Two
symmetrical vortices
with opposite rotational velocities develop, and as the wind velocity increases,
between the free stream and vortices increases.

At some point one vortex breaks away and passes downstream,
the friction force
in the free
Up
to the critical value of
alternately
force
disintegrating
stream [Fig. 4.14(d)]
on
(psf)
this critical
Re<5X
10
the vortices will
form and shed
either side of the cylinder, giving rise while forming to a transverse
on the
Re
fv Beyond
wake contracts
cylinder, at a frequency of vortex shedding
value the separation points
move backward,
the
and becomes entirely turbulent, and the vortex periodicity vanishes.

Von Karman was the first to analyze the formation of such vortices mathematically,
Schematic illustration of pressure

around a long cylinder for actual flows at higher
Fig. 4.13.
Re
values.
and found that maximum
stability in the
flow of vortices occurred
from the sides of a cylinder, as shown

in Fig. 4.15. The vortices moving downstream at a speed somewhat less than that
of the free stream form a so-called Von Karman vortex street or trail.
when
The
the vortices were shed alternately
cross thrust force L, like the drag force, can be expressed conveniently as
b
Fig. 4.15.
Vortex
a part of the stagnation pressure
trail in
q -
L=CL pV2/2
the
wake of
4.3tf
a cylinder.
pK2/2:
(psf of the projected area).
Unfortunately, in case of a cylinder no firm value of
Values for
Q,
Calculated
CL
value of
Cl =
111
has been established.
ranging from 0.2 to as high 1.7 are given in technical sources.

values based
1
.7
on
field
observations are usually low, while the
based on a mathematical analysis. Values of
is
CL
between
0.2 to 1.0 appear to be generally accepted and used in practice; a value of 1.0
considered conservative. For practical engineering computations, values of
is
CL
= 0.4-0.6 are recommended here.
Critical
Wind Velocity
The first
was done
original investigation of the vortex

in
1878 by Strouhal,
who found
forming and shedding phenomenon
the following relationship:
S=fyd/V
where
S=
fy =
d-
a dimensionless parameter, called the Strouhal
number
shedding frequency of vortices, cps

diameter of the cylinder perpendicular to the flow of the wind,
V = wind
velocity
The value of S varies with the values of Re. However,

between 10 3 and 10 s the value of S remains nearly
0.18 and 0.21, and
values of Re
The
>
10
is
in the range of .Re values

stable, equal to
between
generally taken as equal to 0.20 in computations. For
the Strouhal
number
wind velocity
frequency of wind vortices f v
first critical
ft
fps.
V
is
is
increases rapidly to 0.35.
the wind velocity at which the shedding
equal to the
first
natural frequency of the
112
column
(oxfv
/. It
can be computed from the Strouhal number, substituting
/=
l/T
where
= W/g
is
the mass
c - damping factor, resistance to motion in pounds
to one inch per second,
V =3.40rf/rmph.
k -
wind velocity can be taken
V2
as
6.25^
when
co
the vibration of stacks was
According to
observed
first
it
stresses
induced by such oscillations can build up and increase over those
calculated from static
At
to this
tem
wind load
problem
is
appropriate.
tall vessel, a
with a distributed mass of infinitely
periods of vibration, each of

tional curve.
called
cantilever
many
them accompanied by
pertaining to the resonance case can be derived
The
time
a distinct
mode
its
by using
a system with a single
in Fig. 4.16.
damped, forced harmonic motion of a system

degree of freedom expresses the displacement x of mass m be-
equilibrium position and
its
instantaneous location as a function of
mx
0,
c'x
kx
F cos co/
deflect the spring
system,
cor,
lb. It is
with the
maxi-
minimum
depending on the desired approximation
this differential
The complementary function
equation consists of two parts super-
the general solution of the
is
homogeneous
equation (the right-hand side set equal to zero). With two independent constants, the
system and
complementary function represents the

is
free
damped
vibration of the
given by:
x = e'^ 2m)t {C x
or vibra-
differential equation for
with a single
tween
beam, represents a sysand natural
However, the prevailing period of vibration will be the longest,

first, which is of main interest. The general conclusions
shown
vibrational freedoms
fundamental or
degree of freedom, as
pounds required to
analysis.
point some consideration of the basic vibrational principles applicable
this
equal
circular frequency of the impressed force F, rad./sec.
The general solution of

posed on each other.
supported, a forced resonant vibration results.
The
= the
was ascribed to resonance.
fy of the cross thrust force L coin/ of the cylinder, however it may be
frequency
this theory, if the
one of the natural frequencies
cides with
is
lb/in.
F cos ojf = harmonic periodic force impressed on the

mum when t - 0. It could also be taken as fsin
Basic Vibrational Principles; Magnification Factor
When
the velocity
lb-sec/in.
scale of a weightless spring, force in
by one inch,
critical
when
=/<//0.2(fps)
The second
113
sin u> d r
C2
w d f)
cos
where u> d = [(k/m) - (c/2m) 2 ] l ' 2 is the damped natural circular frequency and
Cj and C2 are constants which depend on two initial conditions. For small
,
damping coefficients c, as in the case of process columns, to d can be replaced

by co M = (k/m) 1 ^ 2 the natural circular frequency for a vibrating system with no
damping and no impressed force and described by the equation mx + kx = 0.
Free vibration disappears because of damping. Very light damping will allow
many oscillations to occur, but they will gradually lessen in amplitude and become negligible. However, it is quite possible that the intensity of the induced
,
free vibration, for instance
during an earthquake,
is
such that
it
will cause
damage to the vessel before it has the time to die out.

2. The particular integral is the simplest possible solution of the equafion,
with no integration constant, specifying the forced oscillation of the system:
spring
F cos
<A-
Flk
tjf
equilibrium
TP
position
L)
lillllll
IllllHlli
dashpot
+
]
cos (wf - 0),
2
[
cc
co.
where
System with a single degree of freedom subject to
viscous damping and externally imposed hamonic force.
Fig. 4.16.
2(mk) lf2
is
between
overdamping
the critical damping factor, representing the dividing line

(c/c c
>
nonvibrating
motion) and under-
114

damping
<
(c/c c
1,
harmonic vibration). The damping factor c of
slender pressure vessel
F/k =
Xs
is
is
and for small values of c/c c
usually only few percent of c c
the deflection of the system due to the
F when acting as a static

0 = constant phase angle.
a tall,
115
maximum impressed
force
= 2n(clc c ).
force
The magnification factor
resonance can
at
The maximum actual amplitude x of forced vibration can be obtained by

Xs by the fraction
now be
Maximum M.F. =
expressed as follows:
7r/5
multiplying the statical deflection
Some
M.F.=
2
1/{[1 - (co/")
2
]
+ [(2^c)(/"k)]
investigators consider this value too high to apply against cylindrical
l/a
structures,
called the magnification factor.
For small values of c/c c (<0.2) the
maximum
and suggest that a
M.F. equal to 1/5
Damping
damping coefficients c and c c of the system are

not known, not readily measurable, and difficult to estimate with sufficient
accuracy. For free vibration with damping less than critical, the ratio of two
In practical computations the
is
losses
between the
xn
x n + /x =
1
e~
(- TTc/m co d )
is
known
Expressed
in
as the logarithmic
" 5
decrement and
{c/lmf ]
J'2
decrement 5 can be expressed by
~xn )/xn
is
co d
given by 6 = 7rc/mco d
and
mk
= c\ /4,
as the percentage
= 2n(c/c c )/{\
- (c/c )]
c
"2
decay per cycle
a freely vibrating vessel and thus provides a
in the
amplitude of
means of measuring the vibration
decay rate of a column
in field, since the value
damping, friction
due to resistance of the
= e~ s
terms of c/c Ci and substituting for
= (irc/m)[k/m
losses
by
Damping
a simple ratio,
(2ir/cj rf )]
x n andx + can be determined by

6
dissipated through heat
in addition to internal
any energy
air,
- 5, the logarithmic
which can be interpreted

where 5
and
shell
exp [-(c/2m)f]
= exp
is
to microscopic plastic action in the material.
of a vibrating column would include,
Since
[t
damping due
internal
external piping and internals, and conditions at the base support.
(see Fig. 4.17)
x n +\ _ exp Hg/2ffl)
with
a system can also be defined as the rate at which the material
in
absorbs energy under a cyclic load. The energy
amplitudes
in line
Logarithmic Decrement 6
Maximum M,F. = c c /2c.
maximum
more
maximum
value of M.F. will be reached very nearly at gj = u>
consecutive
is
measurements.
their actual
However, 6 lacks
field
full significance,
point of resonance and
is
of two consecutive amplitudes
measurements.
since
it
describes conditions
away from
the
susceptible to errors in measurement. Most available
data, however, are presented in terms of 6, although
process towers and stacks are not as extensive as
it
its reliable
would be
values for typical
desirable.
Values of 5 for welded towers and stacks and magnification factors based
on
field
measurements
are given in
values of 6 and M.F. in columns
Since a deflection
is
II
Table 4.3. Unless otherwise specified, the
and
III
can be used in most applications.
directly proportional to the applied force, the
maximum
transverse force per unit area of the projected surface of a cylinder at resonance
can be expressed by
L=(CL XM.F.)pK?/2 (psf).

Fig. 4.17.
For the
first
estimate a value of (CL
X M.F. ) =
(0.5
X 60) can be
used.
116
Average Values for 8 and M.F.
Table 4.3.
It
would seem
that at low-i?e flows the cylinder
is
117
dynamically stable, sub-
ject only to forced vibrations; at the higher-/?e flows a possibility of self-excited

II
III
STIFF SOILS
ROCK, VERY STIFF
vibration exists.
SOFT SOILS
Tall process
columns
Unlined stacks
Lined stacks
M.F.
M.F.
M.F.
0.126
0.105
0.314
25
0.080
0.052
0.105
40
60
0.052
30
0.035
60
90
30
0.070
45
10
number of
a large
field
observations
critical
it
wind
can be concluded
velocity
Kj
cor-
responding to a Strouhal number of approximately 0.2 pointing out the forced

vibration theory as the basic excitation. The formation of secondary peak
may
amplitudes at higher wind velocities in some cases

theory, particularly
forced vibration
elastically deflecting cylinders at higher
For a
Ref. 48.
Source:
that the
From
peak amplitudes appear at the
first
most
vessel designer the
after
Re
lead to modification of
the behavior of streams around
values
better
is
significant fact
is
known.
that the peak vibrations as
predicted by forced vibration theory are not inconsistent with the observed data
and can form a basis for the mathematical checking of a stack or tower for wind-
Conflict between Forced and Self-Excited Vibration Theories
induced vibrations.
All values essential to the
aerodynamic design analysis of towers and stacks, such
CL the Strouhal number 5, and particularly the damping data,

of wide differences of opinion among various investigators. Furthermore, the question has been raised whether forced vibration theory should be
used as the basic design-governing theory in the aerodynamic design of stacks
as the coefficient
Design Method Based on Forced Vibration
are subjects
The
first critical
wind velocity
von Karman vortices
are
formed. Since the frequency of forced vibrations
equal to the frequency of the impressed force, this would mean, that the stack
would
vibrate to
some degree
at a
frequency proportional to wind velocity. At
the critical wind velocity the frequency of vortex shedding

natural frequency of the stack or tower
/ and
fv
is
that'
is
poor agreement with forced vibration theory.

To explain this discrepancy other theories have been advanced, particularly
self-excitation theory. A self-excited vibration should take place only near the
the
first
period of
vibration in second per cycle.
The second critical velocity can be taken as V 2 = 6.25 Kj

The maximum unit pressure L transverse to the wind direction
the projected cylinder area
at
resonance on
is
L = (CL XU.F.)pV\l2
psf.
in
Assuming that wind pressure and tower mass effects are concentrated in the
to \ of H depending on exposure) and column stiffness
vessel top section
effects are limited to the vessel bottom section, the action of the total pressure acting on a cylindrical
mated by
its
tall
slender vessel at resonance can then be approxi-
resultant equivalent static force at the top of the column:
frequency of the structure. In self-excited vibration the impressed
motion is created by the motion itself and, when

motion of the object stops, the impressed force disappears. Once excited to
F = (CL XMf.)(pV\/2)(dXHl3).
alternating force sustaining the

the
7 is
the outside diameter of the vessel in feet, and
the frequencies of
approximately constant at the value of the natural frequencies of the stacks.
natural
by
equals to the
stack vibrations as observed in the field have nearly always been found to be
is
where d
resonance occurs. The principal
reason this theory has not been generally accepted
This
given
According to forced vibration theory the alternating transverse force acting on

a cylinder in an air flow originates from vortex shedding, which is independent
of the motion of the cylinder. This force exists at all wind velocities at which
the
is
V =3.40J/rmph
and towers.
is
vibration the cylinder controls the frequency of the impressed force [36, 47].
When
is
in
mph,
Vibration would continue through a wide range of wind velocities, and a par-
wind velocity would not exist. If the amount of energy extracted

by the cylinder from the air exceeds damping, the amplitude of oscillations will
increase until, in practice, an equilibrium between damping and the energy input
F = 0.00086(0, X
ticular critical
develops. However, a full satisfactory theory for a stack oscillating with self-
excited vibrations has not been mathematically
worked out by
its
proponents.
The equivalent
stresses
force
M.F.)(d X
HX
Vf).
maximum nominal
maximum resonance
can be used in computing the
at various elevations of the shell and also the
amplitude at the top of the
vessel.
The induced
stresses
must be superposed on
118
the stresses due to weight and operating pressure.
should not exceed the
combined
stresses are
in the design have to
No
maximum
The
total
allowable stress for the
too high and a possibility of fatigue
combined
sliell
stress
material. If the
failure exists,
changes
be made.
would be completed without an attempt to evaluate

The stress induced in the bottom shell section, welds, and
vibrational analysis
the effects of fatigue.
support
skirt
is
The following
stress range
Sr
completely reversed in bending with the
relationship between the

is
used as
a fatigue
number of
stress range
permanent guys. Special external damping devices are expensive, impractical,

and in practice not very effective. They do not seem to represent a satisfactory
solution.
As in any mechanical design the cheapest and most effective vibration-preventive

measures can be accomplished by a careful analysis during the design stage, even
at a higher initial cost.
SR = 2S.
cycles to failure TV and the
Ovaling
curve [74]
and 0
is
brief discussion will be offered here.

oscillating
where n and
For carbon
steel
The value of f$
Some
(3
are material constants
the stress intensification factor.
with an ultimate strength of 60,000
will
psi,
n - 5 and
K = 780,000.
vary according the type of construction, weld and inspection.
suggested values for 0 are:

1
.2 for
deformations of the upper section of stacks called ovaling or breathing.
formation. If the natural frequency of
= 1.8 for butt-weld joints

0 = 3 for fillet weld or incomplete penetration groove weld with the root unsealed between the bottom head and the support skirt.
occur once per vortex
a cylindrical shell
taken as a circular ring
coincides with the vortex shedding frequency, the shell will have tendency to
with the direction of the major axis varying
wind direction.
The lowest natural period of a cylinder taken as a ring
from perpendicular to
finish
a stack
The pressure pulsations which cause ovaling of
flatten periodically into an ellipse,
smooth
a shell plate with a
by this resonance phenomenon only a

The cross aerodynamic forces can induce
Since mostly unlined stacks are affected
N = (KlfSSR
119
parallel to the
is
given by
/3
The
fatigue
life
expectency Le
hours of vibration in a steady wind
in
at the
where
m = the
resonant velocity will be given by
mass per unit length of the
ring; for steel,
m=
in.
in.
0.28/386)
= modulus of elasticity, 27 X 10 6
4
3
/ = r /12, moment of inertia, in.
Z,e= AT/3,600.
psi
The
safe service life of continuous vibration
is
Substituting the above values,
we
get
Z-e/S.F.
No
T = d 2l66Qt
precise criteria for the safety factor S.F. can be given.
safe service life should
be
at least
equal to the
steady wind of resonant velocity at the job
However, the minimum
sum of probable time
site.
A safety
factor of 10-15, as ap-
and structure.
plied to cycles to failure, could be accepted for this type of load
From
the above discussion
it is
quite obvious that, with so
variable factors, the results of design
is the mean cylinder diameter in feet and thickness t in inches.

The resonant wind velocity which theoretically would induce ovaling is
where d
periods of
=
x
3A0d/2T
or
= \,\20t/d mph.
many assumed
computations can only be interpreted
as
approximations, the starting point for the evaluation of the vessel behavior.
Reinforcing rings with a required section modulus are added in the top third of
a stack to secure
it
from ovaling.
spiral vortex spoiler
can be used in place of
the rings [124].
Corrective Measures against Vibration
The most commonly used preventive measure
against vibration
is
a spiral vortex
spoiler welded around the top third of the stack. Another corrective measure
for an existing structure subject to excessive vibration would be installation of
Limiting Values for a Vibrational Analysis

It
would be advantageous
to be able to determine in advance
simple parameter whether a vibrational analysis
is
from
a single,
necessary. Unfortunately,
no
120
such parameter
which can be
Most investigations have been done on tall stacks,

cylindrical, tapered, or half-tapered; lined with gunite or
available.
is
straight
unlined; and of welded or riveted construction. The weight

distributed along the height, and there
is
In the above formula,
tower. For a flared stack,
the total height of a uniform-diameter stack or

can be replaced by an equivalent height
is
nearly evenly
no connected process piping involved.
is
121
H (cylinder) + H\2 (cone).
Empirical parameters intended for stacks, therefore cannot be blindly applied

to
tall
towers. As already mentioned, process columns are not afflicted with
For lined stacks,
WQ
includes the weight of the internal lining.
cross-wind vibrations very often. However, given the trend to higher, slender
of vibration will likely be of increasing importance. To

more reliable criteria, more research laboratory work and experimental
work on full-scale, field-erected, high vessels are needed.
The following can be used as general guidelines in deciding whether a vibra-
vessels, the possibility
4.7.
FIRST
NATURAL PERIOD OF VIBRATION
obtain
required.
tional analysis
is
The upper
60 mph, since
limit
of the
wind
critical
as
is
high as
putations,
wind
3.
further check
is
velocities at the site area
The
limiting
minimum
is
a further investigation justified.
height-to-diameter ratios
H/d
for vibrational analysis
are:
unlined stacks:
H/d
>
13
lined stacks
Hjd>
15
process columns:
H/d
>
15
diameter of the top half of the vessel
25
(ft) are
analysis
suggested in
H (ft), and
ref.
49 to
establish
tower
by the wind of
does not exceed
is
critical velocity
if
must be performed
performed
the total force
V (V
x
(1/0.560) (wH*/gEiyt
H = total height in feet

/ =
3
(fltf
f/8) (1/12),
moment of inertia of the
section, ft
per foot of the vessel, lb/ft
shell thickness, in.

shell
mean corroded
diameter,
ft.
2 if it is less
r = (2.70/10 s )(//A0
(wrf/0
T gives
,/a
sec/cycle
at the new operatthe vessel operates at higher temperature the period T

6
=
(29 X 10 /" at operating
ing temperature can be found from T'
TX
of thumb, complete vibratory analysis of
rule
not required
an important
If
analysis need not be performed.
According to an often used
a stack or a
is
average
analysis should be
slender vessels
Substituting the above values into the equation for
the need for a vibrational analysis, as follows:
W/Hd 2 < 20,

< W/Hd 2 < 25,
< W/Hd 2
tall
2
g = 32.2 ft/sec gravitational acceleration
6
=
E modulus of elasticity, 29 X 10 psi
t =
d-
weight Ff(lb), height
4. Possible criteria, relating to total
5.
T=
w = weight
20
of
where
wind velocity used in static pressure comrequired. Only if V falls in the range of prevailing
greater than the design
no
For a tall, slender cylindrical

criterion in design for wind or earthquake loads.
to a fixed-end cantilever
equivalent
thickness,
tower of uniform diameter and
cycle)
by
complete
one
per
beam, T is given (in seconds
cross vibrations have been recorded.

is
natural period of vibration
a very small possibility of a sustained
limit will exist. This value also
2. If V\
first
and V2 can be limited to

wind velocity beyond this
any known wind velocity at which
velocities
The
on the stack or tower caused
temperature)
1'2
In practice,
tall
or/
process vessels have either a stepped-down shell thickness
with unevenly disand sections of different diameters, representing a system

is used to demethod
Rayleigh's
tributed mass and flexibility. In such systems,
only to
applies
method
Rayleigh's
termine the first natural period T, Although
accuracy
sufficient
with
a
period
T
undamped systems, it yields the fundamental
most engineering problems [137]

harmonic, the sum of
the vibration of a column is assumed to be undamped
remains constant.
K.E.
energy
kinetic
the
and
P.E.
energy
the elastic potential
for
than the wind design velocity)
of the operating (corroded) weight
W0
If
or
through the
kinetic energy K.E. occurs, when the system passes
The maximum
equilibrium position and the elastic potential energy is zero.
Maximum
\pV 2 HdlW0 < 0.067.
122
elastic
energy P.E. occurs, when system
is
at
maximum
displacement, with zero
Both maximum energies must be equal:
kinetic energy K.E.
Maximum
K.E. =
Maximum
P.E.
123
compute the maximum deflections of the centers of gravity of

the lumped masses the most probable vibration curve of the system for the first
period has to be assumed. The closer the assumed curve to the actual curve,
the more accurate the resulting T. However, even if the selected curve differs
from the actual to a considerable degree, the computed Tis still close enough.
2. In order to
Generally, the deflection bending curve of a vessel subjected to its own weight
W) is assumed, and deflections of the centers of gravity
(initial acting force
For a simple, one-mass, vibrating system,
F=
WV 2 /2g = Fyj2
y a >yb>yc>
W(tj n y) 2 l2g = Fyl2
Using the above weights and calculated deflections, the natural, undamped,
angular frequency o> n of the system in Fig. 4.18 may be found from the follow-
>y n are
computed.
3.
ing equations:
and
= \g(W,y a +
and from
co
W2 y b
WH y n )l(W
y\ +
T = 2*[i:Wy2 /gXWy]
amplitude, the
V- maximum
maximum
velocity of the mass, equal to yco n for a simple harmonic
- angular natural undamped frequency of the system,

F = initial acting force
W - weight of the mass
oj
ft/sec
2
,
WH y*)]
l'
1l
2
.
deflection of the center of gravity of the mass
Thus calculated
T will
rad/sec
weights.
gravitational acceleration.
used. However,
In order to apply the above equations to a cantilever
be slightly (a few percent) lower than the actual T, since
vibrational curve. The

the static, bending deflection curve is not actual, dynamic
positive.
as
taken
be
always
must
deflections
the
signs of
Wn used in the computations are the operating
The weights W x W2
method can be
To find the deflections^,^,
n any analytical
motion
g = 32.2
Wt yt
= 2tt/7:
where
y=
beam, the following
simpli-
method
is
if
the computations are
done by hand the following numerical
most convenient and simple to apply.
the
fying assumptions have to be made.
Computation of the Transverse y Deflections

1
distributed weights of the
The
trated or
"lumped"
at centers
stiffness along the length
beam
sections
a're
assumed to be concen-
of gravity of the beam sections with unchanged
of the
beam
(see Fig. 4.18). This
siderably simplifies the computations for the deflections

gravity.
The
greater
the
number of
assumption conof the centers of
sections, the higher the final accuracy
achieved.
Basically, this
is
The
hthth^
moments of inertia of individual

Fig. 4.18.
sections
applied to a cantilever beam, (a)
beam
is
equal to the shear at
design procedure
is
outlined below and in Figs. 4.19 and 4.20.
W W W
computed and assumed

the vessel sections
3 are
2 ,
x
Fig.
4.19). For the sake of
in
and
c
a,
b
(points
gravity
of
centers
the
t
to act at
modulus of
simplicity it is assumed here that the moment of inertia / and
1
y a ,y b> y c - deflections of centers of gravity a, b,c of individual sections

W lt W 2 ,W 3 = operating weights of individual sections
beam method
fictitious
the corresponding point of the conjugate beam (the corresponding
beam with the same length as the real beam but adjusted supports) which has
deflection*^ of the
the M/EI area of the real beam as its (elastic) load, (b) The
equal to the bendis
position
real beam at any point with respect to its original
which has the
beam
conjugate
the
of
ing moment at the corresponding point
load.
(elastic)
M/EI area of the real beam as its
A step-by-step
the conjugate
slope of the elastic bending curve of the real
The weights of
elasticity
are constant through the entire
separated and used in the final formula.
beam
length, so that they can be
124

Sketch the moment diagram to
Md = dd
Compute
with
a suitable scale,
125
M b = bb Mc = ccx
i ,
and
the areas
A =(dd +cc
)(dc)/2
A2
){cb)l2
=(cc,
+bb
A, =(bb i )(ba)/2
end
(b)
Load diagram
(a)
Moment diagram
2.
Real cantilever beam.
Fig. 4.19.
The
beam becomes the fictitious loading diagram of

beam in Fig. 4.20(a). The first numerical integra-
7W- diagram of the real
the corresponding conjugate
tion (using the trapezoidal approximation) gives the shear diagram of the con-
Compute
the bending
moments
to the concentrated loads
W W2
t
M =0
Mb = W (L +L )/2
M = W, [(L /2) + L
Md = W [(LJ2) + L
at points a, b,
and
W3
and c and
at the fixed
end due
jugate
beam
diagram
is
cc 2
3.
+(L 3 /2)] + [W 2 (L 2 + L 3 )/2]
+I 3
+W2 [(L 2 I2) + L
3 ]
+ (W 3 L 3 /2).
equivalent to the slope diagram of the real
drawn using the following
-A
The second numerical
gate beam, which
4.20(c).
areas
bb 2
x ,
The
-A
+A2
aa 2
and
integration yields the
in Fig.
-A
moment
+ A 2 + yl 3
20(b).
The
beam
falls
diagram of the conju-
equal to the deflection diagram of the real
is
deflection curve of the real
B lt B 2t and 3
beam
values:
beam in Fig.
Compute
inside the polygon.
Bx =(cc 2 /2)(dc)
B2
= (cc 2
+bb 2 )(cb)/2
B 3 -(bb 2 + aa 2 )(ba)/2.
Sketch the Mdx
cc 3 =
4.
The
diagram using the following values:
B lt
bbi
deflections can
-B +2
x
and
now be found from
aa 3 =,
+5 2
#3
the equations, for instance,.
Example 4.4. As an example, the first period of vibration Tis computed

process column used in Example 1.2 in Section 1.6, and shown here
for the
in Fig.
4.21 without the reboiler.
The
is
vessel is divided into six sections
assumed to be
points of forces equal to the weights

(c)
Fig. 4.20.
Moment
diagram
Conjugate cantilever beam.
values are
and the center of gravity of each section

a to f) and to be the loading
at its geometrical centers (points
computed
moment of inertia
at
W of the
respective sections.
each loading point as well as
at
The moment
each point where the
/ of the vessel shell changes. In Fig. 4.22 the
M/I diagram
is
8' i-d
5'
126
[kips/ ft) kips
1.25
20
1.25
20
0.525
10
0.525
10
0.75
15
1.0
10
i.d
Fig. 4.21.
sketched and applied as

Since the
there in
moment of
the moment
fictitious loading
inertia /
diagram to the conjugate beam.
of the shell changes at point
,3
a step will appear
diagram. The subsequent numerical integrations yield the
values for computation of the deflections^.
The
values of
ZWy
and XfVv
are calculated in Table 4.4, and
T is
calculated
as follows:
'
9483 X 106
/2
= 2,(0.1761
sec/cycle
L386X 663920J
say
T-
1.1 5 sec/ cycle.
Table 4.4.
POINT
Win.)
W (lb)
Wy (\b-in.)
302,000
230,000
75,800
38,700
16,650
770
15.1
20,000
11.5
7.58
20,000
10,000
3.87
10,000
1.11
0.077
15,000
10,000
TWy lWy 2
t
663,920
Wy*
.
0b-in. )
4.56 X 10
2.645 X 10
0.575 X 10
6
6
0.1498 X 10
6
0.0185 x 10
7.9483 X 10*
Fig. 4.22.
See page 128 for explanation of figure.
127
128
/,
=rX 4,0313 3
fX
2.521
X^~ =
4.8.
12.85
ft
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Detailed mechanical computations are to be prepared for the process column
X^j=2.09ft 4
129
with the design data given below.

M:
Mb =20X 16 =320 kips-ft

M = 320 + 40 X 8 = 640
M =640 + 40X 9.5 = 1,020
Md = 1,020 + 50 X 19 = 1,970
Me ,910 + 60 X 19.5 =3,140
Mf = 3,140 + 15 15=4,265
Design Data
1.
3
c
>=
Shell inside diameter: 5
X.
M, =4,265 +85 X
Shell overall length:
- 25 kips/ft
in.
=4,690
Support
Mb il
M/I:
ft
160ft
skirt height:
10
ft
Operating hydrostatic head: 10
ft
above the bottom
t.l.
Mi/I, =49.7
M /I
Mc//
3
Operating pressure: 180 psig
= 306
= 488
Design pressure: 220 psig
M<slh = 942
M,/I 3 * 1502
= 2040
f/I3
= 2244
Operating temperature: top half, -45F
2,244
Mdx/J:
bottom, -10F
Design temperature: -50F
2|040
= 10,710
Corrosion allowance:
kips/ft
Material: shell,
skirt,
37,275
1
,502 +
-
942
PWHT:
X 19.5 = 23,880
61,155
942 + 488
1
X-ray:
19 = 13.S8S
Weld
SA
3,760
78,500
X 8 =
300
efficiency:
Minimum
78,800
yX
psi
100 percent
number 90, weir height 4
in.
in.
hydrostatic test pressure: 330 psig
Location: Houston, Texas.
200
16 =
S a = 13,700
yes
Cold insulation thickness: 5

Flange rating: 150 lb min.
49.7 + 25
psi, use
V-notch impact tested)
full
Trays: C. S. perforated,
X 9.5 =
S a =55,000/4 = 13,750
SA 516 gr. 55 (Charpy

bottom SA 285 gr. C
top
74,740
488 + 306
in.
5 16 gr. 55
79,000
The design and

Mdx
/I:
'-^^X5
26,775 kips/ft
10,710 + 37,275
X
37,275 + 61,155
19.5 =
y" g
959,700
1
61,155 + 74,740
2
74,740+ 78,500,
X
,346,365
5.256 X 1Q 6 X 1Q 3
2,637 X ]Q
2,637,365
X 10
29 X 10 6 X 144
9.5 =
365,265
X 16 = 1,262,400
Shell Thickness Required for Internal Pressure
Shell thickness:
= 0.631
y* =
.44
= 0.0926
0.0268
= 0.0064
5,256,865
2 .9
.44
- 132) = 0.536 + C.A.
in.
03223
0.3867
t=PRil(SE- 0.6?) = (220 X 33.06)/(13,700

= 0.536 + 0.063 =0.599
=
2.9 X 1.44
2 .9
78,800 + 79,000
2.
= 0.956
1.3461
yd
629,200
3,994,465
ft
727,900
3
X 8 =
= 1.258
29 X 10 s X 144
29 X 10* X 144
78,500 + 78,800
2
Pressure Vessel
3,994 X 10* X 10 3
_ 1,291,000
ASME
3S9.890
386,665
1977 Edition, up to
Deflections:
15 =
comply with the requirements of the applicCode Section VIII, Division 1,

and including 1977 Winter Addenda.
fabrication shall
able subsections of the
Use f -in.-thick
plate.
P = (13,700 X 0.5625)/(33.06 + 0.6 X 0.5625) = 230

88
(13,700 X 0.625)/(33.0 + 0.6 X 0.625) = 256 psi
June
psi
130
head thickness, (min.)
ellipsoidal
- 0.2?) = (220
=PDil(2SE
th
66.125)/(2 X 13,700
= 0.532 + C.A. = 0.532 + 0.063 = 0.59

Use f -in.-thick
f^^Mp
- 44)
-|
= 5,000
5'-6"
Computation of Wind Loads and Moments

Ib-ft
i.d.
Wind
in.
70'
= (224 X 66.125)/(2 X 13,700 - 44) = 0.542 + 0.063 = 0.605
For bottom head use the same thickness

thick, as computed from the wind loads.
Shell Thickness Based
3.
Effective shell diameter
De
Basic
pressure
as the
bottom
shell section:
on Combined Wind, Weight and Pressure Loads
De
p = 35
732,650
50'
32,940
2,075,900
36,720
2,772,500
39,420
3,533,900
40,770
3,934,650
12,150
psf. (See
20'
remarks at end of example.)
WIND
HEIGHT ZONE
0'to30'
25
35
50' to 100'
45
55
100' to 170'
w
w
w
w
At section
2:
(0.106
At section
3:
(0.106
At section 4:
(0.106
At' section 5:
(0.106
(0.106
\2)!(itD
2,700
1,350
Moment
= 3,934,850 Ib-ft
at base
Fig. 4.23.
X 9 X 25 = 135
= 0.6 X 9 X 35 = 189
= 0.6
= 0.6
X 9 X 45 = 243
= 0.6 X 9 X 55 = 297
Wind loads
w =(4A/X
3,780
30'
B X De X pz
(lb/ft OF HEIGHT)
(psf)
30' to 50'
20,790
160'
PRESSURE
At
(Ib-ft)
= 5000
297 X 70 =
20,790
in.
10' if-
section 6:
Mp
in.
- (o.d. column + 10 in. ins.) + (o.d. 6 -in. pipe + ins.) + platform + ladder
= (67.25 + 10) + (6.625 + 6) + 6 + 12 = 107.9 in. = 9 ft.
wind
Moment
(lb)
plate.
Bottom:
th
Shear
load (lb)
I"
=0.\06M/D 2
X 144)
At section 2
ld
At section
ld
At section
At section
6:
=94,850/(12 X ttX 5.5)

= 164,900/(12 X 7T X 5.5)
d = 246,850/(12 X
tt
5.5)
d =278,750/(12 X n X 5.5)
=
=
457
795
1
lb/in.
,190
= 1,342.
lb/in.
Shell thickness computations
X
X
X
X
X
732,650)/5.5
2,075,900)/5.5
2,772 ,500)/5.5
3,533,900)/5.5
3 ,934,850)/5.5
= 2,5701b/in.
2
2
7,274
At section
(a)
2:
Windward
side:
= 9,715
= 12,383
= 13,790.
~ Id
+W2 = 2,570 - 457 + (220 X 33.325)/2 = 5,785
lb/in.
required shell thickness:
Weight loads
d =
Wln-nD
lb/in.
= 5,785/13,700 + C.A. = 0.422 + 0.0625 = 0.489
in.
131
132
Hoop
pressure thickness governs, use
Leeward
(b)
f -in.
thick plate,
Support Skirt Design
4.
side:
(a) Skirt thickness at section 5

l
Code allowable
w +ld =2,570 + 457 = 3,027
stress
= 13,700
psi in
133
based on the attachment weld:
lb/in.
fa = Qw + hdlES* = 13,573/(0.8 X 13,700) =
compression (buckling). Actual
.24 in.
stress
Use l|-in.-thick
plate.
in compression:
Anchor bolts:
At skirt base 6 flare the
(b)
S c =3,027/0.5625 = 5,381
At section
skirt to
to
1 1 ft
side:
ld
lw-ld =(3,934,850 X
+ (PR/2) = 7,274 - 795 + 3,670 = 10,149
Use J -in .-thick

(b) Leeward
in.
number.
/4
plate.
Code allowable
4)/(rrX 11.5
12)] - [278,750/(?r
w + ld = 7,274 + 795 = 8,069
= 13,700
psi.
Actual
Use 20 2 \ -in. bolts with the
lb/in.
stress area
spacing = 12
stress:
S c =8,069/0.8125 =9,950
11.5
Maximum
psi.
stress in bolt
= 15,450
4.00
1 1 .5
in.
psi
<
18,000
psi
A285
gr.
1.5
in.
tt/20
under empty condition
S = (3,158- 134,800/ttX
= 21 .8
in.
(We = 134,800
12)
it
lb.):
BJNXA b
side:
(c)
lw - *d + tfK/2) = 12,383 -
Base details:
Base ring thickness: material
,190 + 3,670 = 14,863 lb/in.
C,
S a = 16,700
psi
no wind, 22,200
with wind.
required? = 14,863/13,700 + 0.0625 = 1.085 +0.0625 = 1.147
in.
Wind + operating weight:

Use
(b)
-in. -thick plate.
Leeward
side:
Code allowable
12)]
=(7rXB.C.X2,515)/(AfXSa )
ft
= (ttX 11.5 X 12X 2,515)/(20X 15,000) = 3.62
stress
Windward
Required bolt area:
side:
(a)
bolt
= 3,158- 643 = 2,515 lb/in.
lb/in.
required/= 10,149/13,700 + 0.0625 =0.740+0.0625 =0.803
At section
accommodate anchor
Tension:
3:
Windward
(a)
psi.
w + ld =
stress,
B=
12,383 +
13,700
psi.
,190 = 13,573 lb/in.
Actual
11.5
/U 2 )
+ (643 X
1 1
.5/1 1)
= 4,122
P = Qw + W/* = 4,122/9.5 =0.435 kips

t/2
2
=1.48
=(0.15 X 0.435 X 6.125 X 20/22.2)
tb
psi
lb/in.
Bearing pressure:
stress:
S c = 13,573/1.125 = 12,064
w +/d =(3,158 X
Use
j-in.-thick plate.
in.
psi
134
135
Weight only:
=(0.15 X 0.071 X 6.125
tb
X 20/16.7)
1'
=0.67
in.
Skirt -to-base weld:
leg size
Use
-in. fillet
Top
(/
w +/ d )//w = 4,122/(2 X
weld
all
around on both
1.33
X 13,700 X 0.55) =0.21
in.
sides.
ring thickness:
- [(4.13 X 15,000 X 4 X
tr
Use
in.
.25)/(4
X 20,000 X
3.5)]
'2
.05 in.
thick plate.
All other dimensions taken
from Table A3.1
at the
back of
this
book.
(d) Stresses at sharp cone-cylinder intersection of skirt support

stress formulas and their derivation see Section 8.6):
shown
in
4.24 (for
At the cone-cylinder intersection:
D = 69.75
in.
a = 15 degrees
n =
Windward
side, tension:
= lw
Pe =
Leeward
side,
= 12,383
- ld
1,190= 11,193
lb/in.
Otm
=Pe Y(filty/2
778 X 0.088 (34.87/1 .375)^ = - 8743
(41/D) = 642 psi
and
8,743 - (25,254/2) = - 21 ,370 psi
psi
< 1.33S
< 2Sa
compression:
Stresses in conical shell
l
=-13,573
Pe =-778
lb/in.
psi
S l n cos *
o L = CPe*/0 K
= (-778 X (34.87/1 .375)
Stresses in cylindrical shell:
= -25,629
o L =(/V?/0(0-5
= (-778
[(0.5/1
-5,155
and
X 0.964)
0.155 V34.87/1 .375
psi
Xy/Rft)
X 34.87/1.375)
= -25,254 psi
psi
and
(0.5
0.155
+ 5,524 psi
V34 .87/1.375)
o p =- 8743 psi<1.335
,
fl
and
8,743 - 25,629/2 =
21,560 psi<25
fl
136
5.

Due
Deflection
to
Wind Corroded Condition
Wind
load
Wind
Wind shear
Maximum
ot inertia
/(ft
(Ib-ft)
deflection at the top:
7=12.5
Remarks
12.5/1.70 = 7.35
= 29 X 10 6 psi
= 4.176 X 10 9 psf
ttr^t
0.733 X 10
per 100
6.
12,150
ft
40--1
thk
SO' -} thk
6.48
6,480
6
3.53 X 10
39,420
1,350
40,770
3.935 X 10
= 30.6
Fig. 4.25.
70
4.176 X 10
[2.079 X 10
X 3.19
X 10*
4.176 X 10* X 4.63
73 =
X 70
[2.079 X 10
[
3
3
L
f3.29X 10
X 50
~iH
= 0.0678
4
1.215 X 10
X 50
7.33
tMm
J=0-'21
6
2.076 X 10
6.48X 10 3 X 40
X 40
X 10 5 1
i
8
ft
0.0892
X 6.98
10
3.9
70 X 50
9
X 4.63
40
4.176 X 10
X 10 3 1
X 10 4 X 10
\2S.079
160 X 10
X 10
3.29
["
1.215 X
+
X 50
X 10 4 X 10
_ [3-94 X
L
10
X 50
3 .53 X 10
+ j
0.0015
+ 7.33X 10 s
0.2451
6
6.48
X 10 3 X 40
4.176 X 10 9 X 30 .6
X 6.48
X 10 3 X 10
1.35
4.176 X 10 9 X 30.6
4.176 X 10
X I0 2
4.176 X 10
10
2
X 10
1.35
=0,
=0.4926
+ 2.076 X 10 6
]
X 10 3 X 10
+ 3.53 X 10
=0.0467
1.045
client).
Fundamental Period of Vibration Uncorroded Condition
10*-lf thk
2.076 X 10
in.
of height in corroded condition (approved by
4.63
32,940
in.
= 5,000
20,790
20,790
4.25)
Moment
moment
Qdb]
{lb)
(Fig.
ft
Fig. 4.26.
70'
{Fig.
-| thk
4.26)
137
OESIGN OF TALL CYLINDRICAL SELF-SUPPORTING PROCESS COLUMNS
138
Wind moment
Deflections.
12.765
y
ya
X 10 6 X 10 3
z
29 X 10 6 X 144
4.236 X 10
yb ~
X 10
0.4769 X 10
29 X 10
X 10
X 144
Stress range
1
29 X 10 6 X 144
w
(kips)
36.68
12.17
95
70
S.F.
of cycles to failure:
=20;
1.37
0.03
.125
further stress check
is
required.
= AMf%
0.030
8.
2
X 752,175/5.5 =2,635
= 4,685
2.0.
9
4,685)* = 4.06 X 10 cycles.
A720 = 2.03 X 10
X 10 8 X
.
.8/3,600)
X (1/24 X 356)
82
30
3,485
127,815
852
112
10,368
stress at
any point
in the vessel should
not exceed 0.8 5^ during the
allowable:
Yield strength:
S a = 13,700
psi
Sy = 30,000
psi
154
Maximum
0.9
allowable ratio of hydrotest stress/design stress:
138,337
4,449.9
0.8
X 30,000
13,700
Period:
Pressures in the vertical
T=
column during hydrotest
1/2
- 1.783 sec/cycle
2^(138,337/386 X 4,449)
h
Say
7.
T-
1.85 sec/cycle.
Investigation of Possible Wind-caused Vibrations
First
wind
critical velocity:
V
Second
=3.40c?/T = 3.40
6.38/1.85 = 12.0 mph.
critical velocity:
V2 =62SV =6.25 X
l
12 = 75
mph > 60 mph.
Equivalent load at top:
F = 0.00086X
Moment
at
35 X 6.38 X 170 X 12
=4,685
lb.
bottom T.L.:
FX
160 = 752,175
lb-ft.
= 12 years.
Field Hydrotest in Corroded Condition
Wy 3
Wy
lb/in.
psi.
N = (780,000/2 X
Safe vibration time: (2.03
Maximum
no
hydrotest.
y
(in.)
X 2,635/1
Stress concentration factor 0
Maximum
POINT
Sr =
1020 X 10 3
yy *
higher,
it
Number
is
Longitudinal cyclic stress at BTL: 0.106
29 X 10 6 X 144
6
computed
Estimated cyclic lifetime:
'
= 3.056
as
139
Fig. 4.27.
(see Fig. 4.27):
140
Minimum
test pressure at top:
1 .5
Liquid static head to section 2: 71
X 220 =
.4
330
X 0.434 =
Test pressure at 2
Liquid static head from 2 to 3: 50
X 0.434 =
Test
Liquid static head from 3 to 4:
pressure at
40 X 0.434
Test pressure at 4
Liquid
static
head from 4 to bottom:
.4
Maximum
_31
361
Clips for platforms and ladder (estimated)
_22
383
Platforms 3, 3
J8
Ladder 20
401
Operating liquid on trays,
X 0.434 =
Test at bottom
Insulation, cold, 5 in. thick,
425
psig
90
X 35
ft
lb/ft
lb/ft
X 70
(6,300)
ft
(2,650)
lb/ft
(5,000)
X 70
,482 lb/ft
X 45 X
> 402 psig.
660
thick,
in.
Tray support
X 50
lb/ft
25
rings,
800
Manholes, 2, 20-in.,
(27,000)
(14,000)
WQ
Shell,
(4 + 1)/12
X 45
Trays, 310 lb/tray
,400)
(1
ft
402
allowable test pressure for 150-lb
flanges at bottom:
X 25
Piping (estimated)
1
-
500
500
Nozzles (estimated)
psig
at section
94,8501b
33,000
ft
900
35 lb/ring
lb
X 2
,600
500
500
Nozzles (estimated)
Pressure stress ratios for shell:
Clips (estimated)
P(R, + Q.6t)lt
PH (Rt
Sa E
+ 0.6t)
Insulation, 50-ft
<
?5
Platforms, 2
S a Et
X 90
2
25
ft
(4,500)
lb/ft
X 35
lb/ft
(1 ,750)
(3 ,000)
Piping (estimated)
At section
T>
SeCti n 3:
At section
361 (33.063 + 0.6
n
RT
2
2:
13J00 X
=
.0
X 0.5625)
= 137
"
X 0.5625
^L^1
401 (33.063 + 0.6
RT
4:
Operating liquid,
AC
^^
<
A 52
,482 lb/ft
<
W0
900
1.75
ISEt
90
Insulation,
1.0
Platforms, 2
1.125)
1.125
"
0^7 <
.75
lb/ft
X 25
X 40
ft
X 20
Trays, 3 10 lb/tray
Approximate Weights for Design
Shell,
Top
in.
,700
(3,600)
ft
35 lb/ft
(1,750)
(3,000)
(1 ,000)
lb/ft
lb/ft
X [() X 20 +
(27,000)
10]
X 20
(6,200)
WQ
Base
(Fig. 4.23)
in. thick,
thick,
700
1
at section 5
246,8501b
Support
To section 2
Top head, |
36,000
ft
Piping (estimated)
ft
164,9001b
500
500
Operating liquid, 1,482
W0
X 40
Tray supports, 35 lb/ring X 20

Manholes, 2, 20-in., 850 lb X 2
Ladder, 50
(1) Operating weight
lb/ft
at section
Clips (estimated)
9.
(7,800)
nc
"
ne
(15,500)
X 25
Shell, 1^- in. thick,
=
0.876
X () X 25
Nozzles (estimated)
402 (66.125 +0.6X

^=
X
X 13,700 X
At bottom:
1.125)
(1,000)
ft
P(Pt + 02t)
RT
For head:
X 50
Trays, 310 lb/tray
383 (33.063 + 0.6X 0.8125)
13,700X 1.0X 0.8125
.
ne
<lM
Ladder, 20 lb/ft
141
472
lb/ft
ellipsoidal
X 70
ft
200
demister with support
Tray supports, 2 in.
Manholes, 2, 20-in., 750
in. thick,
lb
,200 lb
33,000
35 lb/ring X 45
1,600
1
,500
skirt, flared
ring,
top
to 11
ft, I
in.
15 ,000
thick
3,000
ring, stiffeners
Fireproofing, 4
in.
(10,000)
thick
Operating liquid in bottom head
Bottom head, 2
ellipsoidal,
(1 ,500)
^ in. thick
WQ
2,400
at base
278,7501b
142
(2) Erection weight:
Shop
(3)
We
= 134,8001b,
no
We
* 162,800
with trays.
lb,
trays
test weight:
WT
= 134,800 + 162
,482 lb/ft = 375,000 lb.
ft
14,400
lb
+ 122 X 1,482
(4) Field test weight:

H/ r
= 278,750 lb-
ins.
lb/ft
=445,150
lb
Remarks
10.
1. When computations for shell thickness were first computerized, the tenin. to save on material as much as
dency was to step up the shell wall by
possible. The result was too many shell sections with different thicknesses. This
did not prove to be most economical and practical for fabrication and deflection
computations. Usually, to divide
proved to be
a. tall
column
into three to five sections has
satisfactory.
ASA A58. 1-1955 was used in computing the

The
unit
load w can be computed by the standard
unit wind load in Fig. 4.23.
the computation procedure of the shell
effect
on
1-1972
without
any
ASA A58.
2.
For simplicity the standard
thickness.
3.
These computations cover the general features of the design.
It is
expected
that careful attention will be given to the preparation of the weld and other
details, as well as to materials quality control, fabrication, inspection,
4.
As
and
tests.
previously mentioned under the skirt design, for support skirts lapped to
the cylindrical shell above the tangent line, the localized bending stresses in the
shell
duelo
acceptable.
the forces normal to the shell surface are small and are considered
The Code formulas can be
used.
For the support
skirts
butted to ellipsoidal, torispherical, or toriconical heads
below the tangent
lines,
the longitudinal
membrane
spherical shells, is readily calculated (pressure stress
and
membrane and bending stress

component normal to the head surface. The com-
tangential stress will consist of
axial loads.)
The
components
due to the force
putations
stress, as in cylindrical
+ longitudinal stress due to
become complex. However, for 2
and toriconical heads with
similar large
ellipsoidal
knuckle
heads (also torispherical
radii) the tangential
membrane
minimized and the Code formulas can be used if the connecting weld is
or near the head tangent line and if the centerlines of the supporting skirt and
stress is
at
the shell coincide.

5.
The Code
basic allowable stress
Sa
in
compression and in tension for loads
combination with wind loads has been increased (1983) by 20 percent. However, the maximum allowable vessel deflection due to wind load will govern in
in
most
cases.
5
Supports for Short Vertical Vessels
5.1.
SUPPORT LEGS
located on the ground and United
Small and medium-sized vertical vessels,
on uniformly spaced
5.1 are usually supported
the dimensions given in Table
above
located
short vessel is
o umns called support legs. If a
by piping to a reciprocating machine
connected
if
or
construction
tural steel
vrb rat on
supported on a skirt to avoid any
(piston compressor), it is usually
vends
larger-diameter
for
even
vessel,
the
problems. To allow good access under
wind, unless
held to four, braced against the
fhe number of the support legs is
be avoided.
a larger number of legs cannot
I-shapes.
support legs are equal leg angles and
for
The structural shapes used
shown
are
shell
angle supports to the vessel
The two different ways to weld the
the
resisting
in
offers a greater moment of inertia
in Fie 5 1 The position in (a)
the
to
adjusted
be
to
the angle leg has
external loads on the vessel. However,
for
used
are
I-shapes
larger and heavier vessels,
shell curvature for welding. For
to
*^<^
support
weld them to shell as shown

Again there are two possible ways to
the shell, but support lep
The I-shapes in (b) are easier to weld to
legs.
in Fig
5 2
welded
as in (a)
can carry
much
Their required
heavier eccentric external loads.
Table 5.1.
PRESSURE
VESSELS
Maximum/)
Maximum H\D
STORAGE
TANKS
'"
l2
6'0"
as rccl uifed
Maxi mum/.//)
Number of legs:
tf = 3for_)<3'6"
N-4
N=6
for
D>
or 8
Maximum
if
3'6"
required
operating temperature = 650
143
144
SUPPORTS FOR SHORT VERTICAL VESSELS

X
line
of the vessel
shell.
145
This eliminates the eccentricity e in the column and
base-plate computations.
The immediate task of the designer
is
to determine
by
a stress analysis the re-
quired dimensions of the following parts:
1.
support-leg columns,
2. base plate,
weld
size,
4. leg-to-base plate
weld
3. leg-to-shell
size,
5. stresses in the vessel shell at supports,

6. size
of anchor bolts.
Support-Leg Columns
The loads imposed on support legs are vertical and horizontal, due to weight and
wind or seismic forces. The wind force P w is computed by multiplying the
vertical projected exposed area of the vessel by the wind pressure for the location times the shape factor. The minimum wind pressure is usually taken as
20 psf, which corresponds approximately to a wind velocity of 100 mph. If the
Fig. 5.2.
vessel is located in
acting
adjusting of the flange to the shell contour can be minimized
with narrow flanges. Occasionally
shown
in
Fig. 5.3.
Round
pipe
steel pipes are
is
particularly suitable for a
possesses a high radius of gyration in

resistance.
The
inside of a
column pipe
all
is
by using shapes
used for large storage tanks, as
directions
column, since
and has good
it
torsional
usually left unpainted, since the seal
welds on both ends will be adequate for protection against atmospheric dampness and corrosion. Centroidal axes of pipes used as legs coincide with the center-
on the
region subjected to earthquakes, the seismic force
vessel will
Pe
be equal to the weight of the vessel times the earth-
quake coefficient c described in Chapter
The computed wind load
is
horizontal and
is
assumed to be acting
centroid of the projected exposed surface. The earthquake load
Pe
in the
also acts
horizontally on the center of gravity of the vessel (see Fig. 5.4).
no additional moments from piping or other equipment

The tops of the support legs are assumed to be welded to a
rigid vessel wall that is actually flexible. The anchor bolts are initially pretightened> and as long as some compression between the base plates and the
Generally, there are
to be considered.
foundation exists due to weight and the
initial
bolt load, the vessel will have a
tendency to overturn about the axis A-A (Fig. 5.4) as a neutral axis and the
columns due to the overturning moment b will be proportional

from the axis ^4-^4
The vertical reactions C in compression and T in tension at the support base
consist of (a) vessel weight, assumed to be equal to W/N and (b) reaction to the
reactions in the
to the distance
overturning
moment Mb
Using Table 5.2, the following results can be derived. The

leeward side (compression) is
maximum
axial load at the
C0
1
Fig. 5.3.
= (W0 /N) + (4Mb /ND b )
CT = WjjN
operating conditions
test conditions.
total
146

The maximum
axial load
T0
on the windward
"(W
side (uplift)
(4Mb INDb )
W0
direction
or
and P2
The eccentric loads
P.. or
WT
H
at
column top
are
{WJN) + (4MJND)
?! =
WT/N
test conditions
P2 -
HMJND) - (W0 IN)
or quake
T.L.
P2 =4(MJND)- (We /N)

Section a-a
empty.
î =
of wind
is
Te = - (We IN) + (4Mb /NDb )

P =
147
empty.
For computing the lateral load F per column from the force ?, the deflections
of all columns under load P are assumed approximately equal to
at the base
'-
'I
F = jP//2/
f,
column
column cross section about the axis

perpendicular to the direction of the wind or earthquake and 2/ is the summaabout the axes
tion of the moments of inertia of all column cross sections
where /
Elevation
Moment
Moment
at base:
at T.L.
Mb
Ma
= ^(W +
= PH
L)
is
the
moment of
inertia of the
perpendicular to the direction of the wind or quake.

Fig. 5.4.
To determine
the
maximum
stress in
column
the
column
size has
to be
first
selected. Because of number of variables a direct choice of the size is not feasible
and successive trials must be made to select the most economical and safe
Table 5.2.
Maximum
Vertical Reaction
Overturning
3 columns
Moment
R on Support Column Due to
section.
M about Axis A-A.

8 columns
6 columns
4 columns
Combined Column
(a)
Stress in Compression.
Operating conditions:
= W/06
R = 2M/3A,
M
The above
results can be expressed
by the general formula
RDb +
2(Ft/2){Db /2)
R = 4MINDb
R = M/2Db
where
is
the cross-section area of the shape.
fb = [/V/(/] +
Bending:
where Ix jc
length
fa - CjA,
Axial compression:
is
the section
f L was
the leg base.
modulus
resisting
bending of the selected shape. The
arbitrarily selected to reflect the partial restraining influence at
148
(b) Test conditions:
is
prevented by diagonal bracing, both ends are partially rotationally restrained
and
Axial compression:
fa =
WTINA.
Bending:
fb =
WT e/N(Ix lc).
Maximum
Fa
Since the allowable unit stress

to the allowable unit stress
Fb
in
the concrete foundation so that the concrete
The loads used

for axial loads only
bending in the absence of an
is
not equal
axial load, the
value should the total
the smaller allowable value usually being the axial allowable stress
However, a more widely used procedure

used in AISC
Handbook
without determining
[34]
is
They
are
Fa
the straight-line interaction
in
dimensions for base plates are usually selected. I-shape columns are used for
and the stress distribution between the column and the base plate
and between the base plate and the concrete pedestal cannot be accurately
determined analytically. However, under an axial column load alone the bearing
larger loads,
pressure between the base plate and the concrete base
formly distributed. The
method
method of determining the limit stress,

is based on the assumption that if a
member
has been used for axial comof a
The anchor
maximum
bolts
is
total
NFj
downward
in the
is
assumed to be uni-
load on the foundation
is
the
anchor bolts and the column loads. The
usually not too large, and the effect of
is
sum of
size
neglected.
compressive unit pressure between the base plate and concrete
may be
of
The
is
used for bending:

This equation can only be used
KfJFa) + ifblFb )]
<
fJFa < 0.15
for
{(falFa )^[Cm fb l(\'fJF'e )Fb }}<\

For good design the expressions on the
left
for
if
Clab>P
practical cases, but the difference
fJFa >QA5.
where the anchor bolts
should be close to one. The value of
can be taken as 0.6Fyy the yield strength; the reduction factor Cm conservatively equals one. The allowable stress Fa as well as F'e can be obtained
Fig. 5.5
first
and
ref.
are
is
not required to
selected to suit the
column shape.
computed on the basis of wind or seismic loads in combination with dead loads.
The end conditions of the support legs, which specify the effective length factor
k, have to be evaluated by the designer and are subject to differences of opinion.
The bottom end of the leg is flat-ended and bearing against the foundation. The
moment
it
resistant. Theoretically,
such a
kicks out and bears only on one
edge instead of on the whole surface. In practice, a fla>ended column
>
is less
end than required for full fixity. The support leg can therefore
be approximated by a column with end conditions between one end guided,
the other at the base fixed (k = 1) and one end guided, the other end hinged
(k = 2). The value of k = 1.5 is recommended here. If the translation of the top
resist
is
true in
most
make possible a base plate

the moment Pj (cf/2), (see
108). Dimensions a and b in Fig. 5.5 for the base plate are
from the AISC Manual; they depend on the slenderness ratio kL/r
Fy The allowable unit stresses Fa> Fbi
kL/r
and
b and the yield strength
and F'e can be increased by one-third if the calculated stresses fa and fb are
equivalent to a fixed end, unless
(dl7)j(a bi6) since a tensile stress
small enough to
directly
anchor bolts are rarely designed to be
cannot develop between the base plate and the concrete. This
Fb
is
legs.
the principal stresses,
pression load, the remaining percentage
end
not overstressed and to accommo-
connection with angle support legs are too low and practical
the initial tensile load
This
certain percentage of the strength
flat
is
shop welded to the support
combined compressive stress

require that f should be no larger than the smaller
in
of the allowable values of Fa or Fb would certainly be conservative and easy to
apply. Specifications of some engineering companies do make this requirement,
now arises to what

column / be limited. To
question
k could be assumed.
Base plates are primarily used to distribute large, concentrated vertical loads into
date the anchor bolts.
column
in
a smaller value for
Base Plates
Compressive Stress in the Column:
f = fa+fb
149
restrained at the
section
Fig. 5.5.
150
The load
moment Pj(d/2)
and the
moment
base reacting
assumed to be counteracted by. the
K dimension
crete pedestal. Base plates
the uplift condition.
Ce=P>(d/2)
The required
are
Ce:
e=P
or
d/2C.
computed
Minimum
Leg-to-Shell Connecting
Weld
Under onerating conditions
in Fig. 5.5 is
in this
manner
base plate thickness
is
151
are usually satisfactory for
not
less
than 0.5
in.
Size
in Fig. 5.4, the shear in the
weld
is
J>3[(*/2)-]
The bending
and from
stress is
/-[(ca/2) + (ra/4)]/z Wf
K=C/(pbl2)
the bearing pressure
where Z w
combined
is
Pmax
=2CIKb<Fb
= 0.25
is
the linear section modulus of the weld (see Table 10.3).
stress in the
weld
Fb
is
the
Manual Section
Base-Plate
method
is
maximum
.5.5.
allowable bearing pressure on concrete, per
To determine
usually used
the
base
plate
[34]. First, the dimensions
thickness
and n
the
size
of the weld leg
Second, the projected portions
column base
plate thickness
is
0.80/1).
or n, depending
computed
as
uniformly loaded
on the position of the
as follows:
2
S b =MlZ = (pmV2)Ktll6) = (3pm )ltl
tb
=m (or )X(3p/5 6 )
1/2
is
Base-Plate
and n are considered
in Fig. 5.5 are
= \{a- 0.95d)
cantilever beams. Using the dimension
is
w=///w
where fw
n = \(b-
I-shape, the
The
AISC
computed:
l/2
A1SC
Otherwise the dimensions a and b have to be increased.
Thickness.
total
/=(/W 6)
where
The
is
the allowable unit force for
fillet
welds.
Attachment Weld
The column base plate and the column with milled end are in contact when
welded and the vertical force and moment are directly transferred from the
column into the base plate. If the column end is not milled the connecting
weld must transfer the entire column load into the base plate.
The uplift forces T0 and Te and the shear force Fare usually not large enough
to govern the weld size and the minimum size of \ in. continuous or intermittent weld
is
satisfactory.
in.
Stresses in the Shell
where S b is allowable bending stress for the plate material (for carbon structural
steel S b = 0.6 times the yield strength), and
p = C(2K
is
short vertical drums are usually welded to the shell in the region reinforced by
the end closure. In addition to the general longitudinal stress in the shell, high
m)ibK 2
the average bearing pressure acting across the projected length of m.
The computation assumes
that the base plate
is
Unfortunately, an exact, workable, analytical solution of the local stresses at

the leg-to-shell junction is not available at present time. The support legs for
in full contact
with the con-
localized stresses are
of the average
imposed on the
maximum
shell
stress in the shell
through the welded joint.

can be made
as follows.
An
estimate
152
Anchor Bolts
Size of
leg-to-shell
153
Anchor
bolts are designed to resist the uplift forces and to secure the legs in
position.
The shear load
Ab
tension area
per leg
is
is
small and
given
is
resisted
by
friction.
The required bolt
by
A b =(MNSa )[(4Mb !D b )-W]
in.
where
W = either operating weight W0

Sa =
or
empty weight We lb,

empty conditions
,
allowable tensile stress under operating or
N = number of leg supports.

If W> 4Mb /D b no uplift exists and
the
minimum
for bolt,
practical bolt size, usually
f -1 in., can be selected.

The approximate maximum
(a)
a-a in Fig. 5.6.
general longitudinal stress in shell at section
is
5.2.
2
Sl = (4MJirD tE) + (PDjAtE)
where
E is
the shell weld joint efficiency and

2
S L = (4MJnD
The maximum
(b)
section b-b
1)
P is
+ (WltnD)
Support Lugs without Stiffening Rings
in tension,
Support lugs
operating pressure, or
medium
in
5-2).
compression.
localized stress to cause buckling above the leg top at
is
They
are usually
is
ft)
and moderate height-to-diameter ratio (H/d-
supported on structural
steel or
columns.
If the operating
high, thermal expansion of the shell cannot be absorbed
by
tips
of the gusset
for axially loaded cylindrical shells
compression
where
l/a
L 2 = ft + 2(Rf)
is
the effective resisting length.

(c)
shell
The moment [(FL/4) + (Cd/2)] can be used for determining the

by method discussed in Chapter 7 or in ref. 105.
If the resulting stresses in the shell are
is
stresses in
too high, a reinforcement by rings or
forcing pads must be provided. Increased thickness of the
often sufficient to decrease the stresses.
bottom
the
supporting structure, and high stresses would consequently be induced in the

shell, special sliding bearing plates are provided to reduce friction (see Fig. A 4.1
Appendix A4). On small drums the top bar in Fig. 5.7 can be omitted. On larger,
heavy vessels high localized stresses would develop at the
=PjL 2 t
< maximum Code allowable stress
(Fig. 5.7) are limited to vertical pressure vessels with small to
diameters (1-10
temperature
Sc
in
(W/tirDE)
SUPPORT LUGS
reinSection a-a
shell section
Fig. 5.7.
Detail of support lug.
F=
load per lug
154
plates.
The base
plate has to
accommodate one
or several anchor bolts. It could
uniformly loaded rectangular plate with one edge free and

other three supported. The gusset plates can be assumed to be eccentrically
loaded plates. Combined stress in one gusset due to the load F/2 consists of
be
checked
stress
bending
stress
as a
and direct compressive
d = Rd sin a
(F/2)
and the
maximum
stress.
compressive stress
From
and
Fig. 5.7,
= F/2
sin
is
S c = {RjL ^^(eRelL^g).
The
gusset thickness tg
is
then given by
= F(3d- b)lSa b 2
sin
where 5a is the allowable stress in compression.

The top bar can be assumed to be a simple supported beam with uniformly
distributed load Fdjh. The bar thickness ta is then given by
S = 6Mlt a c2 =
Fig. 5.8.
effective
(6lta c )(Fdal8h)
drum diameter
for
wind loads:
wind pressure per foot of vessel height:
De = 12.5 ft
w = 40 X 0.6 X
= 300
or
4
ta
tugs required.
= QJ5(Fda)IS b c 2 h
1.
Wind
loads.
where
'
c=2
Sb =
in.
DESCRIPTION
min. and 8r max.
the allowable stress in bending for the bar material.
The weld attaching the lug to the
vessel carries the vertical shear load
Wind on vessel
300 lb X 10 ft
Wind on frame
40 X 8 ft X 3 ft
k
Trolley 2 X 7ft
F and
moment Fd,
Example
12.5
lb/ft
5.1. Design the support lugs for the vertical
drum shown
in Fig. 5.8,
SHEAR
ARM
(kips)
(ft)
(kips-ft)
3.0
15.0
1.0
15.5
15.5
Pipe thrust
5.0
15.0
75.0
Total at lug
9.0
14.0
with the following design data:
design pressure:
P - 420
design temperature:
psig
150F
shell plate allowable stress:
Sa = 15,000
structural steel allowable stress:
pressure:
40
psf,
Maximum F force on one lug.
psi
Sa = 20,000
weights: operating, W0 = \22 kips

empty,
We =47 kips
wind design
119.5
psi
> WT
shape coefficient 0.6
F=(4MlNdb ) + (W0 IN)

= (4X
19.5/4
= 41 kips.
12.3)
+ (122/4) = 9.7 + 30.5
155
156

where allowable compressive
157
stress is
18,000
Sa =
Tj~\2
=9
'
885 P si
'
18,000 \r
(d) Size of the lug-to-shell weld:
/,
bending:
f2 = (41,000 X 15)/[15X 19 +
combined:
/=(/? +/1) ,/2 =
weld
w=
leg:
Use \
Fig. 5.9.
= F/L w = 41 ,000/(2 X 18 + 2 X 15) = 621
shear:
in. fillet
,640/0.55
weld both
lb/in.
2
(19 /3)] = 1,520 lb/in.
1,640 lb/in.
X (20,000 X
sides for
0.6) = 0.249.
top bar and base plate, \
in.
50 percent
intermittent for gusset plates.

4. Stresses in Shell (see
By
inspection, uplift
< 0.
minimum
Use
bolt size per lug =
in.
per lug.
3.
(a)
c = ^(1 5
Support lug
7).
X 20) I/2 =8.8,
0 = c/r = 8.8/57.7 = 0.1
5,
{Fig. 5,9).
y=
Base plate: Bearing pressure,
p = 41,000/12 X
Maximum
Chapter
diameter, one
15
=228
Maximum
r/t
bending
= 57.7/1. 625 = 35.5
stress:
psi.
a b -r
" Lt
stress in base plate [46]
o=Ppb 2/t 2 = 0.72 X 228 X

= 18,700 psi< 22,000
12 /1.125
Ml
~thf
= 0.355(41,000 X 15)/1.625 2 X 57.7 X 0.15
= 9,550
psi.
Combined
psi.
stress:
For 15/12 = 1.25.0 = 0.72.

(b)
Top
bar plate thickness:
ta
o = 9,550 + (420
=0.75 X 41,000 X 15 X 15/20,000 X 4 2 X 19

= 1.14
57. 8)/ 1 .625 = 24,490 psi
Supporting Lugs with Full Reinforcing Rings
in.
If stresses in the shell at the supporting lugs are too high
cannot
Use l -in .-thick plate 4
(c)
< 2Sa
in.
wide
satisfactorily
tionable (as
Gusset plate thickness:
on
be used, or
and a reinforcing pad
even a small deflection of the
shell
is
objec-
internally insulated piping), full circular reinforcing rings are
used.
As an additional safety
= 41,000(3 X 15
if
17)/9,885
X 17 2 X
sin
54=0.61in.
factor the stiffening effect of the adjacent shell zone
neglected and the required force and stress analysis
is
is
simplified. There are
158
several disadvantages to reinforcing rings as
compared with reinforcing pads
much
increased shell wall thickness. Since rings are
introduce discontinuity stresses
shell
shell
is
shell,
or
they
pressurized. At high operating
fins
either low-carbon structural weldable steel or of the
The
than the
and have to be properly insulated. They protrude

and can interfere with piping or other equipment. Material used is
temperatures they act as
from the
when the
stiffer
159
same quality
as the shell.
following example will describe the design procedure for sizing the ring
stiffeners.
Example
is
5.2.
vertical, 72-in.-o.d., internally insulated pipe section (Fig. 5.10)
to be supported
on two
lugs
with
maximum
W~
load
10,000
lb.
Determine
the size of the stiffener rings.
Description of the Procedure.
The
vertical force
W/2 perlugcan be assumed
by the shear in the welds connecting the gusset plates to the pipe.
The moment Wdj2 is carried into the rings as the force P equal to Wd/2(h + t r )
to be resisted
No
acting in the plane of the ring curvature.

to the plane of the ring
is
assumed. (The ring design can be used
mum
is
subjected to equally spaced forces
momenta,
is
at the points
is
7\
Pin
its
T stresses
P forces act
x
The
resulting
combined
is
is
induced
a)!2 =
K 2 P.
forces act outward or in compression
if
=(TJa) + (MJZ x )<S a
the cross-section area of the ring stiffener and
modulus about the axis x-x in Fig. 5.11.

between the loads
the centroidal radius of the ring.
in the ring at the load points:
stress at the load point is
ax
where a
={Pco\
the ring bar in tension if
plane, the maxi-
equal to 2a. In addition to the bending
inward.
of loads given by
My = \PR[{M<x)- cota] = K PR
where
is
as a circular
perpendicular to the plane of the ring curvature.) The force P acts radially
outward on the lower ring and inward radially on the top ring, as shown in
bending
a tangent (axial) thrust
angle between the loads
loading in the plane perpendicular
girder for large-diameter storage tanks where they are designed to carry loads
Fig. 5.11. If a ring
The
moment M
is
the ring section

at
midpoints
is
M
the axial thrust
Zx
The bending moment
=(PR/2)[l/sino- (1/a)]
=K PR
3
is
T2 =(/ /2)(l/sina)=/T 4 /
and the combined
maximum
stress is
=(T2 la) + (M2 IZx )<Sa
o2
The
shear
point of support
coefficients
stresses
is
and K A are evaluated in Table 5.3. The direct

not algebraically additive to the bending and tension
K 2 K 3i
at the load point
and
is
usually small
enough to be disregarded. The computed
stress in
neglected; however,
Fig. 5.10.
Pipe section of Example 5.2.
between the base
plates.
Top
ring
is
continuous, bottom ring
is
continuous
the ring will be smaller than actual, since the shell effect is
additional
the forces P are transferred into the rings eccentrically, causing
160

Values of
Table 5.3.
K lt K2 ,K z
and
KA
NUMBER OK
stresses.
SUl'l'OKTS
*>
0.318
0.0000
0.182
0.500
0.189
0.289
0.577
0.137
0.500
0.100
0.070
0.089
0.866
0.045
1.000
0.066
1.207
0.034
1.306
Substituting the numerical values h = 12
into the above equations:
the required
Zx
M,
in.
0.707
and d - 6
= 29,900/20,000 =
1.5 in.
3
.
in. at
load point
X 6/12) X 37.5 = 29,900 Ib-in. and

Use 3-in.-wide X -in. -thick ring.
= 0.318(5,000
6
Design of Saddle Supports for Large
Horizontal Cylindrical Pressure
Vessels
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
6.1.
Ideally, the saddle supports for long horizontal vessels should be located to cause
minimum
the
The
stresses in shell
and without required additional reinforcement.

is usually determined by the piping
actual location of the saddle supports
large horizontal cylindrical vessels are sup-
and platform layout. Most of the
ported by two saddles, preferably with 120 degree contact angle, usually on
concrete columns; sometimes the vessel can rest directly on two concrete piers.
Any
settlement of the supporting structure does not change the distribution of
the load per saddle. (If multiple supports are used the reactions at saddles are
computed from
the theory of continuous
as a safety factor for settling
The
cylindrical shell thickness
design pressure. Since the
maximum
the
beams and
increased
by 20-50 percent
of the supports.)
is
determined by the tangential stress due to the

longitudinal stress (PR/2t) is only half of
maximum
tangential stress, one-half the shell thickness
is
available for the
longitudinal bending stress due to weight or other loadings at the midspan or

in the plane of the saddles, assuming the vessel to behave as its own carrying
beam. The load must be transferred from the shell to the saddle. The saddle
reactions are highly concentrated and induce high localized stresses in the shell.
Their intensity changes with the distance of the saddles from the vessel end
closures
that
round. The
reinforce the shell with their
own
stiffness,
keeping the
shell
exact analytical solution of the localized stresses in the shell above
not at present available. The most fretheoretical conclusions supported by

with
quently used approximate analysis,
published
in ref. 53 and is substantiated in
measurements,
was
gauge
strain
the saddles
ref.
6.2.
102.
would be
The
difficult
discussion
and
it is
which follows
is
summary of this method.
MAXIMUM LONGITUDINAL BENDING STRESS
IN
THE SHELL
horizontal vessel resting on two supports can be analyzed as a
the uniform load of the weight of the vessel and
its
beam
resisting
contents by bending.
1C1
DESIGN OF SADDLE SUPPORTS
162
the expression in braces, depends on
assumed ineffective
The value of
portion of unstiffened
being the variable. All lengths are in feet
shell
2
modulus is taken as Z, =itr t
midspan is given by
in in.
^tUMjZi
3
;
and load
A\L with
in
163
the distance
pounds. The section
the resulting bending stress S,
at the
=\2QLKj4itr2 t
or
neutral
axis
B = angle of contact, degrees
H = depth of head,
ft.
b = width of saddle, in.

2A = effective portion of shell above
r
r
t
If
Schematic moment diagram
the total weight
is
2Q
ft.
- radius of shell, in.

= shell thickness, in.
= head thickness,
shell length,
r sin
in.
The maximum
stress
at
A/A
QL
4
+2[(R
{QLI4)
Maximum
and the equivalent length of the
midspan
maximum
compressive
vessel
is
taken as
6.1.
Longitudinal Bending Stress $[
-H
)IL
in
the Shell in the
Plane of the Saddle
The bending moment
in the plane
2Q
The maximum bend-
of the saddle
\2H
A2
^1
R2
equals:
H2]
+ [4///3Z,]
is
3
2
+ (4///3L)
lb-ft.
should not exceed the Code
It
(Courtesy of Welding Journal .)
8
2
(shell
lb.
."(HiG-')-T--^K-r)
L
bottom) or compression
either in tension (shell
is
stress for cylindrical shells.
If the shell section
L + 4tf/3
top).
Midspan
Longitudinal Bending Stress S! in the Shell at the
atmospheric pressure.
ft.
= load per one saddle,
The load and the moment diagrams are shown in Fig.

midspan.
ing moments occur over supports and at the
The bending moment
t psi.
dinal pressure stress
of the beam is w = 2QI[L +

L + (4/Z/3) in Fig. 6.1, then the weight per linear foot
only shear at the head-cylinder
(4/Z/3)]. The liquid in the heads can cause
force couple acting on the head.
a
adding
by
for
corrected
be
junction; this can
Maximum
lTir
Allowable Stress Limits.
= radius of shell,
L =
xQ =
Fig. 6.1.
The tensile stress +5j combined with the longituPR/2t should not exceed the allowable tensile stress of the
compressive
shell material times the efficiency of the girth joints. The maximum
under
stress -Sj occurs when the vessel is filled with the operating liquid and
saddle, rad.
(b)
=3QLK
Section a-a
Loads and reactions
(a)
2
)
4
A
4^4
above the saddle
is
unstiffened and forced to deflect, the
high local tangential bending
saddle render this sec-
tion ineffective in
arc of the unstiffened
shell in
bending
is
moments at the horn of the

bending to some degree. The effective
assumed to be
and the
effective section
modulus
Z2
can be determined from Fig. 6.1
164
Z2
165
The value of K[ the expression in the braces, varies mainly with the ratios ,4/Z,
and tf/Z, and the angle A. Both K and K[ can be plotted as constants for cerfor A"J and /?/L = 0.09
tain set of conditions. Assuming H = 0 for K and H =
as a maximum value, the values of K and A"J are plotted in Fig. 6.2.
If the shell is stiffened by a ring stiffener in the plane of the saddle or by
rings adjacent to the saddle, or if the saddle is close enough to the end closure
-lie,
A+
sin
A cos A
- (2 sin 2
A/ A)
r[(sin
A/ A) - cos A]
2
7rr
A+
sin
'[
A cos A
7r[(sin
- (2 sin 2
A/A)
A/A)- cos A]
(A
for the tension side.
The
stress
S[
is
<R/2)
tion
then
the effective angle 2 A extends over the entire cross section, the sec-
modulus
is
S[=\2M 2 /Z 2
3QL {4^4
"ir**fU
7r
A+
~H
)I2Al
l+(4/f/3L)
[
(sin
["
2
\-(AlL) + (R
sin
A/ A) - cos
A cos A -(2
= +3QLKllirrl t
sin
and the
maximum
stress
is
S[
11
psi.
A/A)jj
The

psi.
=\2M2 lnr2 t
tensile stress
S[ combined with the pressure
should not exceed the allowable tensile stress for the shell material
multiplied by the joint efficiency of the girth seam. Maximum compressive stress
S[ should be less than the Code allowable stress in compression.
stress
PR fit
6.3.
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESSES
The
IN
THE PLANE OF THE SADDLE
distribution and the magnitude of the shear stresses in the shell produced
how
the vessel weight in the plane of the saddle will depend a great deal on
by
the
shell is reinforced.
Shell Stiffened
the
Head {A
If the shell
by a Ring
>
R/2)
is
made
effectively resist
The load
in
in
The shear
rigid
Plane of the Saddle
enough with a
Away from
stiffener the
whole
cross section will
the load-induced shear stresses.
section a-a and
V -Q
in the
Fig. 6.3.
is
the total vertical load
is
on the
left side
of the ring
equal to
{2Qj[L + (4Z//3)]} {A + H) - Q(L
2A
H)I(L + H).
force across the section per unit length of arc (shear flow)
directly with the central angle
0 and
is
given by
q 0 = Ksin
<plnr lb/in.
q0
varies
166
167
^max. q 0 = Vhr
Fig. 6.4.
Assumed
saddle.
distribution of shear stresses in an unstiffened shell above the
(Courtesy of Welding Journal.)
Fig. 6.3.
Shear diagram lor shell stiffened with a ring in the plane of the saddle. (Courtesy
effective
of Welding Journal)
cross
2(tt- a) in
The
section
is
2A = (2*/ 180) [(0/2) +
assumed to be
Fig. 6.4. The shear diagram
is
the
same
(0/20)]
or
as for the stiffened shell,
the saddle equal to

with the summation of the vertical shear on both sides of
total vertical load
is
the load Q:
The shear
stress at
S2
any point adjacent to the
stiffener will
The maximum value
A" 2
With load
V on
one
side
2A
__j slM= ^l^___
(sin 0)/tt
2 sin 0,
occurs at 0 = 90 degrees and
K2
- l/n =
0.3192^-2^-^1
Q sin 02
and the shear
>
R/2)
or Shell Reinforced
L-2A-H
L+H
2A
H)I(L + H)]
psi
by Two Ring
Stiffeners Adjacent to the Saddle
Again the effective cross section of the shell resisting the shear stresses
maximum
is
stress is
S 2 = (K'2 Qlrt)[(L
Not Stiffened by the Head {A
j,
0 2 dfa =>.
of the saddle, the shear force
r(n - a + sin a cos a)
to be reduced, with the
rsin
Ksin 0 2
r(ir- a + sin a cos a)
0.319, hence
Shell
be
=Qolt= Vsm^/nrt
L
is
taken
shear at the tip of the saddle. The arc of the
where K'2 = sin 0 2 /(tt - a + sin a cos a). The maximum value of K 2 occurs
= 120 degrees, K 2 =1.171 and for B = 150 degrees, K\ =0.799.
0 2 = a, for 0
The angles
in
formulas with trigonometric functions are in radians.
at
Shell Stiffened
the saddle
If
168
head.
is
<
by Heads {A
in the shell plate
R/2)
end closure the
close to the
large part of the load
shell
is
169
and
stiffened on the side of the
inducing the tangential shears
will
rt h
be carried
across the saddle to head and back to the head side of the saddle, with an
assumed distribution
shown
as
head
in the
in Fig. 6.5.
forces q 3 due to the saddle reaction

shell slightly larger than the contact angle 0/2
The shear
arc resisted
by an arc
tt
plate,
where
of the saddle and arc acting
/sin
4*2
upward.
forces in the reinforced section q
components of both shear
tants of the vertical
arc acting
downward. The
sin
a+
/ \rr -
The shear
a-
\(
or
sin
a.
a cos
ctl
cos
resul-
forces must be equal:
The value of K\' is maximum when 0 2 = <*. For 6 = 120

K\ =0.880; for 0= 150 degrees, maximum X"'2 =0.485.
degrees,
maximum
'
(Q---^-^
(S j n
0j )rd(p
=
]
Q{a
- sin
or
cos a)lu
Allowable Stress Limits,
J"
The tangential shear
should not exceed 0.8
stress
times the allowable stress in tension.

^
2.
The shear
a-
lQ$$i\(
sin
o cos a
\
(sin
nr
\n
a+
stress in the shell arc
sin
a cos a/
from a
to
rdfa = Q(a
2 )
sin
a cos
or)/*.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT THE HORN OF THE SADDLE
6.4.
is
i\
<J>
given
The saddle reaction
by
causes tangential shear forces in the shell cross section in
the plane of the saddle, as evaluated in the previous section. These forces origi-
Iq
^ _
2
sin
7r/7
<fi
\ /
/
7r
sin
a+
ot
cos
nate tangential bending
a
j
sin
a cos a7
maximum
moments
bending
moments and bending
in
maximum
an approximate solution can be derived for
and
shell
Af0 =
moment^
|cos0
Qr
at
any angle
an unstiffened
6(sin0/0)
(sin 0/0) cos
The moment
M$
is
maximum
at
j3
0=
--(cos0-
is
cos/3
sin
/A
+ 2 cos 2 g
-
11
2
'
(sin 0/0) J J
0:
M& =Kt Qr
The shear
the
by
given
<p is
3 sin/3
0
-sm0-.
4-
shell,
stresses in
by its end closure (see Fig. 6.6).

portion of uniform cross section fixed at the saddle horns,
In the ring
K6
with the
a shell reinforced
circumferential
where
stresses in the shell,
of the saddle. Using the solution for bending

a ring with symmetrically applied tangential forces (q = Q sin <p/-nr)
stress at the tips
the expression in braces divided
lb-in.
by
it,
with 0 substituted for
<p.
forces in an unstiffened shell are not distributed as in a stiffened
but are more concentrated at the
tip
shear stresses but smaller bending stresses.
of the saddle, giving bigger tangential
170
To
in the shell in
fictitious resisting
width of
M$
shell plate
is
taken as equal to 4r or 1/2, whichever
Fig. 6.7.
0.7
0.6
0.5
and to bring the resulting

agreement with the actual measured stresses, a
be able to utilize the derived equation for
bending stresses
is
0.8
Plot of circumferential bending
1.0
0.9
moment
1.1
coefficient AT 3 for
1.3
171
maximum
stress at
saddle horn. (Courtesy of Welding Journal.)
smaller.
Further, to include the reinforcing effect of the head, the coefficient
equation forMp was adjusted to
K3
K6
in the
of the saddle, since the reaction
liberal value
The
is
located at the tip of the saddle. (A more
of QJ&\frt each side of the saddle instead of St can be used [125]
resulting direct stress
sc -
where
K = K6
K 3 =KJ4
2
>
for
A/R
for
A/R< 0.5
The
resulting
bending
plot of
Q
'
4/(* +
10f)
sum of the two stresses is maximum when compressive, pressure

do not add to the above stresses. The resulting combined maximum
the saddle horn is given in psi by
Since the
stresses
stress at
gradually increasing between the two values.
.)
is
is
shown
in Fig. 6.7
S* m
stresses in psi are
~
A
+ 10?)
4t(b

exceed
^
2f
forL>8*
The computed maximum
.25 times the allowable stress for materials
stress
with equal
53
should not
tensile
and com-
pressive yield strength.
The compressive stress due to the direct reaction P has to be added and was
assumed to be equal to QjA for shells without stiffeners. However, the resisting
width of the shell wall was taken only as the saddle width plus St on each side
Note
l.
5 3 may be reduced by using a wear plate between the saddle flange and the
The combined thickness of the wear plate and the shell can be used in the above
Stress
vessel shell.
172
The maximum
stress
width of
the wear plate extends O.lOr in. above the saddle tips and the minimum
should not exceed the
the wear plate is (b + 1 Or) in. The thickness of the added wear plate
sure stress in the head should not be larger than
shell thickness
able stress in tension for the
formulas
Note
if
2.
Due
t.
to the high concentrated local stresses at the saddle horns, weld
shell
should be located away from them.
6.5.
ADDITIONAL STRESSES
seams
flat
RING COMPRESSION
To compute
replaced by a
become varying
disk, the stresses
tension stresses
across the entire vertical cross section, permitting an approximate solution applicable to practical design purposes.
IN
in Fig.
6i
(cos0,)/"d0,
stress in the shell
band.
The maximum compression
be at the bottom at
will
\ffr
= (2/2) [sin 2
The
total force
is
be equal to H/2rt h
a/(7r -
resisted
.
^7
Lrr - Of
a+
sin
sin
cos a
<p 2
Assuming
7r.
The saddle reacO and do not
above that point
of the saddle
(<p
summation of
,4 at
an angle 0
The summation of the
- a).
in the shell
tangential shear forces
on the
shear forces at both
is
<t>
+ cos
a)/(7T -
a+
sin
cos a)]
)rd<i>:
cos a)]
by the area 2rt h and the average tension
maximum
the
<p
are perpendicular to the shell passing through the center
contribute to the shell compressive stress.

The total ring compressive shear force at any point
sides
(cos
with the
between the
and the saddle flange is assumed.

The sum of the tangential forces acting at both edges of the saddle on the shell
band directly over the saddle, as shown in Fig. 6.8, cause a ring compression
Tq = Q[(-cos
Sm
in contact
reactions a frictionless contact
shell
shell arc
^-sin^
band
the compression stresses in the shell
over the saddle will be equal to the
H=
allow-
THE SHELL OVER THE SADDLE
saddle and corresponding saddle
tions
The summation of the horizontal components across the section y-y

is equal to the resultant force H:
the pres-
maximum
head material.
A HEAD USED AS A STIFFENER
IN
The shear forces q and <? 3 in Fig. 6.5 have variable horizontal components
whjch cause additional secondary stress additive to the pressure stress. The induced stress in disheo heads would be a combination of direct membrane and
bending stresses and therefore difficult to evaluate analytically. However, if the
is
.25 times the
in the
6.6.
head
S 4 combined with
173
stress to
be
stress will
times the above
average stress, then
S4 =
(1 .5/2rr)(G/2)[sin
a+
sin
cos a)]
or
SA
=K 4 Qlrt h
where
Kt
(sin
a)/(;r -
a+
sin
a cos
a).
For 6 = 120 degrees,/^ =0.401, and for d = 150 degrees,
A" 4
=0.297.
Fig. 6.8.
Compressive load in
shell
and saddle reactions. (Courtesy of Welding Journal.)
174
with the
maximum
value at 0 -
T-
or
ir:
= Q(l + cos
a+
ct)l(ir -
sin
F = KS Q
cos a) lb.
where for d = 120 degrees,

If the effective resisting shell
compression
width
is
taken
maximum
b + lOf, the
as
stress in
is
Q
s
t(b +
175
+ cos a
100 L ff
a + cos a
"
=0.204, and
for 6 =
150 degrees,
K8
=0.260.
The effective resisting cross-sectional area of the steel saddle or of the reinforcing steel in a concrete support should be within r/3 distance from the shell.
Allowable Stress Limits. The average tension stress due to the force F should
not exceed two-thirds of the allowable tension stress of the saddle material, since
the tangential bending stresses which have been neglected tend to increase the
sin
Ks
total splitting force.
or
Ss
where for 6 = 120 degrees,
/C s
=K
Qlt(b + \Qt)
psi
6.7.
= 0.760 and for 6 = 150 degrees,
= 0.673.
DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS
If the
stresses
due to the saddle reactions become excessive and wear plate
dimensions too large, a ring stiffener in the saddle plane (preferred) or two
The maximum
exceed one-half the yield strength and
is
compressive
stress
S s should not
not additive to the pressure
used the combined thickness with the shell thickness can be used
for computing stress S s provided the wear plate extends r/10 in. beyond the
horn and its minimum width is (b + 10/) in.
From the tangential shear forces 7^ the radial saddle reactions R^ can be
wear plate
ring stiffeners adjacent to the saddle are used.
stress. If
is
Stiffener in the Plane of the Saddle
derived:
R<t>
(CM [(-cos 0
+ cos
= (G/'HO + cos /(
The horizontal component of

saddle with the
maximum
Fr =
r
Jp
[*
L
'
Fat
'cos
Q
x+
~ T
r{n- p + sin
<p
+ cos
(sin
sin
distribution of the tangential shears transmitting the weight
known and shown
in Fig. 6.9.
by shear
induced
in
moment
occurs at 0 = 0:
the ring
forces
is
M^K
cos 0)]
For 0 =
The equation
7r
the reac-
K6
for the
given in Section 6.4.
Q into
the ring
moment M0
The maximum
bending
Qr
=0.0528, and
for 6 =
150 degrees,
K6
=0.0316.
will
cause tension across the
the vertical centerline:
cos
(3
(3
is
0 + sin 0 cos 0)]
the reaction
splitting force
(3
for the angle a.
where the angle 0 was substituted

becomes maximum:
in lb/in.,
tion
(3)/( ff -
The
j3
^ (sm 0)r
.
Ja
cty
cos 0J
g)/2 I
7r~|3 + sin0cos/3
Fig. 6.9.
Forces acting on stiffening ring in plane of saddle. (Courtesy of Welding Journal.)
176
The
direct tangential force
Pp
Q
*
ir
where A/,
is
Ps
at the
point of
sin/3
/3
the bending
moment
at
<f>
is
given
max. R
by
min. 10r+6
cos0
ii - cos 0 +
c
- cos (J)
r(l
J
L 2(1
f
Ma
,__
- cos/3)
(M*p
M...
t)
= 0 or
i_
177
= 0.340, and for 0 = 150 degrees,
tf 7
=0.303.
2
Assuming the size of the reinforcing ring of a cross-sectional area a(in. ) and
3
combined
stress
in
the
ring,
of .the section modulus Z =//c in. of the ring, the
=
maximum at
j3, is
Fig. 6.10.
line
and
is
Two
stiffeners adjacent to the saddle.
given by
<l>
Mp =K' Qrln
6
S 6 ='(Ps Ia)[MQ l(I/c)]
where for d = 120 degrees, K'6 =0.0577, for 6 = 150 degrees,^ =0.0353, and
n is the number of rings used. The maximum tangential thrust Pp is given by
or
5 6 =-(tf 7 e/fl) lK 6 Qrl(!lc)]

The added
ring, usually
Pp =K'1 Q/im
psi.
of uniform cross-sectional area,
is
attached by welding
to the outside of the shell, so as not to obstruct the flow or prevent cleaning,
where for B = 120 degrees, K'n =0.265, for 6 = 150 degrees, K'n =0.228, andn
is
the
number of rings
The maximum combined
used.
and to the saddle horns.

S'6
Allowable Stress Limit.
The
stress
S6
in
stress in the ring
is
^-(Pp lna)[Mp ln(Jlc)]
compression should not exceed one-
half the yield strength in compression; the stress
S6
in tension,
with added pres-
or
sure tensile stress, should not exceed the allowable stress in tension.
S'^-iK'yQln^tlK'tQrMUc)}
The allowable
Stiffeners Adjacent to the Saddle
stress limit
is
the same as for the ring in plane of the saddle. -The
K coefficients for the above formulas are summarized in

The arrangement of two
Table 6.1
reinforcing rings adjacent to the saddle, for instance
for a thin-wall cylindrical vessel
supported directly on concrete
piers,
is
seldom
6.8.
used.
If the stiffeners are placed close to the saddle (see Fig. 6.10) the rings will
reinforce
psi.
the shell section between.
The
DESIGN OF SADDLES
Design Remarks
tangential shear stresses will be dis-
tributed in rings as in Fig. 6.3, in section a-a,
on the
However, the shear distribution on the saddle
side
side
away from
the saddle.
shown in Fig. 6.4 for unstiffened shells.

The maximum bending moment in the rings occurs near
The design loads
for the saddle supports are the operating weight,
combined
be
with wind or earthquake loads, the friction force between saddles and founda-
the horizontal center-
sion or contraction of the vessel shell if the operating temperature varies from
above the saddle
will
tion,
similar to that
and the
test
weight (see Fig. 6.11). The friction force
is
caused by expan-
Z co W
OJ
-Oq
179
<
y
H<
to
Earthquake P or
wind load
P_
C2C
>
H to fi
w
^w*
a: 0
5 - -
p.
2G
'o<2
weight
<
friction
force
z o-*
s
u.
z
uj
23
Elevation
*>
Fig. 6 1
.
to
Side view
^
1
Design loads for horizontal vessel support saddles.
atmospheric temperature. For small, temperature-induced, shell-length changes,

saddles with the supporting structure can be made strong and flexible enough
ow
to resist the thermal forces. However,
if a larger temperature movement of the

expected, a special self-lubricating bearing plate with a low friction
coefficient f0 must be provided to reduce the expansion forces. A typical
ar-
is
vessel
is
<z
rangement
I*to
Q
Usually, unless the location specially requires it, the wind load can be disregarded in computations. If the stresses due to wind or earthquake loads
are
<
is
shown
in Fig.
added to the other load
A4.2 Appendix A4.
stresses
the allowable stresses can be increased
by
one-third.
ft
d5
aL co
Material.
A
<
Steel plate materials
283 grade
or C, or for
able design stresses per
tension:
Z<
C 3
3 C C
bending:
t
^ r .pb
a5w*
stiffeners,
maximum
Saddle support components: the top flange, the web, the

and the base plate with connecting welds are investigated for the
stresses.
The wear plate between the top flange and the

Wh
-J UJ
O
QO
<Z
to
5
=5
=
1
to O
local concentrated stresses in the shell wall,

vessel.
<
ft r* ~i
5"
If
I*
*^
Li.
vi
516. Allow-
Stress analysis.
.is?
z"
O
a;
S b =0.66S v
II
<
construction of saddles are
Ss = OASyt
shear:
3 " E
2 to* O
in
Specifications:
S a =Q.6Sy
V*
.
AISC
commonly used
low design temperature (below 32F)
is
vessel, if
added to reduce the
considered to be a part of the
'
Top flange. The design width of the top flange varies from 8 to 18 in. For
computation of the thickness tfi the flange can be considered as one-inch cantilever strip of length b/2 or more accurately c. However, with
stiffeners and web
180
are as follows:
The design data

design pressure:
181
= 200 psig
design temperature:
300F
X-ray: full
saddle width: b = 12 in.
corrosion allowance: | in.

material: shell,
saddle,
vessel weight:
welded to the flange,

sides fixed
thickness
and one
tf, see ref.
The web
The
free.
latter
approach
carries the compressive load
Stiffeners reinforce the flange, the
weight and bending
is
more
from the weight
as well as
any bending
is
lb
A/L = 5/60 = 0.0833

Rfl. =6.05/60 = 0.10
Fig. 6.13.
(a) Stresses in shell.
web, and the base
plate.
moment
diameter and \
s =
'
due to the thermal expansion force at the saddle
in.
minimum
(1)
Maximum
longitudinal stress due to bending
at
the
Together with the
to be short columns, carrying the vertical load due to
for vessels
2ML .
nr
2
t
+ 3(0.65)(300,000)(60)
2
'
7T(72.625) (1)
6.12),
vessels
taken from Fig. 6.2. Longitudinal stress
in shell
due to pressure:
with diameter larger than
ft.
Base Plate.
lb
midspan:
The approximate number of stiffeners is /V = (m/24) + 1 (see Fig.

including the out-stiffeners. The stiffener thickness is \ in. minimum for
ft in
empty = 130,000
liquid =470,000
refined and gives a smaller
base.
52 and 109.
web they can be taken
to
60
gr.
can also be assumed as consisting of plates with three
it
due to thermal expansion force or earthquake.
up
gr.
total weight = 600,000 lb

load per saddle: Q = 300,000 lb
saddle angle of contact: 6 - 120 degrees
Typical detail of saddle support for large horizontal vessels.
Fig. 6.12.
SA 516
SA 283
SE =
Compressive bearing pressure between the base plate and concrete
assumed to be uniform and limited by the allowable bearing pressure on the

t b is computed the same way as the thick-
concrete foundation. The thickness
Total
(P/2t)(r + 0.6/) = (200/2
combined
1)(72.1 25 + 0.6) = 7,273 psi.
stress:
ness for the flanges.
Anchor
bolts.
Since the wind
moment
is
minimum
quake
7,213 + 2,120 = 9,333
not large enough to cause an uplift,
of the anchor bolts f -1 in. can be used to locate the saddles.

However, they must be designed to overcome any thermal expansion or earththe
psi
<
5,000
psi.
size
(2) Tangential shear stress in plane of saddle,^
>R/2,K'2
.171
forces.
'
Generally, the flange-to-shell weld
Welds,
is
continuous
all
around. Welds
connecting web to flange, web to base plate can be intermittent. Welds connecting stiffeners to the flange and to the base plates are continuous. Usually, the
minimum weld
Example
plate
6.1.
sizes
Determine
in.)
(a) the
maximum
stresses in shell,
and (b) the required

drum shown in
S *~
based on plate thicknesses are satisfactory.
thicknesses for the support saddle for the horizontal
Fig. 6.13.
'
(3) Circumferential
K'7Q\L-2A~h ]
rt
= 3,220
psi
bending
at
(1.171)(300,000)
L+H
< 0.8 X
15,000 = 12,000
(72.625)(1)
60 + 6
psi.
horn of saddle AjR = f = 0.833,

L = 60 > 8/? = 48,
reduce the stress use \-in. thick wear plate.
60-10-6
A" 3
= 0.041
To
182
S* ~
=
3K 3 Q
Q
"
4/(6+100
2,450
1 1
2t
,808 =
"
"
14,258
'
2(1
(4)(1 .25)(24.5)
< - 2SS a
1
(b) Saddle design.
3 (0.041) (300,000 )
300,000
.25
(-
25f
5,000) =
Q
-
18,750
"
[ir -
psi.
Ring compression
in shell over the saddle,
flange thickness
cos g
B + cos
300,000/
(4)
Top
(6)
(3
0.5 \
[it -
73.5
sin (3J
K$ = 0.760:
tf.
300,000
183
tt
+ (0.8 66) (-0.5)
101 .
Bending moment:
Mb = (PJb)(bl2)(bl4)=Pv bl& = (3,318)(12)/8 = 4,980

(5) Stresses in shell
lb-in.
due to temperature expansion (Fig. 6.14):

Flange thickness:
Expansion:
A/ = a/A7
= 7.10 X 10" 6
X 50 X
12 X (300- 70) = 0.98 in.

t
Provide lubrite plates at one saddle as shown
in Fig.
= (6MISa y 12 = [(6)(4,980)/(0.66)(30,000)]
1'
= 1.228
in.
A2, Appendix A4.

Use 1.25-in.-thick plate.
fQ ~
Friction coefficient:
Shear force
at the saddle base:
fQ
a=\X
r sin 60/ rad
60 = 60
friction force
/0 Q,
in addition
to the weight Q,
is
in.
minimum.
min. radius of gyration k = 0.289 t w
in
Bending moment f0 Q(%4 - x 0 ) = 30,000 X 24 = 720,000 lb-in. is counteracted

by the weight of the vessel, Qbjl. Use 8 1 \ -in .-diameter anchor bolts.
At the sliding saddle the nuts on bolts are hand tight and secured by tack
welding, while the nuts and bolts at the fixed-end saddle are fully pretightened.
The
thickness. Use i-in.-thick plate
maximum
Calculate the
allowable height A of a l-in.-wide strip column -in. thick under P. Area
XQ = 30,000 lb.
x0 ~
Web
(7)
0.10.
From
18,000
We
1+
l8 ,000 \kl
get
h = r w [(l,500//) 7r )(18 000/ w
transmitted into the
supporting structure.
Pn ))
!' 2
= 0.5[(1,500/3,318)(18,000X 0.5
= 25
in.
> 8.25
3,318)]
1/2
in.
centroid of
(8) Base plate thickness.
Maximum
S=M/Z =
stress:
(Ql2m)(bl2)l(tU6)
or
tb
Use
Fig. 6.14.
= [(Q^)/26,400m]
-in .-thick plate.
/2
= [(300,000)(12)/(26,400)(1 15)]
l'2
Bearing pressure:
300,000/(1 2)(1 15) = 220
psi
< 750
psi allowable.
in
184
(9)
Maximum horizontal
185
splitting force:
O.R. vessel
F = K&Q = (0.204)(300,000) = 61 ,200 lb.

Area required of bottom cross section:
F/(0.66X 18,000) =
5.5 in.
2
.
Area available (Fig. 6.15):
(a)
Flexible construction
Fig. 6.16.
12
Support Saddles of Nonrigid Construction.
Fig. 6.15.
In reference 153 a rigorous analysis of local stresses at saddle supports, welded
(12)(1) = 12
in.
to vessel shell or loose, has been developed
4.12
(0.5)(8.25)=
(12)(1.25) = 15.00
31.12
in.
On
this basis several conclusions
1.
= (73.5)(2)(tt/3) + (2)(12) = 178'in.
shear in weld = 30,000/178 = 170 lb/in.
if
and 128)
give
nonrigid saddles are used. In case of very rigid saddles, (Fig.
6.1
6b) the predicted stresses at the saddle horns underestimate the actual stresses.
2.
High circumferential and longitudinal bending stresses occuring near the saddle
horns can be significantly reduced by designing the saddle cantilever sections as

flexible (Fig. 6.16a). Clearly, the cantilever saddle sections
all
compared
can be made:
currently used analyses of stresses at saddles (references 53
The
reasonable results
Use -in. weld
results
(10) Welds connecting flange with wear plate.
total length
and the computed
with the experimental values.
around.
must be structurally
adequate and designed to take the load. They could be made flexible enough not
to rigidly restrain the vessel shell and so introduce a better distribution of strains
(11) Stiffeners.
N = m/24 +1=6
and
stresses
around the saddle horns.
An
additional advantage of this type of
would be a need for smaller sized steel or concrete supports. The latter
reason led some engineering companies to utilize this construction.
3. The vessels subject to steady operating pressure have enough built-in strength
saddles
including the end stiffeners. Spacing: about 23
=0.5
in.
to carry high peak horn stressed in excess of the estimated stresses to be consid-
in.
ered safe. However, the high peak horn stresses may

Notes to saddle design computations. (I) A more accurate estimate of plate thicknesses
and some resulting savings could be obtained by using more refined analytical procedures
instead of simplifications made in the above; however, it is questionable whether additional
work is justified in view of all assumptions that have to be made. (2) Structural steel is a
comparatively cheap material. If the utmost use is made of the material, any later changes
in the
design arc
bound
to
be very costly or the safety factor
will
have to be reduced.
become important
for vessels
subject to cyclic operating pressures. Generally, the use of very rigid saddles,
which
result in very high
horn stresses, as shown
4. Circumferential stresses
in Fig. 6.1 6b,
under the saddle flange are low.
should be avoided.
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
SHELLS DUE TO LOADS ON ATTACHMENTS
187
v-1
7
Local Stresses
in
Shells
Due
to
Loads on Attachments
nozzle wall, or by using

locally
INTRODUCTION
In addition to the stress concentrations at the shell openings induced

internal
shell thickness required for
opening:
by
the
operating pressure, the localized stress effects of external loadings
A =dX
structural attachments such as supporting lugs are of
on nozzles and
acting
heavier plate for the entire shell section or inserted
wind, weight, or earthquake loads in addition

pressure cannot be used for reinforcement
needed
for
to the shell thickness
other sort of reinforcement.
for
any
conditions,
or
operating
under
Standard practice in vessel design is to replace all removed metal area by an
Any
7.T.
around the opening.
primary importance.
where
High, concentrated stresses at such attachments due to combined internal

pressure and local external loadings such as piping reactions on nozzles, can be a
source of
proper reinforcement
failures if
is
not supplied. These stresses must,
therefore, be evaluated. Because of the lack of geometrical

theoretical analysis of such localized stresses
design work.
is
symmetry
complete
too complicated for practical
fully satisfactory analytical solution has
not yet been accom-
plished at the present time.
= the
total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required
d = the diameter of the

t
= the nominal
finished opening (corroded)
shell thickness, less corrosion allowance.
provided that the Code allowable stress for nozzle
Code allowable
stress for the vessel wall
Sv
If
Sn
is
Sn is equal or larger than the

smaller than S v then the area
of reinforcement required becomes:
limits present theoretical analyses provide the designer
However, within certain

with adequate design
criteria.
The methods described
A =dxtr XF + 2tn t r (l
and
in sections 7.3, 7.4,
SJSV )
7.6 can be used whenever external loads are transmitted into the shell, under
internal pressure or
no
pressure,
by
a nozzle or a clip.
The procedures
are not
applicable to shells with external design pressure, where shell buckling
occur.
7.2.
where
may
tr
= the required
tn
= the nominal nozzle
REINFORCEMENT OF OPENINGS FOR OPERATING PRESSURE
Openings
have to be reinforced for operating pressure (external or
in vessel shells
= (Nozzle
F = the
Code rules, which specify within certain limits the

amount of removed metal by the opening to be replaced. It must be adequate
internal) in compliance with
tall
column
is
the reinforcement of
to be hydrotested in a vertical position in the field,
all
openings must be sufficient for the
location. Essentially, the
weakened area
by a separate, welded reinforcing pad, by

an increased amount of weld metal, by excess thickness in the shell and the
is
usually provided
o.d. - d)/2
correction factor from Fig. UG-37,
when an
integral reinforcement
is
used.
in
mind
for design of efficient
reinforcing pads.
test pressure at the
reinforcement provides sufficient strength for the
to prevent excessive stress intensification around the opening.
Reinforcement
thickness, less corrosion allowance
There are three important points to keep
for the design temperature and the design pressure.

If a
shell thickness
1.
Do
not over-reinforce. Adding more material than required creates a too

vessel, and large secondary stresses due to shell restraint can
"hard" spot on the
be produced in consequence.
LOCAL STRESSES
188
Place the reinforcing material adjacent to the opening for effectiveness.
2.
Code section
1.7.
recommends placing two-thirds of the recfuired reinforcement
within a distance d/4 on each side of the opening.
Use generous
3.
transition radii (r 1
and
r 2 in Fig. 7.1)
the nozzle to minimize stress concentrations resulting
between the
from
shell
and
most
In
instances, the
moment M
From Section
stress
r 2 has a large influence
on the
resulting
main governing
the biaxial principal stresses at the o.d. of the nozzle, o t
3.1
>
peak
stresses.
The
Oi-ox -Kn
x ~ coordinate
y=
bending moment Af,
3.
torque
Nx
K^
6MX
p
in longitudinal direction of shell.
coordinate in tangential (circumferential) direction of shell.
Ny = tangential stress resultant, lb/in.
Ib-in./in.
Nx
= longitudinal stress resultant, lb/in.

x = longitudinal moment, lb -in ./in.
K b = stress concentration factors depending on the material and geometry
of the junction. For static loads, K n and K b may be taken as equal
4. shear force V.
The shear
My = tangential (circumferential) moment,
(+ outward, - inward),
2.
6My
where
the following main external loads (see Fig. 7.2):

radial load
-oy -Kn
ot
concentration factors at nozzles on a spherical shell subjected to internal
SPHERICAL SHELLS OR HEADS WITH ATTACHMENTS
with the bending
a grossly discon-
nozzle (or any other attachment) on a hemispherical head can be subjected to
stresses are associated
189
and o L can be expressed by the following general equations:
pressure are plotted in ref. 57.
7.3.
(including Va) and the radial force P.
tinuous junction under internal pressure. The results of tests show that even a
minor outside radius
IN
stress in the shell at the
nozzle o.d. due to the torque
7 is
to one, since the peak stresses exceeding the yield point are redist = (T/r 0 )/2nr 0 t
and the
maximum
= Tl2irr 20 t
shear stress in shell due to the force
tributed in ductile materials as used in vessel construction.
Nx
The stress resultants Ny and

computed using thin-shell theory
V is
retical results are
r = V/nr 0 t.
and the bending moments

To be of practical
in ref. 54.
My
and
Mx
are
use, these theo-
expressed as a dimensionless general shell parameter plotted
The graphs are updated in ref. 56, which is

computing the stresses around attachments in
However, the designer is chiefly interested in
against the attachment parameter.
These are usually small enough to be disregarded.
spherical
mean
radius of the corroded spherical head
r0 = outside nozzle radius
n = nozzle neck corroded thickness

t = head corroded thickness
tp = reinforcing pad thickness; if used,
additive to head thickness t in
computations
to simplify
maximum
designers for
and cylindrical
maximum
the
by
currently used
shells.
adequate reinforcement. In order

computation the following steps can be taken to determine the
stresses in order to provide an
stresses adjacent to the
attachment.
I
it
is
will
Maximum
Stress
Due
Load P. The maximum
to Radial
be the longitudinal (meridional)
stress
aL
in tension, given
stress in the shell
by
stress
max. Oi = a x
where
for +?,
Nx
is
tensile
-Nx /t + 6A/x /r2
and for -P,
Nx
is
compressive. This equation can be
restated as follows:
ol = o x Fig. 7.2.
Hemispherical head with a centrally located nozzle under principal loads.
where the values of
Nx t/P
and
(P/l
)[(Nx t/P) + (6MX /P)]
MJP
based on rigid-insert theory are given in
190
ref.
56.
The
initial
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
equation can also be rewritten as
The values of Cp = (Nx t/P) + (6MX /P) are plotted in Fig. 7 .3

For +P the maximum o L determined by the above formula can be added
directly to the membrane tensile stress due to internal pressure. However, for
-P
Nx
the stress resultant
mum
oL
is
negative, causing compressive stress, and the maxi-
is
o'l
= ox =
(NJt) + (6Mx /t* ) =
(P/t )[-
(Nx t/P) + (6Mx /t>
)]
or
=C'p (P/t 2 ).
o'L
2
The values of C p = -(Nx t/P) + (6Mx /t ) are also plotted in Fig. 7.3. The bendmore to the resultant stress
ing moment component
x contributes considerably
stress
tensile
o'L is directly additive
than does the Nx component. The resulting
to the pressure stress.
The
stress factor
compressive
stress
C p =- (Nx t/P) - (6Mx /t 2 )

-o L
which
is
~Cp would
determine
not additive to the pressure
maximum
stress,
but can
govern under no-pressure conditions.

2.
Maximum
Stress
Due
to
Moment M,
again be the longitudinal stress o L

stress
is
given
The maximum
Based on the
stress
rigid-insert
due to
M will
assumption,
this
by
max. o L
2
= (NJt) + (6Mx /t
=ox
= (M/t 2 y/Ri) [(N x t/M) %/Ri + (6M X /M)s/Ri\

or
oL =
The
values of
Cm
7.2
is
y/Ri)
(in tension).
(6Mx /M)(Rt)^ 2 ] are plotted in Fig. 7.3.

oL produced by M at point B outside shell in
= {(N x t/M)(Rty 12 +
Here the bending tensile

Fig.
Cm (M/t 2
stress
algebraically additive to
the
membrane
stress
due to the internal
pressure.
Shell parameter,
The
shell
ments. The
is for round attachin Fig. 7.3) U = r Q l(Rty

parameter for square attachments can be approximated by U =
to one-half the attachment side. For a
where c
is equal
parameter (abscissa
shell
C!/0.875(Ô
1/2
>
/2
Fig. 7.3.
Stress factors
Cp
U=
r0 /{Rt)
dp and Cm for spherical
shells.
191
LOCAL STRESSES
192
maximum
rectangular attachment with
approximated by
The above
!/2
Ci =(fl)
side ratio a/b
<
1.5, c A
can be roughly
/2.
used as the
is
= C' PI(t + tp ) 2 = 0.29 X 20,000/1

p
hemi-
spherical heads can be used in determining local stresses at attachments in crown

sections of standard ellipsoidal or torispherical heads. The crown (dished)
mean
radius
R.
Stress
193
due to P:
o'l
procedure for finding the local stresses in spherical shells or
radius at the attachment
Stress
IN
.25
= +3,712
psi.
due toJf:
ol=Cm M/Q + tp ) 2 [R(t + tp y\ ^
All attachments should
be placed away from the knuckle region, an area of concentrated pressure
1.21
X 20,000 X 12/K25 2 X 9.04 = +20,560
psi.
stresses.
Stress
Example 7.1. Determine

in
a standard
2:1
due to
ellipsoidal
head (Fig. 7.4)
o L =pL/2(t + tp ) = + 6,540
satisfactory for the following
is
Total
design data:
maximum
r = 450F
Checking the
(b)
M and P are thermal expansion loads

Open end nozzle (See note 8 under "7.5. Design Considerations")
Material: SA5 16-60, S a = 15,000 psi
Reinforcing pad thickness: 0.625
Stress
Dished radius: L =
0.9/),-
= 65.4
Stress
/^~\
nozzle size
10
in.
t
o'l
in.
= 0.625
- 20,000
-P
r
stresses at reinforcing-pad outside diameter.
ll2
= 10/(65.4 X 0.625) 1 ' 2 =1.56.
= C'pP/t 2 = 0.07 X 20,000/0.625 2 = +3,584
r0
psi.
due to M:
'
= 18,260
psi,
Stress
due to
internal pressure p:
= 0.625
oL =pL/2t = 250 X 65.4/2 X 0.625 = 13,000
psi.
lb
Sl
.25(15,000 + 15,000) = 37,500
2
o'L=CpM/t (Ltyt 2
= 0.19 X 20,000 X 12/0.625 2 X (65.4 X 0.625)
Ib-ft
= 20,000
due to P.
= 1.25
<
U = rp l(Lt)
in.
psi.
stress:
a = 30,812 psi
Design pressure: p = 250 psig
Design temperature:
internal pressure p:
the reinforcement of the centrally located nozzle
if
r^X\
5.375
Total
psi.
maximum stress:
T.L.
D, =
o = 34,844
72
psi
<
1.25
X (15,000 + 15,000) = 37,500
psi.
Fig. 7.4.
7.4.
Minimum head
thickness
required for piessure
is
CYLINDRICAL SHELL WITH ATTACHMENTS
nozzle (or any other attachment) on
the following external loadings, as

t
= pDil(2SE
- 0.2p)
= (250 X 72)/(2 X
5 ,000
- 0.2
X 250) =
0.6
U = r 0 HL(t
1 2
+ tp)]*! 2 = 5.375/(65 .4X 1.25) ' =0.6
a cylindrical shell
in Fig. 7.5:
in.
1
Use | -in .-thick plate,

(a) Checking stresses at nozzle outside diameter.
shown
radial load
P (+ outward, - inward),
moment ML in plane xy,
2. longitudinal
3. tangential (circumferential)
moment
4.
torque Tin plane parallel to yz,
5.
shear K(tangential
in
Vu longitudinal VL ).
plane xz,
can be subjected to
LOCAL STRESSES
194
rQ
195
edge of the attachment on the circum-
ferential centerline.
= reinforcing pad thickness
= mean
erally in the tangential direction at the
n - nozzle neck thickness

t = shell thickness
IN
As
in the case of spherical shells, here the tangential stress
can be expressed
shell radius
by
- outside nozzle radius
a general equation:
(KbWjt2 )
o t = a0 = (Kn N+ft)
where $
taking
is
the cylindrical coordinate in circumferential direction of shell, and
Kn K b equal to unity,
,
=(^0/O(6A//f2 )
a f = a0
or
Cylindrical shell with a radial nozzle under principal types of loads.
Fig. 7.5.
The shear
a,
The values of N^j{PjR) and M$jP
due to the twisting moment Tis
stress in shell
(in tension) for
maximum
and the
shear in shell due to
T'
V /nr0 t
t
VL
or
stresses in
most
VL a
(including
and
with the moments
practical cases are associated
a),
and the radial load P. As
loads, the value of
N$
Cp = [-N0 l(PlR)y] + (6M4IF)

is
The main
-P
in the case
given
is
Cp (P/t 2 ).
negative (in compression) and the stress factor
is
is
plotted in Fig. 7.7.
The maximum tensile
stress
by
L
of spherical
equations for aL and o t at the attachments were originally published

55 and are updated in ref. 56. The charts plotted in Figures 7.6, 7.7, 7.8,
Cp
in tension
ot =
r and r are usually small enough to be disregarded.
The maximum o t
t is
For
The value
is positive
= [AV(/Y/?)t] + (6M0 /P) is
then given by
are given in ref. 56.
loads and the stress factor
VL /nr0 t.
or
+P
plotted in Fig. 7.6.
= (T/r0 )l2itr0 t = T/2nr 02 t
= a 0 = (P/t 2 ){[N<t,l(P/R)ry} + (6M+/F)}.
ot
=cp (p/n
shells, the
in ref.
and 7.10 allow direct determination of
7.9,
maximum
stresses
due to?,
ML)
and 3/ r important for design purposes. Since these charts were developed on the
,
assumption that the attachment
rigid,
is
the nozzle neck thickness has to be
properly reinforced.
The parameters
The o t obtained by the above equations can be
2. Stress
lent square loaded area.
For small side ratios (a/b
(ab)^ 2 /2 can be used; for larger
Due
to Tangential
Moment
The maximum stress in the shell

on the circumferential centerline of
the attachment and can be written as
cylindrical attachment: 0 = 0.S15ro /R

rectangular attachment: 0, rectangular area has to be converted into equiva-
Stresses
added to the
for cylindrical shells are as follows:
o t = a0 =
parameter: y = R/t or Rj(t + tp ) if reinforcing pad is used

square attachment: 0 = c/R where c is the half-length of the loaded square area
Due
occurs generally in the tangential direction
shell
algebraically
pressure stress.
to Radial
Load
<
The
/Rt
2
($)
= (M t/t 2 Rp){[Ntl(M t /R 2 0)y] + [6Af*/(Af,/*/3)]

or
1.5) the equivalent c =
ratios consult ref. 56.
P.
2
INtKMJ&fi] (Mt/R 0t) + [MtKMJRfi]
largest stress in the shell occurs gen-
ot =
Ct (M /t2 RP)
t
in tension in outside shell fibersat points.
The values ofC r = [NJ(M t IR 2 (3)y] +
196
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
197
LOCAL STRESSES
[SM^KMflR j3)]
IN
are plotted in Fig. 7.8
from data
in ref. 56. Stress o t
is
199
additive
to pressure stress.
due
3. Stresses
makes
shell
The longitudinal
the
design
to Longitudinal
Moment
ML
The curvature of
a cylindrical
the longitudinal stiffness greater than the circumferential stiffness.

stress
can become larger than the tangential
stress
o t and govern
condition of no internal pressure. However, the total combined
tangential stress due to
ML
combined longitudinal
stress.
and pressure
stress will generally
The maximum combined
be larger than the

occurs on the
stress
longitudinal centerline at the attachment-shell joint.
As before, the equation for the

ot
maximum
tangential stress o t can be written as
=CLt(MJt 2 R$)
2
The values of CLt - [N^KMi/R &)y] +
7.9 using the data from the ref. 56.
Oi is given by
in tension in outside shell fibers at point C.
[6A^/(ML //?0)]
are plotted in Fig.
The maximum longitudinal
stress
oL
The
CUi
values of
[1VX
=CLL (MJt 2 R($)
/(MJR 2 &)y] + [6MX I(MJRP)]
are
plotted in Fig.
7.10.
Example
7.2.
structural clip
is
welded to the cylindrical
subjected to external static loads, as
shown
in Fig. 7.1
stresses in shell.
S a = 15,000
psi.
Shell parameter:
7 =R/t = 60.25/0.5 = 120.5
Attachment parameters:
c =
(14X
10)
,/2
/2 = 5.92
0 = 5.92/60.25 =0.10
Stress
from + P:
o't
=Cp P/t 2
= 0.60 X 1,000/0 .5 2 = 2,400
shell
all
around and
Estimate the
psi
maximum
200
li'y.:
iz:
.11 Z,
_rr-;
:.
:r
..rr"
:.'
,'
'.
- -+4-U- -4 4-1-.
jriii ilji
zuvz
'.
:tr:.
",
Site
Tr.z.
-
_"
H-
~tU
;:r:r.
-;
"L
;+*
;-
--UT.
4-J4-
::-
;!
..,
Kill.
41"?
In
"fiii
\
....
r
si i
-4-i
~r
-*
"
t-
.-
......
.......
..4.1
..-|
tin
.:.
15-71
......
i.
11 "ii" 7.7
'fF i;r
i j.i v
:
:.
'
J.
!Tr-r
;;if
lit
Ha.
*
'
'
4.
i
i
|4
;
:
'
"
Hit
ffi
*,
tT,n
-Ij
Ui-
hip.:
H-r-j-H'150 = 7
200 = 7
i'lil
lii
:
'.
'
':;t
ill
V. tt
tf'.ti-
'
0.03
Fig. 7.9.
Stress
from
0.2
0.1
ML
Stress factor
0.3
CLt for cylindrical
shells.
Ot=CLt (MJt 2 R$)

= 0.3X 50,000/0.5 2 X 60.25 X
Stress
0.1
= 9,960
psi
from pressure:
o t =pR/t
= 100 X 6025/0.5 = 12,050
psi
0.03
0.2
0.1
Fig. 7.10.
Stress factor
Q,^
for cylindrical shells.
0.3
202
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
clip
support
>pon cup
2.
/+P
= 1000
1000
lb
14
ML
= 50,000
63
in. sq.
by
thick
olate
11
îut
in
<
^^^^^
Ib-in.
11
f o.d.
203
by f thick
pipe
R,
1.30
=60-
Section a-3
28
Shell
Pipe
pressure-^p = 100psig
internal
ASME S-55 70,000 UTS

ASME S-1 8 62,000
'00 UTS
Stress relieve 2 hrs at
after welding
is
1150 F
completed
rad,
TT^ZX^
^<M-^tX^
Detail of junction
Fig. 7.11.
between
shell plates
Detail of junction
of shell and pipe
(a)
Combined maximum
o = 2,400 + 9,960 + 12,050 = 24,410
No
Arrangement and Detail of Test Model.
stress:
increase in clip dimensions
is
psi
< 2Sa
required.
Example 7.3. In reference 1 27 the results of strain-gage measurements performed

on 54-in. diameter cylindrical shell with two welded 12-in. diameter pipes are
reported and well documented. The arrangement of the test model with all necessary design data and the locations of the strain gages are shown in Fig. 7.1 2 (a)
and
(b).
diameter pipes simulating vessel nozzles with connected piping are

subject in sequence to a direct mechanical load P, mechanical moments achieved
The 12
in.
Distances from center of pipe measured
by weights, longitudinal L and circumferential t

The maximum measured stresses are compared with the computed maximum
stresses using the graphs
of
this
overall dimensions of the test
book. Here,
it is
important to point out that the
model and the thicknesses of the
Design data and measured stresses from reference 127. In Fig. 7.12 (a) and
(b) the test assembly with necessary details
is
shown. Measured
stresses
on
the
outside and inside of the shell and pipe simulating nozzle under various loadings
summarized
in Tables 7.1
(b)
Location of Strain Gages.
Fig. 7.12.
in industrial practice.
are
inside surface of shell in inches,

Strain gages are located inside and outside of the shell.
shell as well as
the pipe sizes and pipe thickness are in the range of generally used actual vessels
1.
on
7.2.
and 7.3.
LOCAL STRESSES
204
Measured StreiMt
Table 72.
Mwred Stream in Shdl Put to Axial Load P in pai.
Tabic 7.1.
IN
in Shell
Due to Traniver*e-beniing Moment
Mc
205
in psi.
Type of Load
Tiantvenc-bcndini Momeni
Mr
"
410.000
tn.-lbi
LOCATION Ol MEASURED STRESSES.
LOCATION OF MEASURED STRESSES.

C1RCUMFEREN. CENTERLINE
AND
SHELL.
CAGE
LONGITUDINAL
C1RCUMFER.
OUTS.
NO.
OUTS.
INS.
INS.
LONGITUDINAL
C1RCUMFER.
INS.
OUTS.
OUTS.
OUTS.
INS.
OUTS.
4360
760
1040
2840
-3280
2170
5260
-210
1790
4050
-5540
2800
24
-4560
5190
-3540
410
-3380
IS
-6950
8980
-2170
2420
-2140
INS.
SHELL AND
260
24
-2550
3930
-200
800
18
-2470
3690
-5640
9400
-1880
2840
-960
4650
-700
-3000
5100
-6560
3000
1370
-860
7460
1500
1660
3920
4510
910
-3920
7330
-7040
4080
1660
10
ft
3
\n
2310
2690
-4330
1140
640
-5030
2060
260
15
1340
1870
3080
280
12
4780
-970
4700
-770
4360
-7440
2340
150
120
490
J20
120
10
9480
-3930
7980
-3890
8830
-9530
3430
-80
-200
-280
320
1620
130
7260
-5270
4190
-2660
8820
-6690
5700
-8200
8500
-1125
10780
-6180
9340
-2710
14880
-8630
11960
-6570
11650
-13280
6500
-1935
-200
-610
-200
9780
11400
-3540
11760
-5990
12080
-7900
20300
-15000
13790
-9240
12760
-15160
7690
-3640
-490
-450
-320
11060
-4680
10300
-4020
7x
-20400
19860
10950
-10020
-15550
16200
-8910
4280
-770
-610
-650
-370
990
2010
7110
8160
10140
2720
11470
6810
4900
3160
7300
7580
2110
240
2150
1700
-1670
3480
-740
400
-530
930
-320
530
525
1450
490
120
1540
200
-10300
14090
-920
16390
-13860
10970
11630
9240
3160
9780
9080
10130
-220
-1560
3190
100
-540
1210
2610
-1370
1470
1980
-2610
-3120
1020
730
.s
DC
-510
-240
24
220
570
16
970
-360
890
850
1740
-1100
2085
-1510
120
1830
-2360
-1060
1280
410
890
S50
280
-640
-1310
2170
-4080
830
570
IS
1700
610
2880
2200
700
-2200
3760
-4270
1430
320
12
4010
-810
4620
-2150
4530
-3240
535
1740
-40
1420
890
1520
1940
-4680
1180
-100
10
4750
-970
4180
-1910
4350
-4450
1540
930
1050
650
240
730
5030
-3530
5070
-3410
5170
-8280
2910
-370
-40
-360
280
1560
-80
-1180
410
-120
2800
2340
-1170
-490
2690
890
-1050
-100
1B80
-570
-60
-700
3190
-12400
17400
-4940
-2420
2100
-380
-380
14060
-8950
M
ML
thick
1660
1310
2420
-830
3750
-2620
1640
6280
-4080
3250
-890
5990
-4620
3540
-1400
in
oc
-490
730
-290
-1820
10
570
-120
40
5770
-1790
.5
-1180
-730
30
11160
-2490
12
120
-570
-2350
3820
6820
IS
-690
1050
-2420
19890
J=
1420
1580
INS.
4210
DC
18
INS.
650
OUTS.
12050
7x
24
JD1N.
1220
INS.
INS.
LONCIT
OUTS.
OUTS.
OUTS.
INS.
480
17850
INS.
CIRCUMFER
MINOR
5120
.a
thick
OUTS.
OUTS.
LONCIT. CENTERLINE
CENTERLINE
4S*
MAJOR
LONGITUDINAL
CIRCUMFER.
CAGE NO.
INS.
-3950
SheU
MINOR
MAJOR
CIRCUMFEREN. CENTERLINE
LONCIT. CENTERLINE
CENTERLINE
4S*
3470
-320
4810
-1980
-3190
7560
-4940
3220
-1910
-4680
5000
-3000
6090
-3930
6200
-3810
5100
6310
7010
-2840
5260
-1820
6440
3540
-1280
7x
-5070
5600
6000
-11000
8750
610
80
570
1100
--3250
-5290
1820
6310
9240
-4710
-3600
-4780
5510
-3730
7x
7580
7940
5310
4420
5310
7260
-730
-1870
4020
-240
r\
DC
2.
Computed maximum
7.6, 7.8, 7.9,
(a)
4400
3250
6820
5830
2930
2O40
7840
6500
2040
2930
stresses in the cylindrical shell using the
5830
6820
graphs in Fig.
in shell
due to the direct axial load + P= 88600
1.3-in. thick shell: pipe
shell
parameter
parameter y =
From
.03
maximum measured
ter are equal to 17850 psi and 19890

o.d. of the pipe and a t = 34500 psi is
j3
lbs.
= (0.875 X 5.87)/28 = 0.184
R/t=
Fig. 7.6
max. o t = 0.7 X 88600/1

In Table 7.1 the
DC
Here
6450
4700
-6350
can be pointed out that the high
it
stresses,
computed on the
basis of the
exist in
elastic theory and exceeding the yield point of the material cannot really
locations
critical
out
the
point
stresses
the shell. However, these high calculated
and 7.10.
Maximum stress
value.
2.08
28/1
.3
= 21
where the
failures in the shell
2.08
stresses
ot
from
psi (in tension)
7 in. away from the pipe cen7.13 a t was interpolated at the
at
psi. In Fig.
thk. shell: shell parameter
7 = 28/2.08 =
13.5
.5
^Cp = 0.7
= 36700
in.
may initiate.
satisfactorily close to the
above calculated
Fig.
7.6.-Cp =0.8
2
max. o t = 0.8 X 88600/2.08 = 16400
psi (in tension)
two maximum stresses o t at 7 in. are equal to 7560 psi and

9240 psi. Interpolated stress at the o.d. of the pipe from Fig. 7.13 is a t = 15000
psi which is close enough to the above computed value.
In Table 7.1. the
206
Table 7.3.
LOCAL STRESSES
Meajurtd Strettes in Shall Due to Axial-bending
Moment M L
IN
207
in psi.
Type of Load
Axial-bending (Longit.)
ML
410,000
Moment
in. -lbs
LOCATION Ot MEASURED STRESSES.
CIRCUMTERENTIAL
CENTERLINE
SHELL AND
GAGE
LONGITUDINAL
OUTS.
OUTS.
24
380
-510
250
IS
-320
410
-540
410
15
-160
-60
-480
12
-190
-250
-640
10
190
-450
30
-220
she
k
thic
MAJOR
OUTS.
INS.
-730
NO.
CENTERLINE
*S
CIRCUMFER.
INS.
LONGIT. CENTERLINE
MINOR
INS.
OUTS.
1360
-980
510
1370
-2580
700
290
1370
-3760
-380
-990
-3920
-830
-3190
-3920
610
-1660
-5600
CIRCUMFER.
OUTS.
INS.
INS,
LONG1TUDIN.
OUTS.
INS.
360
-990
1500
-890
160
-480
-1500
2330
-160
-480
540
-990
-2520
2740
-610
-1080
-250
-4300
2580
-1310
-1120
-2040
-1260
-6280
2490
-3470
4510
-5420
-2230
-10580
5000
-8700
4560
-410
-990
1050
-2770
-9280
7970
-6870
-510
-12050
5510
-12620
8190
7x"
-700
-830
100
-1270
9120
-8380
63B0
-730
105 20
-5160
9400
-6050
DC
-860
70
-410
480
-6120
-3890
-7360
-5670
-7330
-3950
-8440
-8280
60
540
160
320
1820
-640
260
20
890
-190
570
360
IS
220
410
220
860
20
1620
60
640
1370
-410
700
1050
IS
-130
220
130
220
480
1720
100
100
1820
-1180
700
960
12
160
480
640
570
990
2200
380
-290
2580
-1340
1370
920
24
=i
she
Fig. 7.13.
Again, the calculated stress o t appears to be in the range of the
maximum mea-
sured stresses.
thic
10
-250
-190
7x
-410
380
-450
-130
1980
2330
1050
-670
2800
-1370
1560
920
-380
800
3530
-2990
2070
710
5420
-1080
3510
4170
190
-640
1080
4800
-4110
2870
380
6370
-3350
5260
-2900
760
-860
1530
-5540
3980
2900
-510
-6080
3730
-3860
2290
540
250
320
4710
2870
5030
4210
72O0
4400
7100
5960
130
DC
(c) Stresses
due to the longitudinal
1.3 thick shell:
moment ML = 410000
maximum ot = CLt(ML /t 2 R0) from
2
o t = 0.35 (410000/1 .3 X 28 X 0.184) = 16500
(b) Stress
due to the tangential (circumferential) moment
.3-in.
thick shell:
ot =
maximum a t
in tension at point
C (Mt /t 2 Rp) where Ct = 0.57

t
2
a, = 0.57 (410000/1.3
from
= 410000
B in Fig.
in.-lb.
ol =
7.5.
X 28 X 0.184) = 26840
psi at o.d. pipe
2.08
in.
CLL {ML jt
R$) from
equal to a, = 20300 psi at
.125 in. distance
away from the
2.08
in.
thick shell:
from
Ct
CLt =
0.35
psi in tension at point
CLL = 0.42
psi
CL/ (7l/ // 2 /? = 0.39(410000/2.08 X 28X 0.184)

2
= 7135
psi
o.d. pipe.
ol
Fig. 7.9. ->
Fig. 7.10
thick shell: max. a t =
This stress compares quite well with the measured stresses from Table 7.2 which
is
Fig. 7.9. -*
in Fig. 7.5.
= 0.42 (410000/1 .3 2 X 28 X 0.14) = 19700
Fig. 7.8.
in.-lb.
=CLL (ML /t 2 Rp) = 0.47(41 0000/2.08 2
X 28 X 0.184)
= 0.61
= 8105
psi
MBX.o t = Ct (Mt lt R$)

2
a f = 0.61 (410000/2.08 X 28 X 0.184) = 11200
psi
3.
Design Remarks. Even
if
some of the computed maximum
stresses
seem
to
LOCAL STRESSES
208
be on conservative
the case of the direct load
side, particularly in
would
it
seem
reasonable to utilize the theoretical calculated stress in the design. In prac-
tice,
the majority of the loads on nozzles are nearly always due to thermal ex-
pansion forces and the
maximum
sible stress ranges (see
Table 2.1). If stresses are due to the sustained mechanical
calculated stress are
compared with the permis-
loads the designer should be automatically conservative.
small fissure due to
the local overstress in the process vessel shell can lead to extensive damage, difficult
and very expensive to
repair in the field,
and even to a
loss
of life. However,
the analytical stress estimate neglects the stress reducing influence of the nozzleto-shell fillet
weld that makes the actual
stresses
lower than the peak computed
IN
Size of reinforcing pad around attachment. If the maximum stress at the

attachment is too high, the shell must be reinforced by a reinforcing pad or the
3.
thickness of the reinforcing pad required for internal pressure must be increased.
The width of the reinforcing pad is usually calculated so that the stresses at its
edge will be below the allowable stress. This is done by assuming the reinforcing
pad to be the attachment, as was done in Example 7.1. The width of the reinforcing pad, unless intermediate welds are used, should not exceed \6tp or
16(f - C.A.), otherwise the pad or shell carrying heavy bending stresses can fail
in buckling.
To
avoid stress concentrations at corners of square or rectangular
pads or structural
clips
under high loads (Fig. 7.11.) the corners are slightly
rounded. The construction of reinforcing pad for large nozzles (>24
stresses.
The values of measured
stresses in
different angles (longitudinal, 45
Tables 7.1., 7.2. and 7.3. on centerlines at
provide the designer with clues regarding at
loads (P y
maximum compound
for the
and
ML
ferent nozzle loads
it
stress
what
on
ratios the stresses should
different centerlines
act simultaneoulsy. Also see reference
compound
bine stresses. In the case of

is
heavy loadings in
Fig.
in.)
under
7.14 has been successfully used.
and circumferential centerline) indicate how
the stresses in the shell are distributed around the nozzle under different loadings.
They
be combined
209
stresses
for
how
if
maximum
the
to com-
due to internal pressure and
conservative to add the calculated
algebraically assuming that they act at the
56
dif-
stresses
4. Generally, the loads are given as
in Figs. 7.2
on
and
7.5.
However,
if
a hillside nozzle, then
they must be decomposed vectorially into main vessel planes (meridional,

tangential,
and perpendicular to the meridional plane) before the
stresses are
computed Each type of load has to be treated separately and the final stresses
added. In most cases, the combined stress at the nozzle-shell junction will be
.
maximum. According
the
same point.
shown
the loads are given in arbitrary planes, for instance
to
measurements,
stress
attenuates rapidly with
distance from the junction.

5
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7.5
The following
1
are
some design considerations pertaining to
Rigid-insert theory does not provide a
the shell if the nozzle

is
body
resultants
Nq,
Nx
The maximum combined calculated
becomes much
sections 7.3 and 7.4.
6.
shell
good approximation of
shown
in
The minimum distance of the attachment from the edge of

(open or closed)
in the
above analysis
is
cannot exceed
Table 2.1
the cylindrical
Rj2. For smaller distances from the
cylinder end the stresses decrease substantially, and can be adjusted
by
using
stresses in
plotted curves presented in ref. 55.
becomes smaller and

The actual
The maximum membrane stress
larger.
become much higher than those
for a rigid insert. In addition,
the peak stresses can occur across the base of the nozzle instead of in the shell.
To prevent this, the section of the nozzle welded to the shell and under heavy
external loads should be
stress in the vessel wall
consists of a thin-wall, flexible pipe, even if the pipe
satisfactory for pressure and load stresses.
the tangential stress a t
the allowable stress for the design condition, as
made
thick
enough so
If
required
that the distribution of forces
into the shell will approach the distribution assumed in rigid-insert theory,
assumes a continuous shell under the attachment. This
is
which
particularly important
for larger-size nozzles.

2.
The computed
stresses are
nominal and do not include the stress concenPeak stresses can become important for
Grind the weld flush with the top of plate

before installing the next plate.
trations at the nozzle-shell junction.
fatigue
analysis.
The
stress
spherical shells under pressure
concentration factors for cylindrical nozzles on
Fig. 7.14.
and various types of loads can be found
signed to
in ref. 57.
Composite reinforcing pad for

comply with Code section 1.7.
large nozzles
under heavy loadings.
It
can be de-
LOCAL STRESSES
210
In the evaluation of stress adjacent to vessel openings and connections,
7.
IN
211
it is
often necessary to consider the effect of stresses due to external loadings or ther-
mal
stresses. In
such cases, the total
superposition. In the case of

zle loading, the
maximum
stress at a given point
combined
may
be determined by
due to internal pressure and noz-
stresses
stresses for a given location
should be considered
acting at the same point and added algebraically unless positive evidence
as
is avail-
able to the contrary (ref. 2).
8. In only a few cases can pipes attached to pressure vessels be treated as open
end cylinders, where the longitudinal pressure stress is absent. This is true only
for straight pipes between the vessels or where low friction expansion joints or
other provisions incapable of transmitting the full longitudinal pressure stress are
provided; for instance, a water pipe with concrete anchors and a sleeve type
coupling in between. Therefore, nozzles on pressure vessels are generally treated

as closed.
The end
pressure reaction (P = + 0.785
d 2 p, where d
is
the inside
di-
ameter of the nozzle and p is the design internal pressure) has to be considered
in the design and is usually added to the piping reactions, if any.
from the point

ion of the
and perpendicular to
maximum
its
longitudinal axis indicating the loca-
stress.
actual analytical solution of the load transmitted into the shell
The
clip is
not
known
at present time.
A major
by
a plate
portion of the load will be transmitted
through the connecting weld. In fillet-welded tee joints, some of the load will be
LINE LOADS
7.6.
transmitted into the shell
by the
direct contact pressure
between the
shell wall. Generally, the load will be transferred into the shell
Structural plate clips welded to the shell transfer loads into the shell basically
along meridional lines or parallel circle
as line loads, usually
lines.
The
preceding sections deals with localized, uniformly distributed loadings
in the
over a finite, square area; the results of such an analysis cannot readily be applied to line loads.
in
The
analytical
methods
for solution of line-load stresses, as
59, are quite involved and prohibitively time consuming for practical
ref.
design.
The Code
G10
section
Division
does recommend as a guide the references 128 and 129
to be used in
computing the
maximum
in
stresses at structural support
Most analytical analyses of line loads applied to cylindrical shells through

assume load distribution and shell wall response as shown in
Fig. 7.15 (the maximum deflections are greatly exaggerated). The maximum
stresses will be then at point A, and it is assumed to be equal to the maximum
clips.
plate structural clips
induced
shell
stress
under
under a similarly loaded structural
rigid plate clips will
assumed theoretical
shell
line load since the clip
cannot deflect freely. The
loadings will be
stress will
stress,
be at point
more
likely as
shell
shown
However, the
stresses in
rigidly
connected to
shell
and the
in Fig. 7. 16
and 7. 17, Clearly, the maximum
B and will consist of longitudinal bending
membrane and bending stresses. If the shell plate under a

by buckling or a fissure, this usually occurs slightly removed
circumferential
clip fails
is
clip.
considerably smaller than under
displacements caused by clips under various
be in the vicinity of the point
overloaded
clip
a very
and the
narrow
by a clip with an irregular cross-secfrom the theoretical assumed stress distribution. Under such circumstances it would seem that the use of analytical formulas adjusted to concur with the results of experimental stress measurements
area.
analysis
by
The
actual stress distribution, induced
tion, will differ to a significant degree
212
LOCAL STRESSES
uniform
line load
IN
213
Longitudinal bending stress:
9^
l/2
2
2
/f
a L - Zq/20t - t 1.17?(/?f)
Tangential
otm "
<>
membrane
<W2r -
stress:
l> 0.64?{flf)
l/2
/f
Total tangential stress:
at -
()
where
q$RI2t 3qv/20t
0-
1.285/(/?f)
I/2
Formulas for stresses in cylindrical shell under uniform radial line load q
q as shown is causing membrane tangential compressive stress in shelL
Fig. 7.19.
in,),
(lb/lin.
equations:
=MJZL
h =M /Z
fx
Longitudinal
(a)
Fig. 7.17.
(b)
clip.
Circumferential
clip.
Longitudinal and circumferential structural clips subject to moments.
ZL
Zt
moduli
in the longitudinal
and tangential
be justified by practical reasons. The use of such formulas

is entirely legitimate within the limits for which they were established and for
which there are adequate experimental data (for instance, the fillet weld design
where
procedure or the fatigue curve in Fig. 2.3 based on fatigue
because of the smaller rigidity of cylindrical shells in the tangential direction
on actual
vessels will
analytical approach). Unfortunately, there are not
test
data rather than
enough published
results of
full-scale vessel tests with structural clips under combination of loadings to
make
stress at
approach suggested
such
in ref. 7.
clips
and L
and uneven load distribution under the load P, the
under
and
maximum
be 1.5-2 times larger than the
will
stress
moment
under the
stress
maximum
induced
stress
computed by
the
stress:
2
1/2
51 = 1.17(tff)
/iA
clips in Fig. 7.18.
MLl and tangential moment
5 2 = 1.75(tfO ,/2 /2 A 2
compared with the maximum stress under uniform circumferential line

load, as shown in Fig. 7.19. The unit load /(lb/lin. in.) to be used for loads
P,
L and t in the equations in Fig. 7.19 are determined from the following
the length of the clip (see Table 10.3).
Substituting for q in the equation for oL in Fig. 7.13 and assuming that,
is
ti
is
under loads can be estimated by a simplified
The maximum
subjected to a radial load P, longitudinal
are line section
formula, the following equations can be written for
this possible.
However, the
and
directions, respectively,
5 3 = 1.75(/?0 ,/2 /3 A 2
The
stresses
added
due to
algebraically.
ML
superimposed on these
While
and
Membrane
this simplified
stresses
can- be
from
t and P,
due to internal pressure have to be
as well as the stresses
stresses.
procedure provides the designer with only comparative

measured under actual
resulting stresses, they are within the range of stresses as
conditions. Furthermore, this simplified
method
affords the designer a quick
check of problems that otherwise might remain unchecked and provides a safe
design, as proven by experience. At minimum, the results can be used for a preliminary estimate.
Example
Fig. 7.18.
shell
7.4.
structural clip
is
with a design pressure 120
welded to a 10-ft-diameter cylindrical vessel

psig. The clip is subjected to the following
214-
LOCAL STRESSES
IN
215
procedure based on the method of superposition can be used. The contact area
subdivided into rectangular sub-areas and the loading
\\
= 60
ft,
to act
on the
imum compound
method
is
proportionately divided
sub-areas. Using the "equivalent rectangular procedure" based
Bijlaard's analysis the stresses

t
is
on
can be found and superimposed to obtain the max-
computer programs use
stress at the critical points. Several
this
compute the stresses at support clips. In reference 129 a U-shaped

clip fully welded to the pipe and subject to the moment
L (see Fig. 7.21) is
analysed by the method of superposition for stresses in the pipe wall. The stresses
at critical points are summarized in Table 7.4. However, as pointed out in the
reference, the method needs more experimental verification before the above
example can be taken as a bench-mark problem. The method also requires the
clip plates to be attached to the pipe or vessel wall by full penetration groove
weld, a requirement in accord with Code Division 2.
to
L =
3
ZX
/6 = 42.6 in.
Fig. 7.20.
For a comparison the simplified approximate approach
maximum
stresses at points
is
used to estimate the
A B and C.
,
mechanical loadings:
L =2,000
Maximum Z x =
(2
minimum Z'x =
5.5
= +1,500
lb.
/j
Estimate the
maximum
Code allowable
Maximum
Stress
S a - 5,000
1
from
/,
=P/L = 1,500/16 = 94
+ 5.5)/(3 X 10.0) = 14.62
in.
5.5
(9
*MJZX =ML /14.62
AtpointC: aL = S =
t
= 2,000
in.
ML /26.58 =
.17(3.72)0.0376
= 0.0068
0.0316ML
2
At points: aL =S, = 1.17(3.72)0.068 A/L /1.218
psi,
line loads (see Fig. 7.20):
MJZX
+ 5.5 2 )/3 = 26.58
4.5
f[=ML IZx
stress in shell at clip.
shell stress:
ft -lb.
ML
j\
= 0.1995 ML
.210
0.1
max.
ML
12/42.6 = 565 lb/in.

lb/in.
The maximum stress is higher than the stress as computed by the previous
method, as could be expected since the simplified method does not take advantage of loads being distributed over small area. However, the locations of the
P and ML
ol
=[\M(Rtyt 2 /t2 ](f +1.5f3 )

l
= [(1.17)(60.3 X 0.5)^ 2 /0.5 2 ](710)
= 18,245
Stress
psi.
Pipe;
from pressure
24-in. Sched.
Mean
o L -(120 X 60.3)/(2
Combined maximum
80
radius - 11. 391
in.
Nominal thickness - 1.218
0.5) = 7,240 psi
Stl.
area of pipe = 87.2
Section modulus = 473

7 - rltm 9.352
stress:
in.
in.
in.
V'TF =3.72in.
o = 25 ,485
Example
7.5.
To
estimate the
psi<25
maximum
stress
fl
under a composite support clip a
Fig. 7.21.
Support
clip
with U-shaped cross-section subject to a longitudinal
moment Mi.
216

Table 7.4
ML
inside
Mr
outside
= + 0.0571
- - 0.0680
ML
inside
Mi
outside
=-
cL = - 0.0343
ML
ML
ML
= + 0.0818
Mjr
Point C: a/ = -0.1060
= + 0.1220
ML
outside (max.)
A/L
inside
Point
a t = + 0.04001
= -0.0814
ax,
Point B: a t
0.0815
= + 0.0944
ar = - 0.0553
= + 0.1098
inside
outside
inside
outside
inside
ML
outside
procedure is more conservative,

computed by the superposition method. The
structural clips on pressure vessels are generally much larger than as shown in
Fig. 7.21 and here, in the writer's experience, the simplified method would offer
maximum
but
still
a quick
stresses differ. Clearly, the simplified
in the range of stresses as
and reasonable estimate.
8
Discontinuity Stresses
INTRODUCTION
8,1.
As discussed
cal
in
Chapter
3, industrial pressure vessels consist of axially
symmetri-
elements of different geometries, different shell thicknesses, or different ma-
terials. If
the individual shell components are allowed to expand freely as separate
sections under internal pressure, each such shell element

radial
displacement
would
differ
AR
would have an edge
and an edge rotation 0 of the meridian tangent that
from the edge
radial
displacement and the edge rotation of the
adjacent shell component. Since the shell elements form a continuous structure
and must deflect and rotate together,
at
junctions these differences in radial
displacements and rotations result in local shell deformations and stresses

quired to preserve the physical continuity of the shell. Stresses induced
interaction of
two
geometry of the
shell
components
at
their junction (an
re-
by such
abrupt change in
vessel shell or a structural discontinuity) are called discon-
tinuity stresses.
by a general analytical method which is

background and available time of the average designer. In practice,
an engineering method that makes it possible to solve such complicated shell
problems in a relatively short time is preferred. Since such method uses edge
Discontinuity stresses can be analyzed
beyond
the
forces and edge moments as unknown quantities, it is called the force method.
The force method offers a solution of local bending and shear stresses in boundary zones of junctions, where membrane theory is ineffective since it does not
include any bending across the shell thickness or any perpendicular shear in its
basic differential equations.
Discontinuity stresses themselves are usually not serious under static loads
such as internal pressure with ductile materials
if
they are kept low by the design,
but they become important under cyclic loads. Under a steady load they are
considered to be of self-limiting nature, and higher allowable stress
for the
combined
membrane
stresses
caused by
all
permitted
other loadings, such as internal pressure, vessel
weight, wind or earthquake loads, and thermal stresses.
ward higher allowable
is
Discontinuity stresses have to be superimposed on the
stress.
stress values, larger vessels,
The general trend
and thinner
shelts
to-
of high-
DISCONTINUITY STRESSES
218
strength materials
makes
it
more important
to evaluate
all
local stresses, including
membrane
stresses
and
radial
219
deformation are computed:
discontinuity stresses.
The
method can
principles of the force
problem.
blocks, as
shown
large-diameter
pipe
is
anchored at intervals
rigidly
in Fig. 8.1. If subjected to internal pressure
pipe will expand and the radial displacement will be

will
be equal to zero since the pipe growth
is
divides such cases into
In the
membrane
AR. At
concrete
in
of intensity P, the
section O-O,
prevented by the
anchor and discontinuity stresses will be induced
method
o t = PR/t,
best be explained using the following
concrete
rigid
in the pipe wall.
AR
The
force
two separate problems.
(as
in
solution [Fig. 8.1(b)] the built-in restraint at section
any
O-O
(lb-in./in.)
of
stress at section
0-0
0O
shell
forms the formulas for the edge deformations w 0 and

Q Q andM0 have been derived using bending theory and
are available to the designer. It
method
is
this availability
of existing solutions that makes
particularly attractive for a practicing engineer.
The influence coefficient
the deformation
is
due to the unit values of the edge loads (Q 0 =
(M 0 =
or discontinuity stresses.
common
due to the edge loads
this
Q 0 andM0
membrane
the result of superposition of
is
pressure stresses plus the stresses due to
For most
o
RoJE = R 2 P/tE.
uniformly distributed along the pipe circumference at

to bring the pipe edge in agreement with actual conditions. The
unknowns to be computed here are the redundant force Q 0 and moment 0
Once they are known the stresses in the pipe shell can easily be determined. The
moment Af0
section 0-0
is
problem) and principal pressure
statically indeterminate
In the force-method solution [Fig. 8.1(c)] the released edge of the pressurized
0 (lb/in.) and the edge
shell at section 0-0 is subjected to the shear edge load
final state
released
AR
o L =0,
w0
1
or 0 O at the shell section edge
lb/in.) or unit
bending
mome
.t
1 lb-in./in.).
stress (membrane plus bending) sometimes occurs

component where the total stress curve has a nonzero value slope. However, when solving for the maximum stress, in addition to
the loaded edge stress the designer must always check the nearest location to the
The maximum discontinuity
at the
loaded edge of the
shell
edge where the combined stress curve has a zero slope. Because of bending
l
(a)
(Rt)
t2
= length of
both the inner and outer surfaces must be checked for maximum and
minimum stresses. The location where the various combined stresses are maxi-
stresses
zone where discontinuity
stresses are significant.
mum
away from
the loaded edge can be obtained
by minimum-maximum
theorem. The principal stresses developed in the shell at any location away from
the loaded edge are expressed in terms of deformation w(x) and bending mo-
ment M(x), which
in
turn are expressed in terms of
computed
Q Q andM0
forces
and the variable x, representing the distance from the loaded edge of the shell
in the direction of decreasing stress. The location of the maximum stress can be
obtained by equating the
first stress
ever, analysis of this type
derivative with respect to
beyond the scope of
is
this
to zero.
book. For
all
How-
practical
purposes the combined stress at the junction of a discontinuity can be taken as
maximum
the
be compared with the allowable stress.

component at a structural discontinuity can have
stress to
In general, a shell
the follow-
ing boundary conditions:

(b)
Membrane
AR
solution
(c)
= radial displacement due to pressure P

6 = end rotation of shell due to pressure
is
zero.
Wq
= radial
Force-method solution
displacement due to the end
and the end moment 0

6 0 = end rotation due to Q 0 and
Q
Fig. 8.1.
force
Q0
free edge,
Q0
= 0 and
w0
=0
= 0 and 6 0 = 0, (see Fig. 8.1)
2.
fixed or built-in edge,
3.
elastically built-in (elastically restricted) as at junctions
ponents (see Fig. 8.4).
of two shell com-
220
smaller than longitudinal and tangential stresses and a biaxial stress state
should be pointed out that an important part of discontinuity stress analysis

the correct handling of signs. The usual sign convention is as follows:
It
is
(a) Radial shearing
edge force
Q0
is
when outward and
positive
tends to
221
is
assumed.
in-
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
8.3.
crease radius/?.
moment
(b) Longitudinal edge bending
on the inside surface of
the shell wall
cause either plus or minus rotation 0 O
Radial deflection
(c)
AR
is
positive
is
and tends
positive
when
to increase
it
may
when
it
increases
tion d 0 in the plane
0-0
and the edge moment
most
In
R.
8.2.
problems calculator accuracy
0 (lb-in./in.),
The procedure
for analyzing the discontinuity stresses
by
composite vessel
shell
under investigation
divided into simple shell
is
rota-
(lb/in.)
uniformly distributed on the circumference.
practical cases, the length of the cylinder exceeds the attenuation (de-
as described
Q0
mdMQ at one end of the cylinder do not influ-
below:
of the midsurface of a closed-end cylindrical shell
Radial displacement
1.
Q0
be replaced by an equivalent cylinder and an estimate of deformations as well as

discontinuity stresses can be made on the basis of simple cylindrical formulas,
method can
be summarized in the following steps:
1.
and end
For thin-wall vessels the bending effects of the edge loadings, replacing the
actual boundary or joint conditions, are confined to a narrow zone. In most
rotationally symmetrical, geometrically complicated vessels this narrow zone can
PROCEDURE FOR COMPUTING DISCONTINUITY STRESSES

BY THE FORCE METHOD
the force
w0
radial shear line load
ence the effects of the loading conditions at the other end of the cylinder.
required.
is
under the
in Fig. 8.2
cay) length so the effects of

In solving the discontinuity
end deflections
gives the formulas for
The following discussion
causing tension
R. However,
due to the internal pressure
P is
given
by
elements, each with a single (or gradually changing) principal radius of curvature
2.
and thickness and made of
The edge
radial
to internal pressure are

3.
Any
wp
PR R
A*=w = -^-[l-0'/2)]
and Q p of the elements due
in.
computed.
possible deformations due to other external mechanical or thermal
loads are added:

4.
a single material.
displacement and rotations
There
f
and 0 f
Edge shear force
QQ
is
no end rotation due
2.
and edge moment Af 0
are applied. Directions are as-
sumed at this point. Equilibrium of forces at the junction requires that shear
Q 0 and moment 0 at the edge of one component be equal and of opposite
direction to those at the matching edge of the other component.
5. Using existing, tabulated formulas, the edge displacements w 0 and rotation
6 Q of each shell element at junctions due to Q Q and
0i respectively, are com-
ing
Radial displacement
moment M0
w0
to the internal pressure: 0

at section
0-0 due
0.
to the edge load
Q0
and bend-
Qo
puted
6.
in
terms of
growth
of one edge
7.
is
The two
w2
at the
Q0 andM0
w = wp + w
forces
Total radial growth at one edge
radial
unknown edge
w0
is
equated to the
equated to total rotation of the second edge 6 2

resulting linear equations are solved for the
Q Q orM0
is
total
second matching edge. Similarly, total edge rotation Q x
negative sign in the resulting values of
tion of
Q0
or
would
sign convention:
unknowns
Q 0 andM 0
indicate that the direc-
opposite to the direction originally assumed.
8.
Discontinuity stresses caused by
9.
To
Q0
and
Force
0 are
computed.
obtain the total stress at the junction, discontinuity stresses must be
superimposed on pressure
stresses,
thermal
stress, etc.
Shear stresses perpendic-
ular to the middle surface of the shell are neglected, since they are usually
Q 0 and moment M Q
positive as
much
Fig. 8.2.
shown.
are
222
where
M{x) =
3(1-p *)|"
0 -
for v
-^y^
e0
+ [e*(coi
<fc
sin fix)]M 0
Q(x) = [e"^(cos
,2
jSx - sin
0x)]
G0
- [2fie^
sin (Sx] A/ 0
x
&x
cos fix) and (e~& sin fix). From
shows the plots of the functions (e'
the plots and their superpositions it can be seen that the flexibility influence
functions (terms associated with Q 0 and
0 in the above equations) decay very
rapidly from the origin 0. At a distance x - n/fi (or fix - tt) from the origin, the
= 3/10, (3= 1.285/(/2f) 1/2 and
Fig. 8.3.
D = Et
End
223
j\2{\
- y 2 ).
rotation 0 O due to ?o and A/ 0 at section
0-0 clockwise
is
given by
effect
of the edge loadings
Q0
and
M0
would diminish
significantly.
Using
=
fi
becomesL c =x = 2AS(Rt) 1/2 If then the dis2

tance between two load points equals 2L C = 4.9(/?/) ' the loads will have only a
1/2
or x = 1.285, although the
negligible effect upon each other. At x = (/?f)
1.285/(Kf)
i/a
the critical distance
,ad
-'-2F5 5d
'
functions diminish they

3.
The
Q 0 andM 0
principal stresses due to edge loadings
Ol = Wilt)
ot =
W)
(t>M L lt
(6M
/t
2
)
6M0 It 2
at section
w0
which causes
pending on the
caused by the
effect are
4.
sign
w 0 jR
in
radius/? equal
per unit length of
o t can be either tensile or compressive, de.
moment M 0
produced
Further, since the sides of the unit element
stresses equal to
6vMQ /t 2
resulting
from the Poisson
in the tangential direction.
Combined stresses due

0-0 are:
to internal pressure
up the
designer to decide
between are small enough to stay below the allowable stresses. Code
2
for a minimum distance between two structural
Division 2 prescribes 4{Rt)^
assumed to be restrained and unable to accommodate the rotation
are here
It is
discontinuities.
a tangential strain in shell equal to
Ew Q /R.
of deflection w 0
have a sizable values.
stresses in
= (EwolR) {6vM 0 lt 2 ).
circumference and a stress
still
x 2
whether he can use the minimum distance 2{Rt) ^ between the loads or discontinuities (see Table 8.3.) and whether the maximum calculated combined
are
(bending only,WL = 0)
o t consists of the tangential membrane stress due to a change

to
0-0
and edge loadings
Q0
and
The slope, deflection, moment and shear become negligibly small at fix = 5.15.
2
The corresponding shell length x = L B = 4(RfV for v = 0.3 is sometimes called
the bending boundary zone. It can be shown that L B can be generalized to any
1/2
shell of revolution under axially symmetric edge load by defining Lq = 4(/?r)
where
Example
is
the circumferential radius of curvature at the edge.
8.1.
The top
half of a
0.313-in.-thick stainless steel plate
non-Code vertical drum is constructed from

A240 Type 304L and the bottom half from
at section
o L =(PR/2t)(6M0 lt2 )
o, = (PR/t) +
(Ew 0 lR) qSvMo/i2 )
a r - ~P\2 (average).
5
Once edge loadings
loadings
Q(x ) and M(x)
Q0
at
and
e |_ cos
3
2fi
0 are
known, deformations w(x) and 6(x) and
any distance x from the edge are given by
fix
Qo +
e~ g *(cos fix - sin fix)
2pD
1.0
e~ *(cos
fix
Wd
sin fix)
e'^
cos
Go+
fid
fix
2.0
3.0
4.0
Fig. 8.3.
Solutions for circular cylindrical shell influence functions.
224
225
A285
0.625-in.-thick (including corrosion allowance) carbon steej plate
The following design data
gr.
C.
are given:
Deformations due to the
2.
Radial growth:
Drumi.d.: 120
A285C
Sa = 13,750
at
650F = 21,800
Sy
psi
maximum
at
at
= 02 = 0
X 10" 6
in.
in.
rad.
all
deformations of the carbon
deformations of the stainless
0,
Displacements:
psi
the stainless-to-carbon
at
all
=0.209,
steel
Qo
~
20\D
Rotations:
Qo
steel shell
steel shell to
end
= 0.568 X 10 6
=0.071 X 10 6
^
M
M0
-
D2
0 2 =0.296,
650F = 15,200
stresses
summation of
304L:
junction in Fig. 8.4.

Shell deformations
Equating the summation of
3.
the
Sa = 13,700 psi
5 atm = 15,600 psi
Sy = 25,000 psi
psi
Determine the combined

shell
= +344,335 X
Rotations:
Stainless steel type
Satm = 13,750 psi

Sy = 30,000 psi
Sy
10" 6
650F
6
6
, = 25.1 X 10 and "c = 25.3 X 10 psi
6
as = 9.87 X 10" and a c = 7.33 X 10" 6 in./in./F
steel
A7 = (650-70) = 580F:
in.
operating pressure: 70 psig
Periodic peak operating temperature:
Carbon
temperature
AT = +256,415
= axR x
52
Maximum
rise in
Go
w2
Qq
_
=
77:
2$\D 2
M
_
52 -
P2 D2
junction due to the pressure P:
and
Radial deflection:
w,
w2
(v/2)]/Ec h = +13,617
t
= +27,330 X 10" 6 in.
*PR R[\
Rotations:
X 10" 6
in.
effect of the
moment
NL
due to the eccentricity
two
shell plates.
will
lb/in.
tb-in./in.
=360
= B 2 - 0 rad.
4. Total
The
Qo = 335
M
the force
Q0
and the
stress raising
of the force
(a)
combined
Carbon
and a t
stresses
steel shell:
be reduced by the taper (min. 3:1) between the

o L = (PR j2t ) (6Af 0 /tf ) = 3,378 5,530
x
= +8,910
= -2,150
a , = (/>* /r
psi (inside)
psi (outside)
+ {Ec w 0 //?
(6
/'? )
where
Assumed
Q0
fl
"00 =
positive directions of
and Af 0
as
shown. Eccen-
T^T
yP D
x
+
2ft
6
- +39,560 X 10~
in.
tricity e disregarded.
Hence
Shell 2,
stainless steel
Fig. 8.4.
o t = 6,756 + 16,600 1,660 = + 25,020 psi (inside)
= + 21,700
psi (outside).
^
M
226
where
(b) Stainless steel shell:
o L = 6,726 + 22,050 = +28,780

= -15,324
psi (inside)
Summary.
'=-^ ^r+
The calculated o L
failure in the actual vessel
weld seam
ferential
weld
residual
rotation d Q due to
= 13,450- 25,715 6,615 = - 18,900 psi (outside)

= -5,650 psi (inside)
at
61
616X,0
"
6in
the stainless steel shell
occurred as
a fissure parallel
is
3.
The
Q0
and
v )l(Rt)
WO
ot =
yi A R.
MQ (4\*IREt).
Q0
(6MJt 2 ) = (BWo/K)
and
M0
at
section
(toMoft 2
0-0
are
4.
Combined stresses due

0-0 are
to internal pressure
P and
the edge loads
Q0
and
at section
here a distinct
is
OL=(XL lt)(6MJt 2 ) = 6M0 it 2
and close to the circum-
corrosion fatigue failure
[3(1
principal stresses due to edge loadings
too high. The
far
inspection would not prevent final breakthrough, since the fissure would origi-
nate on the inside of the vessel shell.
0*=
2
0o = Qo{2\ lEt) +
point where probably o L in combination with the

exceeded the ultimate fatigue strength. An occasional
stress first
in
X=
psi (outside)
End
0t
227
o t = (PRjlt) +
possibility.
(Ew 0 /R)
(6vM 0 /t 2 )
oL =(PRl2t)(6M 0 It*)
o r = -PI 2 (average).
8.4.
HEMISPHERICAL HEADS
The discontinuity
gives the formulas for the solution of effects of the uni-
formly distributed
edge shear
line
spherical head (Fig. 8.5).
The
Q0
and the edge moment
sign convention used
outward (increase in radius of curvature); d 0

1
is
is
on a hemi-
w0
as follows:
is
positive
positive outward.
hemispherical head as an end closure for a large-diameter pressure vessel subject

to high operating temperatures in addition to internal pressure.
Example
Radial displacement of the midsurface due to the internal pressure P:
8.2.
spherical head
= (PR 2 /Et)$(\
6=0
stresses at the hemispherical head-cylindrical shell junction
are less significant than at the semiellipsoidal, torispherical, or

conical headcylindrical shell junctions. This could be an important factor in selecting
a
Determine the discontinuity stresses at junction of a top hemiand cylindrical shell of a large-diameter vertical vessel (Fig.
8.6)
with the following design data:
v) in.
rad.
Design pressure: 150psig,

2.
Radial displacement
at
section
0-0 due
to the loadings
Q0
and
in
Hydrotestpressure: 225 psig,

X-ray:
Fig. 8.4:
wQ
Q 0 (2R\lEt) + M 0 (2-K
full,
Design temperature: 700F,

lEt)
Inside radius:
Material:^ 515
Sy- 23000 psi.
1.
= 120
gr.
in.,
60,
Sa = 14,300
Shell thickness due to pressure
Edge loads
E = 24.8 X
10
psi,
is
SE-Q.6P~
14,300- 0.6 X 150
==L27ln
Q0
are positive as
and Af0
shown.
PRi
t
Fig. 8.5.
v = 0.3,
150X 120
PRi
ts
psi,
2SE-Q2P
150X120
2X
14,300- 0.2 X 150
"
228
229
Total shell edge deflection = total head deflection:
58,600
96Q 0
IOM0 = 48,637 +
272<2o +
4QM0
Total shell edge rotation = total head edge rotation:
2M0 =40Q 0
lOfio "
12M0
Hence
(in the
=-12
opposite from that assumed), and
Qo = 33
3.
lb-in./in.
Combined
stresses at section
lb/in.
O-O:
Fig. 8.6.
Shell:
2.
2
oL =(PRI2ts ) + (6Mit ) = (150 X 120.63)/(2 X 1.27) + (6 X 72/1. 27
= 7,146 + 260 = + 6,880 psi (inside)
Edge displacements:
= + 7,460
Shell-pressure:
a,
w = (PRiRIEt)[\-(vl2)]
_ 0.85 X 150 X 120.63
24.8
= 58,600 X
10
10" 6
= + 13,570
in.
oL = (PRl2t h )
Shell-edge loads:
do =
HQol2P D)
+
-
psi (outside)
10" 6
in.
Head:
0=0 rad.
w 0 =-(Qo/20 3 D)
psi (inside)
w 0 =- 3900 X
1.27
psi (outside)
= (PRlts ) + (Ew 0 IR) (SvMitj)

= 14,293 - 800 + 80 = + 13,415
X 120
(6M0 lt h2 ) =
14,323 + 1,090 = + 13,235 psi (inside)

= + 1 5 ,4 1 5 psi (outside)
2
a t = (PR/20,) + (EwJR) (6vMlt h )
= 1 4,323 + 1 ,263 + 330 = + 1 5 ,256 psi (inside)
= 15,920 psi (outside)
(M o l2p 2 D) = -96X 10~ 6 G 0 + 10X iO" 6 A/0

6
(MolQD) = 10 X lO" Co " 2 X IO^Mq.
w0
= + 6,130 X 10" 6
Head-pressure:
w=
-6
2
|(1 - v){PR jEt) = 48,637 X 10
9=0
Head-edge
vv 0
60
Check
total deflection:
in.
rad.
Shell:
58,600
3900 = 54,700 X 10" 6
in.
Head:
6
48,637 + 6130 = 54,767 X 10"
in.
loads:
+Q 0 (2R\IEth ) + MQ (2\ 2 /Eth ) = 273 X

= +Q o (2\ 2 IEt h ) + M o (4\ IREt H ) = 40X
=
:i
lO"
10" 6
6
Co + 40 X \0'
C0
+ 12
Note: Any discontinuity stress will be further minimized by the plate taper at joint, as
required by the Code welding detail in Fig. UW-13.1.
The interested reader will find a practical discontinuity example in the ref. 2.
M0
10" 6 A/
8.5.
230
SEMI ELLIPSOIDAL
number of exact solutions for the cone-shell edge

displacements and forces under internal pressure and other loadings have been
presented during the last decade, some in tabular form, they are suited rather to
cylindrical shells. While a
AND TORISPHERICAL HEADS
Semiellipsoidal Heads
work
special jobs than to standard
both principal
In semiellipsoidal heads
location (see Fig. 3.12.)

loadings
becomes
radii
of curvature are functions of the
The solution of edge deformations
difficult,
in
terms of edge
and bending theory does not provide ready-to-use,
closed-form formulas for the deformations, as
is
the case with cylindrical shells
and hemispherical heads. Approximation methods have to be used, which con-
sume more time than
available to a vessel designer.
is
is
satisfactorily designed using the
ellipsoidal
Code formula with low acceptable
dis-
continuity stresses.
If for
some reason an
ellipsoidal
head with
a higher
Rfh
ratio
is
used and
dis-
continuity analysis has to be performed, the following references will be of help

to the designer: 59, 61, 63, 64, 101
in
everyday pressure vessel and piping design.
an analysis of the localized stresses
at the conecylinder junction, replacing the cone with an equivalent cylinder at the junction
is
point under investigation. The resulting stress equations, based on

cylindrical edge force formulas, are presented in
much
simpler
forms readily applicable
in
standard design.
The
However, the most commonly used and commercially available 2:

head
231
overall
stresses
computed according
agreement with the
to these formulas are in good, workable,
stresses calculated
by more exact
analytical
methods.
Also, design stress limits are suggested here to help the designer in evaluating a
design for safety.
The whole analysis presented here is based on the

ofn = cone thickness/cylinder thickness.
ref.
60, carried out for dif-
ferent ratios
103, 107, 20, and 22.

Influence Coefficients
Torisphericat Heads
Discontinuity stresses are due to sharp changes in the radius of curvature
at
points a and 2 (Fig. 3.14). Since these points are in practice close together,
the edge loadings affect each other to a large degree ancl again the analysis be-
comes
in
standard 2
torispherical head
semiellipsoidal heads under the
is less
The references given

as
an assistance
in
same pressure loading, the
lent cylinder (Fig 8.7).
Cylinder.
The
shear unit force
radial deflection
Q0
lb/in.
is
w(=AR) and
rotation 0 of the edge due to
given by
of semiellipsoidal heads can also be used
w=
1/2Z)0
estimating discontinuity stresses in torispherical heads.
pressure vessel and piping design.
section under internal pressure
The thickness of
stress
The question now
is
in
< 30
degrees
is
com-
formulas and the Code rules requir-
reinforcement of the cone-cylinder junctions.
discontinuity stresses
a conical head or a conical
with a half apex angle
puted by the simple Code membrane

a
both cylinder and cone, replaced here by an equivaThese values are known as influence coefficients.
suitable for high-pressure jobs.
in the discussion
Conical heads and conical reducers without knuckles are frequently utilized
ing
lb/in.)
lb-in./in.) are calculated for
CONICAL HEADS AND CONICAL REDUCERS

WITHOUT KNUCKLES
8.6.
AR and the edge rotaand a unit edge moment (A/ 0 = 1
radial displacement
1
prohibitively involved for routine vessel design work.
Since the total combined stresses in the knuckle region are several times higher
than
For the sake of convenience, the edge

tion d due to a unit edge load (Q 0 =
No
special
analysis of
normally required.
arises,
how
to check a cone-cylinder junction with
smaller
than 30 degrees subject to external loads in addition to the internal pressure P,

or with an angle
larger than
30
degrees. In such cases a
of discontinuity stresses at the cone-cylinder junction
is
more
detailed analysis
in order.
The equations for the edge forces and moments for conical shells, being
dependent on the cone apex angle (2 a), are much more complicated than for
at
Fig. 8.7.
point
Unit edge load diagram at cone-cylinder junction.
232
where
0=
v )jR 2 t2
[3(1
6 =
J/
For v = 0.3, 0 = 1.285/(tfr) 1/2
XI2D&
= w0,
= f 3/12(l
Z>
Computation of Edge Forces
- i^).
deflection
AR
AR
and rotation 6 due to unit moment
= l/20 2 =
Cone (replaced by equivalent
AR
AR
wc
cos
a=
[(1
The
cylinder at point A).
and rotation 0 of the edge due to
a unit shear force
cos a)l(2D c $
3
)]
cos
by planes
Juncture L.
From
the equilibrium condition in the vertical direction:
/+F=(PRtana)/2=Z.
ct/n
2
2
l
1 2
[3(1 - p )l(Rlcosa) (nt?] t* = 0(cos a/*) '
Using the formulas from Table 8.1, the total radial deflection of the cylindrical
is equated to the total radial deflection of the
shell due to force / and moment
k3 )
a//i)
The
Q
AR
radial displacement
= w(/3cosa//i 3 ^).
2
)
and rotation 6 of the edge due to a unit moment
= (1/2Z) c j3 2 ) cos a = w(& cos
^ =
(l/>cW =
vv(2/3 /fc
a//i
Mw& =
3
[(Fw cos 2 a)/n 3 k
[(Mwp cos a)/n 3 k 2
(2)
2
Similarly, the total rotation of the cylinder edge is
where cosoc/n 3 k 2 = \/n
equated to the total rotation of the cone edge. The end rotation of the conical
shell due to pressure is neglected. This assumption is a source of discrepancy
between approximate and more accurate analytical methods.
*2 )
-fwP +
= [(Fwp cos a)ln 3 k 2
Mw2$ 2
(Mw2& 2 ln 3 k).
(3)
3
).
After simplifying, the result
These
!b-in./in. are
AR
and the
=0
fw
/3
moment M. The radial displacements of both

due to pressure are assumed approximately equal and cancel out.
,/2
X cosa)/(2i5 c
0 = (1
shells
=* 3 Z>
* = (cos
(1)
by
where
> C
M are applied as indicated.
cone due to the force
0c=
separated from the adjacent cylin-
is
and "S", and the acting end forces f F-
at junctures
displacement
lb/in. is given
h>(cos
lb-in./in. are
and end moment
Moment M
radial
QQ
a=
2w0 2
6 = 1/0/) =
and
w/3
F, and Edge
closed-end conical reducer (Fig. 8.8)
drical shells,
The end
f,
233
is
a set
of three
linear
simultaneous equations:
results are tabulated in Table 8.1.
f+F = Z
f-M$ = (Fkjn)-
Table 8.1.
UNIT LOAD
UNIT
(l lb/in.)
PERPENDICULAR TO
AXIS ON END OF
Unit shear
Unit
CYLINDER
w0
perpen-
dicular to axis
Rotation of
20
w
0 cos a
Circumferential
+ w deflection
3+0 rotation
cos a
6 (rad.)
membrane
CONE
Sign convention used:
meridian
'\ cos 2
kn 3
stress
Rs
(psi)
For y = 0.3,
= (1/2D0
) -
X cos a
Radial displacement
(in.)
= (F/n
(1 Ib-in./in.)
moment
AR
2A//3
(Mfln )
(M2&/kn 3 )
ON END OF
CONE
CYLINDER
-/+
MOMENT
(2.57/Ff 3 )(f) 3/l
~ mean radius of the larger cylinder

= mean radius of the smaller cylinder
Conical reducer separated into elements with applied edge forcesand
Fig. 8.8.
positive as
shown.
endmoments
234
which can be solved for the three unknowns f F, and M:
will
reduce the bending stress
235
the tangential direction only the stress o tm
in
is
used in stress analysis.
f = ZV,
The formulas
F = Z-f=Z(\- V
M = Z(2I(5) V
and o 1m can be further simplified by rewriting the
oL
o L = (PR/0(0.5 + Xy/Rft)>
where
+n
k[\
1
(\
+2n
+ k
The
2
forces,
/ and
in
4(kn* +
membrane
producing bending stresses
in
stress in the shell.
compression
in the
shown
Moment
in Fig. 8.8
is
and
also positive,
coefficients
The end force TS = (PR 5 tan a)/2 has the opposite direction
L shown in Fig. 8.8, and so do forces fSi Fst and moment
Stresses in
in the
cone
60.
ref.
Cone
Stresses in Cylinder at Juncture L.
design pressure
P and
discontinuity
at Junctures L
The combined
moment
is
juncture/,
oc)
is
PR
(0.5 +
4.669
+ (6A// 2 1 2
tangential
and S
/v5?/f]
where
longitudinal stress o L due to
= (4.669/ 2
)72 tana
and
moment M,
is
stress a,
in
cone
shell at
in par.
(PR/*if
coso)-Z(l
)w(E/R)(k/n) + Z(2/$)V 2 w(($fn 2 )(ElR)
= (PR/t)
ZV
w(E/R) + Z(2/0) wP(E/R) V2

t
)] -
(2K2 / 2 )}.
L285VR/7(K,
0.91/1.285 )(R 3
-
)(Fi
stress
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
0.155
0.159
0.151
0.142
0.325
0.335
0.330
0.317
0.300
0.087
0.155
0.068
0.1573
0.0647
0.070
0.058
0.054
0.179
0.152
0.135
0.122
0.113
0.049
0.0356
0.325
0.214
0.147
0.104
0.074
stress
0.104
a = 45
n
a r the bending
some movement of the
(+6vM/t 2 ) has
differential shell
element
a = 30
A"
2K2 )tana
2K2 )tana].
combined
to be added. However, since
'V />
a
15
2V2 )
-(PR/0- (PR/2)(E/R)(6X
In order to obtain the total
{[(*/)(! - K,
membrane stress o tm (the Code

UA5e) due to the pressure P, force
=
fw(ElR) + Mw$(E/R)
is:
Table 8.2.
= (PR/0[1
juncture
(circumferential)
hoop stress
given by
= (PRI0- Zw(ElR)(V
o fm = (PR/nf cos a) - Fw(E/R)(cos 2 a/n 3 k 3 ) + Mw(0fn 3 k 2 )(E/R) cos a
Qtm = (PR/t)
= ^/ 2
given by
y/Rft tan a).
average discontinuity
/,
longitudinal stress o L
= (PR/2nt cos a) + 6Z(2/0) K2 /w 2 f 2
(PR/nf casa)- (l.285PR/0>/3?7? tan a

The combined
combined
= (PR/20 + (PR/2)(6lt 2 )(2VRi/] .285)K2 tan a
V2
total
given by
= {PR lint cos a) + (6/n t )(PR/2) tan a(2/1.285)v^K

2
= (PR/0 [(0.5//I cos a) =F (4.669/ 2 ) K2 y/Wft tan a]
The membrane tangential

o L = (PRjlt) (6M/t 2
The
Shell at Juncture L.
shell at
= (PR/0[(0.5/ii cos a) +
and Cone
-2K2 )tana.
where K=].285(K,
to
Stresses in Cylinder
outside of the shell.
that at juncture
Combined
tan
and Y, covering the majority of practical cases, are tabulated

may plot them for different half apex angles a, as
o L = (PR/2tn cos
Juncture S.
X = 4.669 V2
Table 8.2 or the designer
suggested in
1)
F, ars positive, acting in directions
causing compressive
where
a tm =(PR/t)(\- Y\fRft)>
+ 2kn)]
~ kn* + 2k 2 n* + 2kn 2
-* "[
v
Both
for
equations for o L and a tm as follows:
Of
= 60
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
0.533
0.545
0.524
0.496
0.837
0.871
0.218
0.197
0.180
0.461
0.383
0.863
0.334
0.833
0.300
0.789
0.293
0.552
0.255
0.533
0.352
0.242
0.172
0.125
0.837
0.557
0.387
0.272
0.197
0.271
By
236
V2
a simple substitution for

"
{[(*/)(!
it
î)]
and
can be shown that

"
(2K 2 //i 2 )} = (K,
finally
2V2 )'
237
a tm = PR it[(] In cos a)
Ys/Rh].
so that
a tm = (Ptf/f){(l//icosa>- [1.285(K,
- 2
K2 )
Table 8.2.
To
(+6kM/hV)
juncture
maximum
mum
The upper
sign
means
tangential compressive
specifies the stress
the small end under internal design
on
marized
in
all
the above stress formulas are sum-
Table 8.3.
8.3. In ref. 19, page 498, is an example of a rigorous analtyical solution of discontinuity stresses at a cylinder-conical head junction with design
Example
p + (4//Z)), equivalent pressure for longitudinal stress.

2
i (AMjnD ) - (W}ttD), unit longitudinal load, lb/in.
1.
shown
in Fig. 8.9
Computed
stresses
with the following
from
results.
(a) In the cylinder:
ref. 19.
Total longitudinal stress:
Juncture L
stress in cylinder,
membrane
tangential:
-30,880
psi
+42,260
psi
Membrane
tm
= -5,712
\ cos a
psi.
Total tangential:
membrane
tangential:
tm
852
\n cos a
psi
5,712 + 9,140
"
3. 428 psi
1+
S
stress in cylinder,
Material:
steel
6
E = 30 X 10
= 0.25
longitudinal:
membrane
Combined
inside
a tm = 11,380- 25.2(1,490) + 8.373(2,443)

stress in cone,
t
Combined
tangential:
longitudinal:
Juncture
outside
a L = 5,690 + 36,560 =
longitudinal:
Combined
In conical reducers the
Obtained.
stress occurs at the large end, while the maxi-
tangential tension stress occurs at
data as
Combined
S Can Be
For the convenience of the designer
tension.
the outside surface.
has to be added.
pressure.
= corroded shell thickness
Positive (plus) sign
for the majority of practical cases are tabulated in
Similarly, the Stresses at Juncture
M= external moment at juncture

W = weight at juncture
D = 2/? or 2/? s
f,
and Y
obtain the total tangential calculated stress o,, the bending stress
Stresses at Cone-to-Cylinder Junctures.
Table 8.3.
pe
The coefficients
tan a] VE/i"
tangential:
V?)
_
ex is
stress in cone,
longitudinal:
ts
membrane
_pr J
tangential:
tm ~
t
\n cos a
i
[ncosa
^pe
P
8 I
fl\
R = 24
S\
/A
y
= 45
Fig. 8.9.
238
(b) In the cone:
Membrane
239
tangential:
Total longitudinal:
"
ff
=
L = 4,764 + 25,715
a tm =(PRlt)[(\ln cos a)
20,951
psi
+30,480
psi
Yy/Rft)
= (300 X 24.3/0.633)[(l/1.192
= 13,666- 18,267 = -4,601
Membrane
0.707) - 0.256V24.3/0.633
psi.
tangential:
Total tangential:
a tm =-5,898
12,881 psi
psi.
a t = -4,601 +0.3 X 27,614

+ 3,683
psi.
Total tangential:
The
11,891 psi
87
computed by
stresses as
this
approximate analysis are
able workable agreement with stresses calculated
o t = -5,989 + 5,902
= 24.3
stresses differ they are on the conservative side. A better agreement

would be reached by using v - 0.25 and R = 24 in.; however, since a Code designer would use v = 0.30 and midsurface radius in computations, the same
Wherever the
psi.
2. Using the equivalent-cylinder approximation.

= 0.3. (a) In the cylinder:
in good and reasonby the more exact method.
in.;
n=
1.192;
values were used here for comparison.
Total longitudinal
Suggested Allowable Stresses and Stress Ranges at Cone- Cylinder Junctions
a L = (PR/t)(0.S + Xy/RIt) = (300 X 24.3/0.633)(0.5 + 0.55V24.3/0.633)
-33,487
psi outside
+45,003
psi inside.
5,758 + 39,245 =
Membrane
o tm
The calculated total longitudinal stress o L with predominant bending

component can be very high and exceed the yield stress. As pointed out
60, the longitudinal stress cannot exist in the vessel wall in calculated intensities
exceeding the yield point of the material.
A
tangential:
=Wf)(l
= 11,516
"
hydrostatic test can be assumed as the final fabrication operation here;
produces a local yielding

= (30OX 24.3/0.633)(l
>V7O
18,267 = -6,750
0.256V2O70633)
psi.
the shell due to the hydrotest are objectionable, since they tend to increase the
large residual stresses.)
When
f- 18,524 psi
= -6,750 + 0.3(39,245) =
psi.
cone
Using
o L = (PRIt)[(0.5/n cos a) +
tV^]
(300X 24.3/0.633)[(0.5/1.192 X 0.707)
= 6:832 + 27,614 =
is
subsequently pressurized at the design pressure the induced
stress [74]
Total longitudinal:
the shell
o L should remain below the yield point. However, the relaxation of the longitudinal stress o L by yielding will increase the tangential component membrane
stress by an amount equal to roughly one-half of the reduction in longitudinal
+ 5,024
In the
and welds and initiate new cracks in the less

zone adjacent to the weld as well as introduce undesirable
existing flaws in the base material
Total tangential:
(b)
it
in the vessel wall in the longitudinal direction, pro-
vided no local buckling occurs. (Of course, any visible localized deformations in
-
ductile heat-affected
o t = o tm + (6uM/t 2
stress
in ref.
'-20,782
psi
.+34,446
psi.
+ 0.387V24.3/0.633
this
reasoning, the
par.
UA53, 4Sa E
ing)
and \.5Sa E
allowable stresses per Code Division
in
the tangential direction
rather as the
maximum
(membrane + discontinuity bend(membrane hoop + discontinuity
hoop), as compared with the computed localized
The following
maximum
in the longitudinal direction
stress
o L and o tm
are
assumed
allowable stress ranges.
are the
maximum
allowable design stress limits for o tm and oL
based on experience and using Code Divisions
and 2 as
a guide.
240
Tangential Membrane Stress o tm in Cone and Cylinder.

Design pressure plus any operating external mechanical load
Maximum Allowable
1.
<
o tm
2.
.33S a and o Jm + (oL /2)
< 2Sa < Sy
Hydrotest pressure:
o tm
< 2S atm
and o tm + (aL /2)
< 3S atm < Su
where S a
is
the
is the Code allowable stress at the design metal temperature and 5

atm
Code allowable stress at room temperature.
Design Remarks.
1.
When computing
the discontinuity stresses at juncture
L and S
in Fig. 8.8
the effect of the edge radial displacement of cylindrical and conical shells and
the rotation of the meridional tangent of the cone shell edge produced
pressure alone were neglected.
of the stresses
is
This
is
by
the
the same as assuming that the largest part
due to the unbalanced inward (juncture L) or outward (juncture
S) forces due to the end pressure.

2.
The minimum length L of
2(Rhtl cos a)
the allowable
'2
for cases
maximum, and
below the allowable

(see Fig. 8.3).
when
limits.
the conical reducer in Table 8.3
is
given as
the stresses at junctures stay significantly below
the
compound
stresses
between two junctures stay
Otherwise a larger reducer length
should be used
9
Thermal Stresses
9.1
Whenever there
is
a considerable difference
between the
vessel operating
tem-
perature and atmospheric (assembly) temperature, thermal expansion problems

occur. Generally, the effects of externally applied mechanical loads and the ef-
of thermal expansion are separated and independently analyzed and only

to
the final effects of total combined stresses are considered when comparing
fects
maximum
allowable stresses.
Thermal (or temperature) stresses in a structural member are caused by temperature changes and accompanying dimensional changes. In addition to being
subject to a change in temperature, to develop thermal stresses the structural
member must be restrained in some manner. The constraints of the member in
the usual thermal stress problems that occur in the vessel design may be divided
into external and internal constraints. This division is convenient, since the
analytical
procedures for solving the two types of problem differ. Internal
constraints are usually the
more
difficult to solve..
In thermal analysis the first task

part due to these constraints.
It is
then to compute the elastic stresses in the

assumed that the thermal stresses are within
is
on the stress-strain curve of the construction material.

high enough the creep may become significant and have
the elastic range
temperature
is
considered. Induced
material.
thermal stresses
However, thermal
BASIC
stresses are self limiting; this
means
visualized as
ture. If the temperature
that a small
Chapter 2.
THERMAL STRESS EQUATIONS
A body can be
of the cube
to be
can easily exceed the yield strength of the
local plastic relaxation will reduce the acting force, as described in
9.2.
If the
is
composed of unit cubes of uniform average tempera-
of a unit cube
is
changed from Tto
and the growth
restrained, there are three cases to consider.
Restraint in the x-direction.
A stress
ax
ox = -aE(T x
is
induced:
T)
241
in
THERMAL STRESSES
242
compression for 7\
>
T,
where a
the coefficient of thermal expansion
is
stress
is
then
(in./in./F).
2.
Thermal
243
o = Ea(T x -
Restraint in x- and ^-directions.
ratm )
compression
in
where
oy
3.
Restraint in
all
=ox =-o(T -T)l(\-v).

l
a = the cross-sectional metal area of the pipe

a = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the pipe material.
three directions (x,y, z).
Example 9.1. Determine the local stresses in the carbon-steel vessel shell at
point B and stresses in the stainless-steel (Type 304) welded-in pan tray at point
A as shown in Fig. 9.1. At start-up the pan temperature will be the same as the
y
These equations are the basic equations for direct thermal stresses under external or internal constraints, and represent the maximum thermal stress for the
They can
particular constraint.
refer to
an entire body under external constraints
or to an element of a body.
The equation
The
stress
in 3 defines the stress for a fully restrained
the
is
maximum
body or an element.
thermal stress that can be produced by a change
in
temperature under external or internal constraints [16]
The equation in 2 represents

body or an element restrained
stress
produced
steels, this
at the surface
would be about 200
maximum
the
rise in
temperature) +
can be produced
in a
point ),
body under sudden heating
or cooling. For
the shell due to the line load q at point
rise in
temperature)
(AR due
temperature displacements of
to find the
by outside
forces and
stresses
mE
c t)
<*s(Tp -
moments
body
or a system of
members
method of
restraints the usual
required to bring the
stress
Tc =
70F, and
line
body
load q:
are fully or
computation
q=KH(R 2 pl2Ec t)HU 3 /Estl)}
to the restrained state
and the
where 0 =
.285/(tf f)
l/2
for v
= 3/10.
forces.
Thus thermal problems of

tional
type are converted into problems of conven-
this
strength of materials. Solution depends on the availability of suitable
strength
formulas applicable
through the body
is
the
to
in
a steel
a/,
<T
the
temperature distribution
pipe between two fixed walls.
temperature of Ihe operating liquid
stallation) temperature will induce a
If Tallin
problem. The
generally uniform.
The simplest example would be

change
growth A/,
10)Ri
(qL 13EJ)
2
+ (4L>/Es tl)] = as (T - 70)*, - (PR /Ec t)[l - (u/2)]
p
dimensions of the freely expanded body and then to compute the
produced by those
B) = (AR
to the linear force q at
i.e.,
EXTERNAL CONSTRAINTS
partially prevented
is
while the shell temperature will be only
psi/F.
for
If the
2
(R/Ec )(o t -vo L ) + ac (Tc - 10)R+(qR mEct) =
q[(R 2
9.3.
(AR of
of the pan due to the
stress that
Tp
above atmospheric temperature.

The stainless steel pan will expand to a greater degree than the carbon steel
shell. The equation for the summation of all radial growths AR is as follows:
(AR of the shell due to the internal pressure P) + (AR of the shell due to the
slightly
two directions. An example would be the
in
of
temperature of the operating liquid,
will
change
tt /.(r,
/,
will
aaF(T
Any
relation to atmospheric (in-
in the length
of the pipe:
r m ).
be positive and the total force
restrain the pipe to the original length
in
required to
be
TMm ).
Fig. 9.1.
=K
THERMAL STRESSES
244
1 ;
Total stress in shell at point
tangential
o t = (qR (3/2f) +
2. Total stress in
in tension:
is:
pan
T[h/2)
[\Mq(Rt) 112 It 2 ] + (PR/2t)
aL =
longitudinal:
245
at
points
(3 qvj2&t )
+ (PR/t).
is:
2
o b = (6qL/t ) + (liquid and pan weight l2-nt p R A
< Sa
of pan plate.
Fig. 9.2.
INTERNAL CONSTRAINTS
9.4.
The shape of
body with nonuniform temperature
distribution throughout
that it does not permit free expansion of the individual body eleaccordance with their local temperatures, so that stresses are produced
in the body in the absence of any external constraints. This can be visualized
better if a body is assumed to consist of unit elements such as cubes or fibers,
may be such
ments
in
each with a uniform average temperature differing from the temperature of the
adjacent elements.
For example, a thick cylindrical shell can be assumed to consist of thin,

mutually connected, concentric cylindrical shells. If the temperature is raised
uniformly the individual shells will grow at the same rate. However, if a tempera-
defined in terms of the variable y. The stresses resulting from the uneven
temperature distribution can be determined by the equivalent thermal load
is
method.
To determine
we assume first that the bar is

same temperature along their lengths,
the jc-dircclion. There are no shear stresses
the thermal stresses in ihe bar
cut into longitudinal unit fibers of the
which are allowed to expand freely in

between the fibers to consider. Second, the fibers
shapes by outside assumed forces.
The internal compressive stress produced is
ax =
ture gradient develops, for instance with heat transfer, the cylindrical elements
will
be
at different
individual
average temperatures and expand
cylindrical
elements
will
be
be introduced in the shell
upon return
constrained
by each
other,
some
thermal
At
become
no compressive stress a x> equilibrium

force F, distributed across bar width h
point, residual stresses will
to the original temperature.
caused by such internal constraints
However, most
vessel
is
methods for solving thermal

beyond the scope of this book.
problems can be reduced to two-dimensional
this point the fibers are rejoined. Since at the
end, force
detailed description of the general analytical
stresses
a/sTO').
at different rates. Since the
stresses will develop in the otherwise unrestrained shell. If the stresses
larger than the yield strength of the material at
arc brought into their original
will
is
ends of the actual bar Ihcrc
is
by application of end tensile

the ends. At a distance away from the
restored
at
distributed across the cross-sectional bar
become uniformly
area:
stresses. In
F=
simpler cases, exact analytical solutions are possible and result in closed formulas,
which are sometimes cumbersome. For a practicing vessel engineer the rule is
to use available closed-form results, and when necessary to simplify the problem
to obtain only the most important stresses. However, the lack of derived formulas
sometimes necessitates the use of approximate methods.
dFdy^
aET(y)tdy
+ * /2
1
o'x
=F/ht =
T
h J
ah:T{y)dy.
-h/2
In the following discussion, thermal stress problems will be described briefly,
and only
as they
occur in standard pressure vessel design practice.
Since
is
distributed non-uniformly
bar cross section, a bending
moment
at
is
the ends with respect to the axis z of the
introduced:
Thin Plate Bar with Transverse Temperature Gradient

Figure 9.2 shows a thin, unrestrained plate bar, simply supported and subject
to an uneven, one-dimensional thermal gradient across height h. Temperature
A/2
z
(dF)y=
+H/2
aET(y)tydy
246
THERMAL STRESSES
causing the bending stress
247
In practice, the temperature distribution will resemble that
generating high thermal stresses in the bar.
shown in Fig. 9.2(b),

The use of gusset plates or rib stiffeners
cannot be recommended on hot vessels subject to thermal gradients of the sort

which affect the bar in this example. If they are used, they must be well insulated.
The interested reader will find a thorough description of the equivalent thermal
load
The total stress in bar away from the end in

summation of the above stresses: o x ~ ox + o'x
the direction of the jt-axis
is
the
method
more general thermal problems
as used to solve
in refs.
66 67 68
and 122.
o x or
,
Bar with Axial Temperature Variation
o x = -cT(y) +
+h/1
12v
aET(y) dy-f
H J-H/2
hn
<xET{y)y dy.
It
can be shown by the above method that:
J -h/1
1.
Example
Assuming
9.2.
a linear
Fig. 9.2, with temperature
T0
at point 0,
determine the
in the plate
bar of
An
unrestrainted bar with axial temperature variation
total strain
is
stress free.
The
is
stress distribution in
the bar.
r(y)-r0 [i+Gy/A)].
2.
My
restrained bar with axial gradual temperature variation T(x) and average
temperature
= +hl2,
Ta
generates stress in the bar equal to
o x =-EotTa>
<2r'
*
HI I
Br) * */.
"'
Br) *]
with
all
sections in compression.
Thick Plate with Transverse Temperature Gradient
The temperatuie
full restraint in
and the
stress in the unrestrained bar at point
distribution
aET0
is
accordance with the basic principle that a uniform or linearly
in
varying temperature
body
in the
by
itself
it
linear
does not generate thermal stresses
in
bar
is
=-oET(y)l(\-p).
a solid
in the
f*
h/2
UyE
+h/2
bar will cause a deforma-
For a
If the
=oz
a constant curvature:
(l//?)
clamped
Assuming
the previously derived stress formula for a bar the following equation
2aET(y)
stress biaxial.
can be written:
absence of constraints.
However, the
tion giving
rise
produced
= 0.
Then from
This result
uniaxial, the
is
ox
o x = ~2<xET0 + ctET0 +
is
the x- and z-directions,
= (2ar0 )/[*(* +a7-0 )l
= 0 and ox =
ax ~ -oETq.
restrained in compression only o'x
at ends,
o x = 0 and again the stress
is
=(2aT0 )lh.
linear
temperature distribution T(y) -
T0
[1
+ (2y/h)] in a plane (Fig.
9.3) with edges clamped (an approximation to a thick vessel wall) at point
(the inside of a shell with a high operating temperature), the stresses are
ctETQ
tf the
bar
is
ox = o z =
[2oT0 /(l
- )]
+ [<xETol(l -
v)]
-oT0 /(l
- u).
248
THERMAL STRESSES
249
Thick Cylindrical Shell with Radial Temperature Distribution

For the case of
a thick -wall cylindrical shell
with free ends, the stresses due to
radial distribution of temperature through the wall are given by
During a thermal shock (sudden application of hot or cold fluid of temperature

Tf to the surface of the plate) the magnitude of the stress at the surface of the
thick plate with an average temperature Ta and surface Ts after the contact with
the fluid
is
given
by
a =
Ea(Ta
- r,)/(J - v)
= Ea{Ta
where
- 7/(l - u).
a = inside radius (see Fig. 9.5)
Uniform Hot Circular Spot

If a circular
in a Large,
Thick Plate
hot spot of temperature
b = outside radius
with radius a develops
instance due to a crack in the inside shell refractory, in an otherwise cold plate
of temperature
r (Fig. 9.4),
the
maximum
o>
inside the hot spot:
outside the hot spot at distance
stress is given
= o t = -aE(T x
by:
T)/2;
radius of the point under consideration

=
gradient temperature of the point under consideration as
T(r)
r. In practice determined by a heat-transfer computation.
AT= Ta - Tb) where Ta > Tb
r
in a shell, for
Stresses
o r and a L are algebraically additive to the pressure
function of
stresses.
r:
2
2
o r =-CLE(T x - T)a /2r
ot =
These
stresses are
maximum
aE{T
T)a l2r
stresses since
any
rise in
the cold plate tempera-
ture will relieve them.
Fig. 9.5.
Assuming that the thermal gradient

T(r) =
The maximum
is
linear, the gradient
(b-r)ATKb-a).
stresses are:
aEAT \
Fig. 9.4.
temperature
2b
+a
is
at r
ot - oL - +
b:
For thin
at
THERMAL STRESSES
250
with a = b the
shells
maximum
= a:
ot
aEAT
or fixed.
b + 2a 1
3(b+a)\
but
does cause expansional
it
aEAT
down
joint
in
compression
The
is
one-half the
maximum
3. In addition to the
--^ in tension
is
welded to the
shell.
skirt end.
stresses
of thermal origin, the design vessel pres-
which
will cause stresses in
skirt.
thermal stress for two-dimensional constraints.
from
all
temperature distributions. For medium- and thin-wall cylinders the
assumption of a linear temperature gradient is satisfactory. The solution of thermal stresses in cylinders with radial thermal gradients may be simplified by using
a
above
sure will produce a radial deformation in the shell,
linear temperature gradient generates the smallest thermal stresses
possible
end
along the skirt any temperature gradient will cause an angular rotawhich is restrained by the welded joint equivalent to the
unpressurized
which
does not produce any stresses
deformation.)
tion of the skirt end,
clamped boundary condition of the

o t = oL - +
itself
shell
At the skirt-shell weld junction the skirt and shell temperatures will be nearly
the same so that no radial difference in expansion occurs. However, from the
qlE AT.
ztr = b:
by
2. Discontinuity stresses will arise because the skirt
stresses are:
~oL --
linear axial thermal gradient
(A
in the cylinder,
'
251
system of nondimensional curves
[1
59]
Support
skirts
should be designed (a) with a thermal gradient moderated by
insulation (internal and external), so that the combination of thermal

stresses will
be within the acceptable
stress ranges at
the welded
and other
joint,
and (b)
long enough to reduce the temperature difference between the bolted-down base
of the skirt and the concrete base, in order to prevent any possible distortion of
the skirt.
Spherical Shells with Radial Temperature Gradient
Temperature Gradient.
In a spherical shell the principal stresses o t
tion are given
and o r
at the point
under considera-
by
known. The
2Ea_
To perform thermal
stress analysis
of the cylindrical
support skirt of a vessel, or at least to inspect quantitatively the magnitude and

effects of thermal stresses, the temperature profile of the support skirt must be
the
skirt height is usually given
minimum
skirt
height of a support skirt
by process requirements, and

is
rarely
below 6
ft.
At
this
in practice
length the
support can be assumed to be a semi-infinite cylinder insulated inside and
outside, as
shown
in Fig. 9.6.
2Ea_
v[2(b
practice most process vessels operating at high temperatures are thermally
In
insulated, in
which case (he temperature of the
shell wall will
be uniform and
equal to the temperature of the operating liquid. However, heavy tubes in heat
exchangers
will
be subject to temperature gradients.
Thin Cylindrical Support Skirts of Hot Vessels with Axial Thermal Gradient
2
In addition to the stresses
moments
produced by the
vessel
weight and wind or seismic
there are thermal stresses in the cylindrical skirt supports of hot vessels
generated by the temperature gradient from the skirt-shell joint
down
in axial
direction.
The
I
additional stresses
in skirt
Temperature gradient
supports
stresses will
will consist
Ts =
of the following:
be produced by the temperature distribu-
tion alone in the cylindrical shell, regardless of
whether the end
is
free,
h u h 0 - film coefficients, Btu/ft -hr-F

k it k 0 = transverse conductivity of insulation, Btu/ft -hr-F, thickness in in.
C - metal conductivity, Btu/ft 2 -hr-F, thickness in in.
R t ~ thermal metal resistance of plate to axial heat flow, hr-F/Btu
= 144/Cf
clamped,
(Ta - Ts) T(x) =
temperature of cylinder at x -
total temperature d>p
shell temperature at distance x under given ambient conditions.
Fig. 9.6.
Semi-infinite cylindrical shell insulated outside
and
inside.
THERMAL STRESSES
253
252
of unit width on such a cylindrical shell, insulated on both

temperatures Tt and T0
sides, with temperature Ta at its end and with constant
given as a function of
is
adjacent to the insulation, the temperature distribution
Examining a
the distance
strip
x from
the end
by
T(x) = (Ta
-T )e- mx
5
Ts
where
Ts
T0 G 0 )l(Gi
~ (Tfit +
Gt-ltolkd +
C0
m
At
jc
iUhdY
-[fro/*o) +
= [R t
G0 )
(l/M]"
(G^G 0 )] " a
Fig. 9.7.
self-limiting thermal bending

the yield point, but since they consist primarily of
stress range than the
stresses they are compared rather with the allowable
= 0 the gradient becomes maximum:
dT(x)ldx=-m(Ta
Schematic illustration of temperature profiles under various types of insulation.
allowable stresses [69, 8)
r3 )F/ft
Support
more
general
method
for
supports of hot or cold vessels
computation of the temperature gradients in skirt

can be found in ref. 1 57. These equations can also
The maximum
be used for estimating the skirt metal temperature at the base.
gradient of up to 25F/in. is considered acceptable.
Tne analytical determination of thermal stresses due to a thermal gradient in
equation for
semi-infinite cylinder depends on the solution of the differential
a
the temperature radial growth

distribution T(x)
from the end
of the free cylinder due to the temperature
skirts
for
hot vessels are successfully designed
gradient at the skirt-sheil weld

tion extending 2-3
left
open,
as
shown
This design
is
radial expansion.
ft
joint in Fig. 9.7
below the
skirt-shell
is
if
the temperature
minimized by the
shell insula-
weld and with the crochet space
in Fig. 9.8.
satisfactory even for large-diameter vessels with considerable
However, some
difficulties
such as weld cracking have been
encountered on large-diameter vessels in cyclic thermal service accompanied
sometimes by thermal shock. For such
vessels a
support
skirt
lapped to the
in the axial direction:
d*w/dx* +
4^w =
(Eta/DR)T(x)
where
oc
= coefficient of thermal expansion

- c 2 )flexural rigidity of the cylinder
3
>=/Y/ /12(l
/3=[3(1-
)/KV]
and the longitudinal
!'
moment M L and
ML =
The
the transverse shear
Dd2 w/dx 2
Q at
- -Dd 3 w/dx*
any location:
solution and application of the results of these equations to various boundinterested reader will find
is beyond the scope of this book. The
0 100
ary conditions
Fig. 9.8.
further information in refs. 18, 70, and 73.
Generally,
it
can be said that computed thermal stresses in
many
cases exceed
with
300
500 600
Schematic illustration of temperature profile for insulated and fireproofed
air pocket.
skirt
254
bottom
cylindrical shell portion
even and better heat transfer.
THERMAL STRESSES
would seem to be
A more
involved analysis
more. suitable design
becomes necessary
temperature of the system
If the
for
here.
AL =
cylinder increases by
(ct 2
Short, longitudinal slots located below the weld joint have not proven com-
and
a portion of the load carried
weaken
The
stress in the cylinder will
pletely successful in practice for relieving thermal stresses, since they
the shell and behave as discontiuities [74, 75]
crease in temperature
B. The produced strain

in the system
The
Application of
may
result
under certain conditions
thermal and mechanical stresses and

in
in cycling
may
is
of the
of the bar,
be transferred to the bar.
on the
curve, and if the in-
o y will be induced in the bar
where the cylinder takes over
restored.
in the cylinder
is
given by
rigid slab
phenomenon
is
The strains in the cylinder and the bar produced by weight

amount AolAT, or
W differ only by the
given in the following descriptive
M of weight W (Fig. 9.9)
with cross-sectional area a and bar
ao x = Oj(a + b)- oy b.
called thermal
lead to large distortions of the system and ultimately to
basic explanation of this
is
of combined
failure.
The
will
stress
given by the point B^
tensile stress at point
a progressive increase in the plastic strain
the entire system. This action of cyclic progressive yielding
example.
by the cylinder
drop to the point
free length
steady mechanical load to a system subjecl to a cyclic operat-
ing temperature
ratcheting and
is
the free length
T) over the
part of the load to prevent further yielding of the bar and the force equilibrium
THERMAL STRESS RATCHET UNDER STEADY

MECHANICAL LOAD
9.5.
raised to T\
enough, yield
large
is
is
- ot\)L (7^ -
255
is
e(B l ) = e(A l )+ AaA7\
supported by metal cylinder
with cross-sectional area b.
that both materials behave in an elastic-perfectly plastic
It is
assumed
manner.
Since the system forms a continuous structure the total increase in the
common
length must be the same for the cylinder and the bar. However, the part of the
First Half of the
The
initial stress
perature T,
bar elongation e(B Y
Thermal Cycle
a,-
induced
in the cylinder
is
given by points
now permanent.
and the bar, both of uniform tem-
Second Half of the Thermal Cycle
is
at
and
) is
=B
= W/(a + b)
on the stress-strain curve
in Fig. 9.10.
The system is cooled to initial temperature T and the situation is now reversed.
The free length of the bar has been increased by the permanent plastic elongation and the bar unloads a portion of its load along the line Bi = B 2 The
cylinder takes over this part of the load. Assuming area a is such that yield stress
.
induced, the cylinder deforms partially plastically to point
is
plastic
A2
However, no
deformation occurs in the bar.
Since the final lengths of the bar and the cylinder must be the same, point
A%
lies
point
on the same
is given by
vertical line as point
B2
The
tensile stress
o 2 in the bar
at
B2
bo 2 = ofa + b) - ay a.
At the end of the next thermal cycle the
point
B4
in the bar
and to point
A4
final state
of stress-strain will
in the cylinder, as indicated
shift to
by dashed
lines
in Fig. 9.10.
The
lengths of the bar and the cylinder are permanently increased in each
cycle and the permanent elongation e
stress-strain diagram,
at the
end of the cycle
will be,
from the
THERMAL STRESSES
256
ep
=âATê(A )-e(Y)l
[e(p t )- e(B2 )\
AaAT- [c{Y)-e(4i)]~
AoAJ-
[(o y -
a 1 )IE]
[e(Pi)- e(B t )]
- [(o
Substituting for o x and o 2 in the above equation,
AaAr+
If
o y - Oi
is
[0i(a
(Oy/E) +
[a,(fl
257
we
o2 )ffl
get
- (a b/aE) - (o /E)
y
y
+ b)lbE] - (oy a/bE)
AaA7-
l(o y - Oi)IE] [2
(b/a) + (a/*)]
very small and can be disregarded, e p
is
maximum and
equal to
AaA7\
It
important to note that the above system acts as a continuous structure.
is
Therefore ratcheting can not develop in joints like the flange-bolt joint. A
practical example of thermal ratcheting would be the cyclic growth of a thick
uniform material subject to internal pressure and fluctuating

operating temperature which develops a radial thermal gradient through the
wall. The design rules of Code Division 2 should then be applied.
cylindrical shell of
causing the buckling that would occur
3.
9.6.
In the design of pressure vessels the designer tries to eliminate or at least ministresses as
much
the pan were welded directly to the
Sometimes
change
in design
is
desirable to solve a thermal problem. For
instance, in the case of a large U*tube heat exchanger too large a difference
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
mize thermal
if
shell.
as possible. Several
methods
in use are discussed
between the in and out temperatures on the tube side caused the tube sheet to
warp and a leakage occurred. The suggested remedy was to replace U-tube design
with once-through flow construction.
here.
4.
1.
One of
the simplest and effective
ways
to avoid external constraints
is
by
using floating construction, which eliminates external constraints. An example

of floating construction is shown in Fig. 9.11, where a heat exchanger is at-
tached to a process column by two brackets. The top bracket carries the entire
weight of the heat exchanger, while the bottom bracket with slotted holes
supports the heat exchanger horizontally and provides for the vertical differential thermal expansion. The nuts on bolts in the bottom bracket are hand tight
and secured by tack welding. Another example
drums on
2. If
is
the horizontal and vertical
sliding support plates.
external
constraints
cannot be entirely eliminated, local flexibility

is provided in the form of expansion joints
capable of absorbing the expansion

or a flexible structural
shown
in
Fig. 9.1,
member. An example would be the pan-to-shell joint

radial growth of the pan without
which can absorb the
Shapes of weldments or castings that might cause
gradient under operating conditions can be avoided
a steep
temperature
by proper contouring of
the part. Sources of stress concentration, holes, abrupt changes in cross-sections,
or mass accumulation should be niinimized.
Thermal expansion can be better

handled by dividing large parts. A favorable contour should be used, i.e., surface
of revolution in preference to a flat surface.
5. Selection
thermal
shown
stress.
of proper material
or combination of materials can minimize
Consider the bolted, flanged joint
in Fig. 9.12.
in
high-temperature service
258
The thermal expansion
should be approximately the same.
tively,
at
a h and a ( of the
coefficient
high operating temperatures and
occurs
when
the joint
returns to
if
If
ot h
>
the bolt
bolt and flange, respec-
a,, leakage
is
at
the joint occurs
permanent
set
af >a h the
bolt
high temperatures.
On
normal temperatures.
becomes overstressed and permanently stretched
"of
tightened
If
return to lower temperatures the joint leaks.
6.
as -was
temperature gradient can be moderated by selective use of insulation,

done by insulating the top of the support skirts for hot vessels in
Fig. 9.8.
Steep thermal gradients indicating large temperature drops are associated
with large thermal
7.
stresses.
Thermal expansion
is
a finite strain load
whose predominant produced
stress
component is usually in bending. In vessels, the steady state thermal stresses will
when
be reduced in time to lower levels by relaxation. In cyclic operations,
and
the
(several
thousands)
low
life
is
number of cycles during the vessel service
maximum computed
principle stress
is
within the allowable stress range, the frac-
treated
ture does not occur. However, at higher cycle numbers, this load has to be
since
there
is
a posstress
allowable
reduced
substantially
as a fatigue load with
sibility
of a fracture due to the thermal cyclic fatigue.
10
Weld Design
INTRODUCTION
10.1.
Today, welding
is
most commonly used method of fabrication of pressure
the
vessel shells. Structural,
lifting lugs,
nonpressure parts such as stiffening rings,
and other equipment
support clips for piping, internal trays,
are usually at-
tached to vessel wall by welding as well. Welded joints, instead of bolted joints,
are sometimes used for piping-to-vessel connections to obtain optimum leak-
proof design where desirable,
A structure
weld
is
as
with lethal fluids or
whose component
parts are joined
defined as a localized union of metal achieved
Basically, there are three welding
Forge welding
1.
2.
is
is
called a
in plastic
weldment.
and molten
filler
metal.
methods:
the oldest method, applicable to low-carbon steel.
is
The
not particularly strong.
Fusion welding
weld.
high-temperature service.
with or without the application of pressure and additional
states,
joint
in
by welding
The seam
is
does not require any pressure to form the

heated, usually by burning gas or an electric arc
a process that
to be welded
is
to fusion temperature, and additional metal,
if
required,
is
supplied by melting
a filler rod of suitable composition.

3.
Pressure welding
lizes the
the
two
is
used in processes such as resistance welding, which
uti-
heat created by an electric current passing against high resistance through

pieces at the contact interface.
The most widely used
industrial
welding method
is
arc welding,
of several fusion welding processes wherein the heat of fusion
is
which
is
any
generated by
an electric arc.
Residual stresses in a weld and in the region adjacent to a weld are unavoidable
and complex, but they are not considered dangerous when static loads are applied. If the weld residual stress is superposed on the stress caused by an external
load and exceeds the yield point of the material, a small
yielding will redistribute the stress. This
is
amount of local
plastic
particularly true for ductile materials,
and one important requirement for a good weld
is
high ductility. In order to
prevent loss of ductility in the heat-affected zones, only low-carbon, nonharden-
260
WELD DESIGN
Types of Groove Welds.
Table 10.1.
DOUBLE
SINGLE
h>
fE^ZE^
Square
Oouble V-groove
(a)
(b)
butt joint
Single V-groove
(c)
angle joint
Double bevel groove,
Double fillet-welded
(d)
tee joint
tee joint
Bevel groove
Double
(e)
fillet-welded,
(f)
V groove
lap joint
^n3>
Single fillet-welded
(h)
Two
groove
corner joint with
backing fillet weld
(k) Single bevel
fillet
lap joint with
weld corner
plug welds
joint
(g)
0. 1
material.
nese
Carbon
content
Edge
Some forms of welded joints
able steels with less than

is
up
plates are usually
joint
.J~72
0 .35 percent carbon content
are
used
>
construction
as
it
does not cause any difficulties when
to 0.30 percent. In addition, the residual stresses in heavier
removed by post-weld heat treatment. Cooling
change; these changes
may
result in occasional cracking in the
affected zones. Fortunately, the steel lattice expands as
after welding
it
weld or the heat-
becomes
ferritic at
lower temperature, but contracts because of the reduction in temperature.
methods and different design stresses: groove, fillet, and plug

Welded joints are described by the position of pieces to be joined, and are
different design
usually divided into five basic types: butt, tee, lap, corner,
and
edge.
sively, particularly
than
fillet
GROOVE WELDS
as
shown
or double-bevel groove welds are used exten-
where cyclic loads are expected. They are
welds, but harder to fabricate.
on the plate thickness and

weld bevel dimensions
may
is
The edge preparation
usually specified
differ for
approval of the welding engineer.
shop and
Some welding
processes
in
Table 10.1. All types of grooves shown can be used in butt, tee, or corner weld
(e.g.,
easier to design
required depends
by the applicable code. Detailed

field
careful fit-up
is
welds and are subject to the

required for butt joints, but
mismatch may be permissible. In the absence of

can serve as a guide. Edge beveling or grooving primarily
specifications, ref.
82
aids weld penetration.
automatic submerged arc welding)
are capable of
very deep penetration, while others (e.g., manual arc welding) are not.
The strength of
The types of joints should never be confused with the types of welds. In Fig.
10.1 the basic types of welded joint in combination with different types of
welds are shown. For a designer, the immediate task is to select the joint design
and the type of attachment weld, and to compute its size.
Groove welds can be subdivided according to the edge conditions,
Butt or tee joints with
joints.
a slight
For design purposes, welds can be divided into three basic types, calling for
10.2.
groove
combination with different weld types.
causes dimensional changes in the weld due to temperature reduction and phase
welds.
as &e
groove
U
in
1X3
an effective steel hardener; however, with the usual manga-
of 0.30-0.80 percent
present in steel
>
3-
Fig.
z3~l3
r
2-
261
to shear, tension, or
which
is
the
groove weld
is
based on the cross-sectional area subject
compression and the allowable
same or nearly the same
stress for the
weld metal,
as the allowable stress for the base metal.
computed from standard formulas for stresses in

combined in the standard manner. The complete
penetration groove is the most reliable of all weld types. There is no significant
stress concentration due to weld shape, since the force lines are smooth and
continuous. Joint efficiency depends on the type of weld examination, the
Stresses in groove welds are
tension, bending, or shear and
welding procedure, and type of load.

ranges between 0.80 and
.00.
It is
usually given in applicable codes and
WELD DESIGN
262
263
force-flow lines
Sa
Sas = allowable
shear stress of the base metal
~ joint efficiency for the groove welds
T=
/,
width of the groove weld equal to the thickness of welded plate

welded joint
of the
at joint
- length of the
Fig. 10.2.
is
fillet
equal to
welds here
the width
Determining Groove Weld Size

10.2 a typical butt joint
T times L.
is
shown (both welded

It
parts are in the
same
can be seen that point
reinforcement, by grinding flush, increases the fatigue strength of the weld and
therefore required by some codes.
is
10.3 a butt joint with incomplete-penetration groove welds
weld metal
the other side, or
if
in
order to determine the
is
illus-
not removed by gouging on the root before welding

the depth of penetration is not full, the welded joint beis
maximum
stresses in a groove
a section modulus Z, and polar modulus /). The

y
at the same location are combined

computed
the
maximum shear and principal stresses
and
Mohr
circle,
or
by
the
analytically
are evaluated. They are compared with the allowable weld stresses based on the
stress
components
allowable stresses of the base metal times the weld joint efficiency.
of the weld connecting the lifting lug to

the vessel wall in Fig. 10.5 is adequate. Use the impact factor 2 for sudden loads.
Assume the maximum allowable stress for the groove weld to be equal to the
Example
10.1.
Check whether the
size
strength of the lifting lug material.
comes an incomplete-penetration weld with
a lower joint efficiency. Because of

poor strength under cyclic operating conditions this weld type is used mainly
for connecting nonpressure parts to the vessel shell under static loads where Fillet
F = 60,000
its
welds would be too large. The resisting weld area equals to (h + h )L.
2
In Fig. 10.4 a tee joint with a full-penetration double-bevel groove weld plus
fillet weld on each side is shown. The throats of the fillet welds
may be included
lb
10
1i
"j
,18
in.
Sch. XStr. pipe
in
computation of the
critical stress-resisting area.
i.d.
Butt welded joint with incomplete penetration double V-groove weld.
= 0.50
Zx =
However, the main purpose

o=
Fig. 10.3.
weld of
the standard stress formulas are used with properties of the weld
different
where the weld reinforcement reenters the base metal is a source of some stress
concentration and potential failure under repetitive load. Removal of the weld
In Fig.
to reduce the stress concentration, so the resisting area
critical section (resisting area
plane) with full-penetration double V-groove weld.
trated. If the
is
Full-penetration double V-groove butt joint.
To summarize,
In Fig.
Tee joint with double-bevel groove weld.
Fig. 10.4.
= allowable tensile or compressive stress of the base metal
in
117
= 27.47
Material:
x/
<SMAW
Fig. 10.5.
Lifting lug.
in
in
SA106 gr. B
S v = 35,000
psi
264
Bending
S b = MjZ x =
stress:
=
Shear
2X
Combined maximum
Combined maximum
S = (S b /2) +
X 60,000/27.5 = 4,370
psi.
psi.
= [(10,260/2) 2 + 4,370"]
1/2
= 6,740
psi.
tension:
[(S b /2)
+S s2
l/2
]
=(10,260/2) + 6,740= 11,870
psi.
(a)
Double
fillet-weld tee joint
*'
ne*
Double
(b)
fillet-weld tee joint
with partial-penetration
bevel-groove welds
Safety factors:
S.F. = 0.6
in shear:
T=
w=
X 35,000/6,740 = 3.12
Both safety factors
welded part thickness

weld leg
- weld throat, the shortest distance from root to face of the

weld, / = 0.707 w.
S.F. = 35,000/1 1,870 = 2.95
in tension:
Fig. 10.6.
are acceptable.
Both maximum stresses in shear and tension must be smaller than the allowable deweld stresses in tension and shear for weld. Also the stresses in the shell have to be
Note.
sign
265
shear:
S's= [(Sbtt?
60,000 X (10/117)= 10,260
S s = 2F/a =
stress:
IFe/irr
WELD DESIGN
stress formulas.
For practical reasons
stress analysis to
compute
adequate strength for
checked.
Definitions relating to
all
it
the proper
is
fillet
fillet
weld. For a 45-degree
welds.
important to have a simple method of
amount of
the
fillet
weld and to provide
types of connections for static or fluctuating loads.
However, excessive welding may be a major factor contributing to an increase

10.3,
welding cost, residual
in
FILLET WELDS
In
fillet
weld
two surfaces
is
at
weld with an approximately triangular cross section, joining

right angles. The size of a fillet weld is specified by the leg length
a
(see Fig. 10.6) of
Europe, by its throat

weld with equal legs is the most economical
and therefore generally used. Since no edge preparation is required the cost is
thickness
low, but so
its
largest inscribed right triangle (in
The 45-degree
r).
is
fillet
stresses,
and distortions.
order to determine the nominal (average) stresses and the size the
fillet
welds from standard tension, bending, and torsion stress formulas, weld section
properties such as area, section modulus, and polar modulus must be computed.
These properties of the

section of the weld in
critical sections
two ways:
can be computed by treating the
critical
as an area or as a line.
the allowable stress. Stress concentrations at the root or at the toe
can cause failure under variable loads.
The main weld
definitions are
shown
in
computations no credit can be taken for the weld reinforcement. A one-sided fillet weld in tee or lap joints should be avoided because of its
very low static and fatigue strengths. The face of the fillet weld may vary from
Fig.
10.6. In stress
convex to concave.
Stresses induced in fillet-welded joint are complex because of the eccentricity
of the applied load, the weld shape, and notch effects. They consist of shear,
tension, and compression stresses. Distribution of stresses
the throat and leg of a

Fig.
fillet
is not uniform across

weld and varies along the weld length as well. In
10.7 an approximate stress distribution in a transverse weld
large stress concentration
conditions
it
is
apparent at the root of the
fillet
is
shown.
weld. Under such
becomes nearly impossible to obtain correct maximum
analytical
Fig. 10.7.
Schematic distribution of main
stresses in transverse fillet
weld of a tee joint.
266
Simplified Stress Analysis of Double Fillet Welds.
Table 10.2.
Determining the Size of a
Fillet
Weld by Treating the
Critical Section as an
two directions of applied loads on the
Basically, there are
fillet
Area
welds: parallel to
T-JOINT WITH PARALLEL

FILL FT WELDS
DOUBLE
T-JOINT WITH
TRANSVERSE DOUBLI-
FILLET WELDS
the weld length and transverse to the weld length.
The average shear and normal

ferent
maximum
have been computed for both cases using
stresses
simplified freebody diagrams (Table
10.2).
when both weld types
difficulties arise
The
simplified approach gives dif-
(average) stress values for transverse and parallel welds. Further

are used in combination.
tions in practice consist of a group of welds subjected to
A number
loadings simultaneously.
to arrive at practical, unified design
The
critical resisting area for
made
of simplifying assumptions have to be
formulas applicable to both types of welds
and giving safe welded connections when compared with the
1.
Welded connec-
one or more types of
test results.
both types of welds or their combinations
is
sin
minimum
the
cross-sectional
area
throat thickness times the effective weld length.
disregards the possibility that
It
another section can actually be subject to higher combined
Code
is
Division
where the
1,
leg size
tions of the critical area of a
fillet
compensates for the increased area

2.
The nominal
weld area (area
stress.
used instead of the throat
is
Average shear
The exception
computa-
in
"
Maximum
in this case.
computed by substituting the properties of this

modulus Z, or polar section modulus/) into the stan-
the
maximum stresses,
maximum
determining the combined

groove welds. However,
Table 10.2 that the

are hard to define
of
fillet
maximum
and use
must be combined
in
other, the resultant stress
is
<t>
is
stress.
in fillet
Therefore,
welds)
1.414F
tl
wl
weld
is
tl
combined must occur
at the
sum of all
in
agreement with
tests
and
is
it
totally arbi-
gives conservative
frequently used for simplicity.
weld
It is left
up
The maximum resulting
stresses are limited
sin 0) (cos
0+
max. S*s =
shear stress occurs
1.2F
with
wl
Sn =
"
fillet
welds.
transversely stressed
fillet
at
wl
max. combined
a-
1.22F
+5
wl
Maximum average normal

0 = 22.5 degrees:
occurs
stress
by the allowable
stress
1.2F
with
wl
Average normal and shear

0 = 45 degrees:
wl
stresses at
of the
wl
wl
F_
max. combinedSj, = 1.618
wL
weld can sustain higher loads

max. combined
S*3
a 1.12
at
0.5F
Ss =
base metal, assuming the weld metal to be stronger, times the joint efficiency
for the
sin 0)
wl.
sizes
to the
designer which approach he prefers to use.

4.
(F
any angle 0:
at
three stresses:
same location. This
trary approach lacks analytical justification, but
sin 0)
wl,
Average shear stress S s
max. S n
All stresses to be
<$>
then subject to com-
(shear or tensile) acting at right angles to each
considered as a vector
cos
any angle 0:
at
_ (F cos 0) (cos 0 +
Maximum average
0 = 67.5 degrees:
= weld leg
= 0.707w weld throat at 45-degrec plane
Fn = F
1/2
in the case
to treat any stress on the weld throat,

fillet
F cos 0
F sin 0
F
applied force per weld
Ff = f sin
Average normal stress S
wl
effective weld length
in
cutting plane:
average, shear stress at 45-dcgree
L =
formulas for combined
F(sin
F=
induced stresses (normal or shear
52 S 3
be used, as was done for the
regardless of direction, as a shear stress. If a

,
+ cos 0)
the conventional analytical formula for

stress can
welds an alternative procedure
bination of stresses S,
stress at angle
where
at
can be seen even from the simplified diagrams
it
e disregarded
<p
the same location
If several stresses in different planes
to determine
cos
plane:
dard stress formulas for tension, bending, or torsion.

3.
tl
weld. However, the lower joint efficiency
stresses are
a, section
<p
the throat plane and equal to the weld
at
wl
WELD DESIGN
268
than one stressed longitudinally (parallel).
Some
used
in
parallel welds, the
combination with
specifications allow the use of
However,
a higher allowable stress for transverse welds.
if transverse
welds are
When
transverse fillet welds are used together
it is
is uniformly distributed between the welds. Distribution of the shear

uniform throughout the weld sections. Bending stress is linearly distributed according to beam theory. (If two or more types of welds-groove, fillet, or
plug are combined in a single joint, the allowable capacity of each is computed
(b) Stresses
= 0.707w/, 2 /3.
Zx
assumed that
the load
stress
a = 2tL = 1.414w/>.
Area:
Section modulus:
and
parallel
weld cross-section properties.
(a) Critical
lower allowable stress for parallel
welds must be used.

5.
269
from force/*.
is
with reference to the group to determine the capacity of the entire group of
Bending:
S,
=MjZ x
= Pe/Z x
S 2 = PjltL = Pj\ A)4wL.
Direct shear:
welds,)
The moment of inertia about the longitudinal
6.
is
maximum S =
weld cross section
axis of the
(S] + S
'
.)
<ES a
disregarded.
7.
computed by
Stresses
The
only.
stress
formulas are nominal, due to external loads
effects of stress concentrations, residual stresses,
and shape of weld
(c) Stresses
from force F.
< ESa
S 3 = F/2tL ~ F/l A\4wL
Shear:
are neglected for static loads.
The
8.
effect
stresses in the
deflections of the parts connected
of possible
weld
is
The
neglected.
by welding on the
(d)
Maximum combined
stress
maximum 5=
These assumptions result
in conservative
variations in weld quality, however, they
weld
seem
A. considerable disadvantage of this method
weld has to be
is
first
assumed for
stress
sizes.
Example
and
as
is
to be justified.
is
computations.
10.2.
structural clip with double
in Fig. 10.8.
combined. Joint efficiency
fillet
If later the
of the
maximum
fillet
stress
weld
possible bearing
<ESa
,/2
the shear
S2
Example
is
is transmitted through the fillet welds only and no credit is taken for
between the lower part of the clip and the vessel wall. The assumption that
is
carried uniformly in welds
is
generally accepted.
subjected to forces
10.3.
force F, as
ciency
thin support clip of a length
shown
E is based
in Fig. 10.9.
on the weld
Determine the
with
fillet
based on the weld throat width
t.
Bending
stress:
leg w.
S = qjwL
{
q - Fej(w + T).
where
S 2 = F/2wL.
stress:
1
Combined maximum
Fig. 10.8.
stress:
S-
(S
+5 2.)
7
Fig. 10.9.
'
welds
is
subjected to
stresses in the welds. Joint effi-
Consider the effects of both forces separately and

is
this
Shear
Av
+ S 3 ) 2 +5|]
[(S,
Note. The whole load
that the throat size
very suitable for checking existing welds.
shown
F and P.
Considering the possible
too far from allowable stress the computations must be revised. However,
procedure
due to forces
parts are assumed to be rigid.
<ESa
270
WELD DESIGN
271
-T
mm
centroid of
the total
weld group
-b
Structural clip subjected to an eccentric twisting load P.
Fig. 10.10.
Fig. 10.11.
Example
shown in
10.4.
Determine the
maximum
stress in the fillet
weld around the
Fig. 10.12.
clip
Fig. 10.10.
(b)
(a) Critical
The maximum
torsional stress
S^Pie + b-
n) r max
is
at point
A:
weld cross-section properties.

a = 2bt + dt.
Throat area:
where
= [(b
r max
nf
+ (d/2) 2
>
2
.
This stress can be resolved into a vertical component
The procedure
for determining the polar
area of a weld joint
is
straight section of the
as follows. (1)
moment
The polar moment of
weld area with reference to
centroid of the entire weld
is
J of
of inertia
its
own
the total weld
inertia
JQ of each
Sy = Si
cos
S H - Si
sin a.
centroid and to the
computed
and a horizontal component

3
Jo =(Z,r /12) + (L r/12) + (Lr) r\

3
and disregardingZ,r /12
(c)
The
direct shear stress
is
J0 =Lt[(L /\2) + rl]

where rc
is
S 2 =P/(2bt +
from the origin O to the centroid of the weld section

The formula is valid for both positions. (2) The polar moment
the distance
(see Fig. 10. 11).
of inertia J of the entire weld
the
is
section areas. In Fig. 10.12 the total
/ = 2bt [(b 2 l
summation of d\\J^s of
moment
2) + r\
S2
is
(d)
vertical
and additive to S v
The maximum shear
S*
]
stress at
point
A combined
is
the individual weld
/is
+ dt [(d 2 l 12) + n 2
dt).
[(S 2
+S V ) 2 +S 2H
l>
<ESa
Treating the Fillet Weld Critical Section as a Line
where
This
method
is
simpler and
more
the weld size directly. Actually,
using linear
n = (2bt)(b/2)l(2bt + dt) = b 2 l(2b + d).
moments of
direct than the previous one. It permits finding

it
originated from the "weld area
inertia, polar
the standard design stress formulas.
It
method" by
and rectangular, of the weld outlines
in
can be shown that the properties/ and/
272
of thin areas are equal to the properties
by
a line, multiplied
its
J w and I w of
uniform thickness
t,
a weld section treated as
Table 10.3.
with negligible error; for instance
Linear
Z w r.
Instead of unit stress
/=S X
force
in psi the result in standard design
in lb/lin. in.
is
unit
OUTLINE OF THE
WELDED JOINT
of weld length. If several forces/in different planes
same point they
are acting at the
formulas
are
combined
vectorially. This gives a clearer
and mentally more acceptable picture than does the previous method. The linear
moments J w and I w and the linear section modulus Z w of a weld outline can
..
For convenience the J w and
1.
(in.
0(in.
3
)
JW
w-
12
A1
rf
U
z w =--
7w
+ Jul/
VM 2
6
Draw
freebody diagram of the attachment to be connected with a
fillet
3
-
moments.
2. Draw the proposed weld outline and select orthogonal reference axesx.jy,
z, usually axes of symmetry with the reference point 0 in the centroid of the
weld outline. Compute the linear properties of the total weld outline (length L,
acting forces and
all
J Wi and Z w
3.
x-x
POLAR MODULUS i w
ABOUT CENTROID
,2
0
C-
The required weld leg w is then determined by dividing the resultant computed
/ by the allowable unit force fw The entire design procedure to compute the resultant /can be summarized as follows:
weld and
SECTION MODULUS
Z w ABOUT AXIS
KrHi
are given in Table 10.3.
unit force
and J w of Compound Weld Sections.
be computed by using the parallel-axis theorem or by direct integration.

Z w values of some commonly used weld outlines
easily
Zw
,-ift-x
moments with
forces and
all
Zw
= bd +
Zw
= bd +
_2bd + d2
bd
KHfa
,o
as required).
Determine
Zw
<r
{b
Jw
df
reference to the weld outline. If
required, they are resolved into components.

4. Using conventional stress formulas with linear properties, the
unit forces /*,
fyt fz due
to
all
added
The maximum allowable
w equal
to one inch
the same
in the resultant force/:
/=(/+/WD
weld
maximum
if at
5.
location, they are vectorially
5.
computed and,
external loads are
is
unit force
fw
^x
Sa
is
the
maximum
efficiency of the
in lb/lin. in.
on an equal-leg
fillet
3(/>
is
is
then
1
The disadvantages of the above method

combinations of
fillet
(in.).
is
{2b + d)
that
it
+ 2d) z
12
2
d {b+d)
(fc + 2d).
+ d)
2M + d 2
w
w=///w
b (b + d)
the joint
based on the weld leg
is
12
(b
Jw
allowable stress of the base metal and
leg
weld, based on throat area. If
fw = ESa
The required minimum weld
area, then
6.
fillet
1/2
fw = 0.707 ES a
where
{2b + d)
Jw
by
given
d
--
3
2
_</ (2fc+d)
11
~b+id
mW
+ 2d) 3
12
{b
(6
+ d) 2
+ 2d)
3(6
cannot readily be applied to
welds with different throat thicknesses, and possible error
273
WELD DESIGN
274
{Continued)
Table 10.3.
OUTLINE OF THE
WELDED JOINT
POLAR MODULUS J w
ABOUT CENTROID
SECTION MODULUS
Z w ABOUT AXIS
x x
(in.
0(in. 3 )
r=H-
=6
2
Abd + d
275
(2),
J ui
_4bd 2 +d*
w
d*(Ab+d) ^ b*
6(b + d)
66 + 3d
Fig. 10.13.
zw
= bd + -
_ b
'
+lbd 2 +d
-6
/,
Shear:
f2 = V/L =
mw
= ... + - -
2M
<->,
26
+6W 2- +d 3
"
1
-<|>-
/=
^.
Leg
computation of f w for welds of high ratios of f to the depth of the weld

outline. However, it shortens design time, is of acceptable accuracy, and its use
Example
in. Fig.
(a)
Weld
10.5.
10.13,
here.
Determine the
Sa = 12,000
size
of the
fillet
weld for the plate support
E- 0.55
psi for base metal,
Weld properties;
length:
Linear section modulus:
2,550/12 = 215
lb/in.
lb/in.
'H/L = 2,550/12 = 215
lb/in.
size
[(/i
based on the weld
due to combined forces Fand//:
+ h) 2 + /ll
size:
1/2
2
= [(215 + 1.275) 2 + 215
'2
= ///w = 1,505/(0.55 X 12,000) = 0.228
Use -in. fillet weld all around. Corrosion allowance

not painted or exposed to a corrosive environment.
Distance between vertical welds negligible.

Distance between vertical (horizontal) parallel welds negligible.
recommended
Weld
6/12 = 1,275
in the
is
Shear:
(d)
nd
Unit force due to H.
(c)
Z. w
= Ve\Z x = 2,550
Bending:
Primary and Secondary
Fillet
is
= 1,505
in.
added only
if
the vessel
is
Welds
According to the importance and the magnitude of the load transmitted, fijlet
welds can be subdivided into primary and secondary.
Primary welds carry the entire load in some way, and if they fail the structure
clip
fails.
The welds must be
leg.
example
is
as strong as the other
members of
the structure.
An
the weld connecting a support skirt to a vertical vessel subject to
external loads. All such welds are generally designed as continuous.

Secondary welds, on the other hand, are welds subject to comparatively light
L = 2d = 6 X 2 =
Zx
= 2^ /6 = 12
in.
2 in.
2
only holding the structural parts together. A good

example are the vertical welds on built-up saddles for horizontal drums. Obloads or no loads at
all,
viously, they need not be continuous or excessively large. However,

(b) Unit forces due to V.
lb/in.
cations [79]
recommend
minimum
fillet
weld
size
AWS Specifi-
based on the thicker plate,
WELD DESIGN
276
Recommended Minimum Weld
Table 10.4.
Thick Plates (AWS).
THICKNESS T OF THICKER
PLATE WELDED (in.)
5-in. centers
MINIMUM LEG SIZE OF

FILLET WELD w (in.)
2-in.
x = (3/5) 100 = 60
percent. Use
-in.
weld, 3
in.
long on
gap between the welds.
made
a circular weld
is
either
by
arc or gas welding through
of a lap or tee joint. Plug-weld holes in thin plates are completely
in heavier plates
16
3
8
\\<T<l\
plug weld
member
with
is
PLUG WELDS
10.4.
3
16
\<T<\\
wc
continuous weld
Sizes for
277
(|
in.
thick and over) they are only partially
one
filled;
filled.
Plug welds in vessel construction are used most often to fix the corrosion
resistant lining to the base metal.
They
are
sometimes used
welds
as strength
2
5
6<T
in single lap joints,
and then only
as given in
reinforcing pads, or nonpressure structural attachments,
Table 10.4. With a
minimum
size given the cost
of welding can be
in addition to
Determining Plug Weld Size
reduced by using intermittent welds. The size of the intermittent weld can be
computed from the condition that the strength or the areas of both (continuous
Code
and intermittent) must be equal:
shear or in tension can be
wc L
in
percent of length
= Wi(xL)
recommended
is
wc
if
allows only 30 percent of the total load to be carried by plug
they are used (UW-17). The allowable working load on
computed by
wc
P=
js
the leg of the
the leg of the required intermittent weld.
are given in Table 10.5. All
fillet
re-
The
lengths and spacings of the intermittent welds of leg size
expressed as a percentage of
Division
welds
x = (w c /w,) 1 00
and
of the continuous weld, where
quired continuous weld and
other types of welds.
welds for
the
plug weld in
Code formula:
0.63(6?- \)
Sa
where
Sa -
the allowable stress in tension of the base metal
d=
the
T=
the plate thickness being welded.
the weld hole, limited to
bottom diameter of
T + %<d<2T+
structural nonpressure attachments, inside and also outside, welded to the pres-
sure parts,
where an occasional inspection for corrosion
continuous or with intermittent strength welds and
minimum
ness,
length of an intermittent
whichever
is
larger.
fillet
The minimum
used for strength welds, and
Example 10.6. Ifw c =
in.
in. for seal
weld
1^
is
practical size
is
seal
in.
difficult,
should be
welds between. The
or 4 times plate thick-
of the weld leg
is
in.
welds.
w,- in
is
in.,
cannot be considered as plug or
fillet
weld
10.7.
LENGTH-SPACING FOR
INTERMITTENT WELDS
3-5
60
50
40
30
25
4-8
2-5 4-10
3-10
2-8 3-12
2-4
slot welds.
shown
in Fig. 10.14.
percent of the length of the
Intermittent Welds.
PERCENT OF LENGTH OF
CONTINUOUS WELDS
4d.
Determine the combined load capacity of the plug weld and
in the single lap joint
Plate materials:
Table 10.5.
larger than
Similar to plug welds, but not too often used in pressure vessel design, are slot
welds for transmitting larger loads than plug welds. Fillet welds in slots or holes
Example
and the required minimum weld leg size
the required length of the intermittent weld
The weld spacing should be equal or
SA515
grade 60,
fillet
5,000
P=
Allowable force on plug weld:

Allowable force on
Sa =
weld:
F=4X
psi,
0.63(d
E = 0.50
based on weld
2
) 15,000 = 5,320
leg.
lb.
0.4375 X 0.50 X 15,000 = 13,130
P+
Total allowable load per spacing:
F=
18,450
lb.
3-6
(5,320/18,450) X 100 = 29 percent

Efficiency of the joint:
(18,450/4 X
<
30 percent.
15,000)
X 100 = 62
percent.
lb.
WELD DESIGN
278
defined as the design stress intensity value of the welded material (weld metal
weaker) times the nominal weld area and multiplied by a Code reduction
dia
if
*j
Nominal weld area
factor.
t
not
and
Code Appendix
AISC Specifications
4
welds
fillet
is
the
minimum
throat area, with
5.
[34] are often used for the design of structural parts conlifting lugs, supports, etc. The permissible design stress
nected to a vessel, such as

i
for groove welds with full penetration can be taken the
material
if
prescribed electrodes are used.
throat area
weld
for
than \ in. Welds subjected to fluctuating stresses must be designed

evaluated according to design values based on fatigue analysis, as
less
described in
i_.
279
leg for
w=
computation:
\-h
in
is
The allowable
same
as for the parent
stress for the fillet
weld
given in terms of the specified strength of the weld metal, depend-
ing on the electrode used. Here the nominal composition of the electrode
must
'
be considered by the designer when selecting the joint efficiency for the weld.
Fig. 10.14.
Allowable joint efficiencies for welds are usually given in the
Summary.
applicable codes and specifications. In the absence of definite rules the designer
DESIGN ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR WELDEO JOINTS
10.5.
has to estimate the efficiency E.

select (in
An important
responsibility of the designer
is
good engineering
practice
would be
to
terms of decimal fractions):
to select a proper allowable work-
ing stress or safety factor for the pressure or structural attachment welds used in
Weld metal properties should equal or be very close to those of

the -base metal. However, usually too much attention is given to the higher
strength of the weld deposit metal and too little to the heat-affected critical
for groove welds:
E = 0.80-1 .00
for fillet welds:
E - 0.60-0.80 (based
the vessel design.
E = 0.45-0.55
areas of the adjacent metal.
advantageous for the designer to be able to express the strength of the

weld material in terms of the strength of the base metal modified by some
for plug welds:
E = 0.60-0.80
for forged welds:
E = 0.80.
on throat area)
(based on leg area)
It is
efficiency factor
to compensate for possible variations in the weld quality and
approximations in the
stress
The upper
computations.
magnetic
Code Division
mum
specifies in Table
UW-12 and paragraph UW-12
the maxi-
allowable joint efficiencies for welded joints of main pressure vessel seams,
with certain limitations. The joint efficiencies depend on the type of weld and
the degree of radiographic examination. Paragraph UW-15 gives the allowable
stress values in terms of percentages of the plate material for groove and fillet
welds of nozzle and other connections. Paragraph

load on
UW-18
specifies the allowable
welds connecting nonpressure parts to vessel pressure parts as equal

to the product of the weld area based on the minimum leg dimension w, the
fillet
allowable stress in tension of the material being welded
S a and
,
the joint
efficiency values
would be used
for welds
examined by radiographic,
particle, or liquid penetrant examinations.
The term
joint efficiency
is
considered by some as a holdover from riveted
construction with a definite ultimate strength and
is
replaced by terms such as
reduction or reliability factor.
The allowable
stresses for
welds under fluctuating loads
lower than the allowable stresses for welds subject to
will
be substantially
static loads only.
They
be based on the endurance strength S N of the base metal and related to the
number of working cycles TV. For instance, the endurance limit of butt-welded
joints could be taken as S'N = 0.855^ In addition, concentration factors have to
will
be used in computing the
maximum
stress in the structural part.
effi-
ciency of 55 percent.
Code Division 2 requires for all pressure shell welds a full radiographic examination. The strength of welds so inspected is considered to be the same as the
strength of the base metal (AD- 140). All welds, groove or fillet, joining nonpressure parts to pressure parts (AD-920) must be continuous, with strength
10.6.
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS FOR WELDS
Stress concentrations in welds are
due to geometry of welded
joints, defects
and imperfections in the welds, and also the different metallurgical structures
of the weld metal, the metal in the heat-affected zone, and the base metal.
280
Table 10.6.
WELD DESIGN
Stress Concentration Factors.
Reinforced full-penetration groove-weld butt joint
Toe of transverse fillet weld

End of parallel fillet weld
Groove-weld
jT-joint
be used on nonmagnetic materials such as austenitic stainless
alloys. Again, at least the root
0 = 1.2
fi
The most important nondestructive
0 = 2.0
effects of these factors
on
stresses
induced by steady loads
weld material can be disregarded. However,
if
the weld
under shock, or fluctuating loads, the influence of
comes
significant.
The
is
in a ductile
hard and
brittle, or
stress concentrations be-
stress concentration factors in
Table 10.6 are used to
test
method
Any
the form of radiographic films.
tions, will
be detected on radiographic film
examination
is
is
radiography (RT).
It
auto-
change in density of the weld metal

as a
dark spot.
A good radiographic
hard to achieve on tee joints, and therefore radiography
mainly on butt joints.
is
used
However, radiographs cannot be interpreted to ascertain
(UT)
Ultrasonic examination
is
many
angle shots are taken.
frequently used today to detect subsurface
flaws such as laminations or slag inclusions in thick plates, welds, castings, etc.
DEFECTS AND NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATIONS OF WELDS
The most common weld defects can be summarized
aluminum
being examined, such as gas pockets, slag inclusions, and incomplete penetra-
the absence of cracks at an angle unless
ensure safer welded connections.
10.7.
steels or
of more important welds
matically provides a permanent record of the internal quality of the weld material in
The
finish passes
must be inspected.
1.5
& = 2.7
with sharp corners
and the
281
These nondestructive examinations are not mutually exclusive, but rather
complementary.
as follows:
poor weld shape due to misalignment of the parts being welded,

10.8.
cracks in welds or heat-affected zones of the base metal,
pinholes on the weld surface,

It
form of voids,
incomplete fusion between weld beads or weld and base metal,
lack or insufficient penetration of the weld metal in joints,
slag inclusions or porosity in the
A, good weld design
starts
fit-up
with the designer. However, the
many
vessel designer to have a general
knowledge of
in fabrication of pressure vessels.
Both the type
of welding process used and the welding conditions greatly affect the quality
of welds and the estimated weld efficiencies in strength computations of nonleft
by weld metal.
connection depends on
would seem appropriate for a

main welding processes used
the
undercutting, an intermittent or continuous groove adjacent to the weld

unfilled
WELDING PROCESSES
final
well-welded
factors. Well-prescribed welding procedure,
good
Code welds. Selection of proper welding electrodes is usually done by welding

engineers. The following discussion presents brief descriptions of the welding
processes most commonly used in the fabrication of pressure vessels (UW-27
Welding Processes).
of parts being welded, supervision, and weld examination are required to
ensure good quality welds in addition to good design. The designer usually
specifies
the type of examination called for
quired for important strength welds.
methods of inspection follows.

Thorough visual inspection (VT)
by
the applicable code or as
brief review of the five
most important
basic
all
(SMAW)
This form of welding
widely used. The heat for welding
is
resistance of the arc air gap to the flow

is
usually satisfactory for minor structural
examined are first thoroughly

visually inspected. The liquid penetrant examination (PT) is used to examine
more important welds or welds where other methods would be hard to apply.
Both of these methods are suitable for detecting cracks or any surface defects
welds. Also,
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
re-
surfaces of welds to be further
or subsurface defects with surface openings. If liquid penetrant inspection
is
of
is
produced by the
electric current. Also called stick
SMAW
is almost always done manually. As the electrode

which conducts the current to the arc melts and provides
the welded joint. The coating of the electrode breaks down to
electrode welding,
heats, the core wire

filler
metal for
form
a gaseous shield for the arc
slag,
which protects the weld
quality of weld, since
it
as
and weld puddle

it
as well as a small
cools. Shielding
is
amount of
very important for the
prevents absorbtion of gases from the
air
into the
used on multilayer welds, each bead should be so examined to inspect the weld
molten metal and also prevents the
properly. In practice at least the root and the finish passes are routinely inspected.
of molten metal through the arc. The process
In vessel construction a liquid penetrant test
of very good quality. However, the rate of weld deposition (the weight of weld
is
required after a hydrotest.
The magnetic particle test (MT) is suitable for detecting cracks, porosities,
and lack of fusion at or near the surface in ferromagnetic materials. Since this
method depends on the magnetic properties of the material tested, it can not
loss
metal deposited in a unit welding time)
of alloying elements during the transfer
is
is
very versatile and provides welds
only moderate, so the use of
SMAW is
confined to production of small pieces such as nozzles, structural attachments,

etc.,
or to repair work.
WELD DESIGN
282
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

fully automatic,
This process, almost always
used
in
Fillet
V-groove
Bevel
the fabrication of main
welds at low cost. However,
vessel seams. It gives excellent
horizontal positions only.
is
continuous consumable wire
it
can be used for

Fig. 10.15.
coil
is
283
Weld symbols.
used as elec-
trode. Weld puddle and arc are protected by liquid slag, formed from granular
mineral flux deposited ahead of the arc. The rate of weld deposition is high.
In practice, automatic welder moves on average at a rate up to 60 inches per
chemical process. Oxygen
orifice in the cutting torch;
forces the oxidized
minute.
is
fed to the heated metal area through a central

it
oxidizes the heated metal, and the gas pressure
and melted metal out of the
or automated, can achieve high accuracy.
manual
cut.
Flame
cutting, either
When low-carbon
steel
is
flame cut, no detrimental effect in the heat affected zone can be assumed.
(GMAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding
consumable continuous wire is used as an electrode which melts and supplies

filler metal for the welded joint. A protective shield of inert gases (helium,
argon, C0 2 or a mixture of gases) is used. The process produces excellent welds
the
Resistance Welding
The heat of
fusion
at
than the
less cost
GTAW
process (see below) with higher weld deposition
electric current.
is
No
generated by the resistance

shielding
is
metal joining. Usually the process
rate.
ment
is
(RSEW)
at
the interface to the flow of
must be applied
required. Pressure
is
for
good
confined to certain jobs and special equip-
provided. Resistance spot welding
(RSW)
or resistance
are used to fix corrosion-resistant linings to the wall
seam weldv j
of a vessel
shell.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

This process
metals
which
is
is
used
required.
when
An
arc
the highest-quality welding with difficult to weld

is
formed by
nonconsumable tungsten electrode,
carries the electric current; the filler metal, if required,
is
added separately
from a rod or a continuous wire. Inert gas flows around the arc and the weld
puddle to protect the hot metal. Weld deposition rate is comparatively low.
Gas Welding
10.9.
WELD SYMBOLS
The standard welding symbols established by the American Welding Society

information in
are commonly used by vessel designers to convey the welding
referred
to refs.
is
reader
The
drawings.
a concise form on shop or engineering
symbols.
of
these
80 and 81 for a listing
The weld symbols are used to indicate the desired weld type (see Fig. 10.1 5).
They are always shown as part of the welding symbols. Welding symbol is an array of elements specifying
Heat of fusion
is
generated by burning
flame of gas with oxygen. Different
gases are used, as described below.
The oxyhydrogen process (OHW) uses hydrogen

temperature obtainable
is
about 4,000F.
OHW
is
for combustion.
The highest
suitable for metals with
low
melting points, such as aluminum.
The oxyacetylene process (OA W) uses acetylene gas. The maximum obtainable
temperature is about 6,300F, suitable for welding most commercial metals. No
flux is used when carbon steel is welded. Almost always used manually for small
shop or maintenance welding, and suitable for all positions, OAW requires
manual skill. Welds are of good quality, but weld deposition rate is relatively
low.
The oxyacetylene flame
is
also used for
flame cutting or flame machining, which

Flame cutting is basically a
are important processes in the fabrication of steel.
formed.
An example
how
the welding of the entire joint should be per-
of an assembled welding symbol
is
used in Fig. 10.5.
SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
285
5-10 years: Carbon-steel piping, heat-exchanger tube bundles, and various pro-
11
cess
column
The
selected material
internals.
must be suitable
for services of different levels of severity
from the standpoint of pressure, temperature, corrosive environments, cyclic

steady operations, etc. Obviously, a
Selection of Construction Materials
number of
since the choice of material for a vessel
depends primarily on the
with corrosion rates negligible or very low and definitely
maximum
more extensive treatment of the selection of materials for industrial pressure vessels is beyond the scope of this book, see refs. 83 to 100.
The selection of construction materials for Code pressure vessels has to be
made from Code approved materia! specifications. A metallurgical engineer
most economical materials of low
first
cost and/or low
future maintenance cost that will be satisfactory under operating conditions and
that,
many
factors supported
must be considered
in. total;
otherwise an alternative
used); or corrosive, requiring special
NONCORROSIVE SERVICE
11.2.
fundamental material selection
In addition to corrosion resistance, the
(from -425F to
In the range of cryogenic temperatures
low alloy
steels are brittle
aluminum
criteria
and design pressure.
are design temperature
and austenitic
do not exhibit
.alloys that
50F) carbon and
stainless steels or nonferrous metals like
loss of the
temperatures must be employed, (see Table
.1).
impact strength
(For
at
very low
cyrogenic engineer the
low temperatures is usually -240F,

permanent gases remain in the gaseous
dividing line between the cryogenic and
meet other requirements.
There are
of
is
who
must be familiar with commonly used construction materials to be able to specify

them correctly on engineering drawings or in material specifications for a par-
will
service environ-
materials other than carbon steels or low-alloy steels.
This chapter should serve as a brief information guide for a vessel engineer
usually specifies the
or
However,
service: noncorrosive,
material with a better corrosion resistance
ticular job.
possible.
practical to classify construction materials according to
it
established (for carbon steel, a
is
would seem
ment,
11.1.
divisions
by experience and laboratory
in selecting the
most
suitable materials.
below which temperature only
so-called
test results
They include
state.
This distinction
is
not of practical significance here.)
The temperature range
the following;
brittle
is
the
called
which
at
transition
a material
changes gradually from ductile to
temperature and
is
from
readily determined
conducted over a range of temperatures. The designer of

Code low-temperature equipment must base his computations on the Coae approved properties of the material at room temperature. However, for some Code
Charpy impact
corrosion resistance in the service corrosive environment,

strength requirements for design temperature and pressure,
cost,
tests
(ULT 23) the higher yield and tensile strengths of alloys at very low
temperatures can be used to reduce weight and cost where possible. Because of
materials
ready market availability,

fabricability,
the low reactivity of most chemicals at very low temperatures, corrosion prob-
quality of future maintenance.
lems are few.

Generally, process equipment
is
designed for a certain
minimum
under specific operating conditions. Based on a corrosion rate

per year
(MPY)
a total
corrosion allowance
is
in mils
established which
is
service life
(0.001
in.)
added to the
calculated required thickness. Typical design lives are given below for several
At low temperature Cfrom
150F to +32F; the Code upper
limit
is
20F),
low-alloy and fine-grain carbon steels tested for notch toughness are found to
perform
satisfactorily.
In the range of intermediate temperatures (from
carbon
types of petrochemical equipment:
steels are sufficient.
Up
to
+33F
to about
+800F) low-
about 800F they behave essentially
in
an
manner; that is, the structure returns to its original dimensions when applied forces are removed and maximum stress is below the yield point. The
elastic
20 years: Fractionating towers, reactors, high-pressure heat-exchanger

and other maior equipment which is hard to replace.
shells,
design allowable stress
is
based on the yield strength or the ultimate strength,

tests, supplemented by fatigue or impact tests,
obtained from short time rupture
10-15 years: Carbon-steel drums, removable reactor parts, and alloy or carbontower internals.
steel
where fluctuating or shock
stresses are involved.
CO
u
<
X
o 2
-
(_
parts
(
co
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z
CQ
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co
tfl
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CO
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So
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304
F12
00
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co U.
to
<N
kH
ob
*o
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CO CO
t
3^
CO o
grades
|. E '3JS 2
316H,321H,347H
SA182gr.
SA182gr.
82
a 73

<
SAl
316H,
types
CO
o co
<
CO
< s <
f">
SA335
347H
Pll
P12
P22
SA335
SA335
304H,
<
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CO CO CO
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SA335
321H,
*
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41
tesi
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-a
Iiui
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r*J
ft!
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co
co
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rs
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e V
E
d J9>>T3
_e
sO
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la
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i-
fi
gr.
gr.
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21
types
16
-a
i*
(9
22CL1
12C1.1
11
B,
o
thick
thiol
t-i
(see
O.l
BorC
:
all
X
all
gra<
304,316,
grades,
Iiui
t?
S
ft B
...
>act
all
4)
led
over
ft
w
2 ^ o
5 E
SA312
m
ted
0 u
c g
W M W
k- c
o d
PI
=2
(0
CO
ro
i*
4>
CN
O0
<
CO
t-H
IS
E c
=
=
ftO
s
>>
cm
i-<"
bO
<N
OO
00
U.
.2
3
" >
a a sO
rs
(N J"
00 Tf fN
< O ^
en <!
<
to b to
Fll
5- _ &
o a a!3!
H,
s
b
rt
<=
SA193
ex
11.5)
.2
preferred
gr.
gr.
310
SA516all
thicknesses
thicknesses
321,347
io
<
co S 3
<
CO
2
t
< "!
CO
SA387gr.
SA387gr.
section
347
SA204
SA204
SA387
Incoloy
Type
SA240
*n
roo
^>
c S
-o
+1500
OOTI+-0O0I+
+876-+1000
CC td
a.
U
H
+1100-+1500
\C
p
r-
ajBipauiiaiui
above
ssjniBjadiuai pa jb a 3(3
Is
infill
288
At elevated temperatures (above 800F) marked changes

erties
occur
in
mechanical prop-
They begin to exhibit a drop in ultimate and yield strengths

be elastic, becoming partly plastic. Under a constant load, there is
in steels.
and cease to
continuous increase in permanent deformation, called creep. The creep rate is

measured in percent of a unit length per unit time. Actually, some creep begins
at temperatures over 650F, but it does not become an important factor for
a
carbon
stress
steels until
is
temperatures over 800F are reached. The design allowable
Ferritic
{straight
chromium)
stainless
criteria: (a) the deformation due to creep during the

must remain within permissible limits, and (b) a rupture must
not occur. The allowable stresses are obtained from long-term creep tests and
stress rupture tests at elevated
on high-temperature endurance
temperatures.
Few
data,
4.
Austenitic stainless
stresses in the
Code
problem and not so straightforward
The choice has

changes in the
These are the only
steels.
to be based
steel
if
5.
Special high-temperature-resisting alloys.
A large number
carbon
is
generally a
for temperatures
and Incoloy.
as material selection for
may
Description of Plate Materials.
SPECIFICATION
ASTM
No. 5) is preferred in
and impact strengths and
corrosion resistance. However, at high temperatures, where the main
requirement
is
a superior creep-rupture strength, a coarsed-grained material
A(SA)285
gr.
Carbon
iiuckiicss
A(SA)515
These vary
i.
in,u.io purt-cni
iiidA.
(ASTM No. up
Carbon
Coarse austenitic grain
Carbon
Fine austenitic grain
A(SA)283 gr.CorD
Carbon
Structural, supports, clips
A(SA)36
Carbon
Structural steel, various shapes; 0.26 percent
gr.
A(SA)516
gr.
size
size
(ASTM No. above
5)
55, 60, 65, 70
C max.
in
strength at temperatures below
cause of small differences in carbon content, but they
creep range. Where their use
is
all
650F
be-
have similar properties
most economical material for intermediate as

well as for elevated temperatures at low pressures. Not only are they relatively
cheap per pound, they are also comparatively easy to fabricate. Each additional
alloying element increases the cost of the steel,
and often the
difficulty
gr.
A, B,
A(SA)302
gr.
l^Mn-^Mo
A(SA)387
gr.
^Cr-tMo
gr.
12
gr.ll
rication
and hydrogen attack is required. These steels have better creep-rupture

properties and high-temperature strength than carbon steels, and there is an
economy in using them for pressure vessels subjected to high pressure at tem-
Steam
boilers
Max. 1000F Elevated-temperature
lCr-tMo
1200F
Each grade
l|-Cr-| Mo-Si
1200F
classes, Cl.l
is
and
2,
depending on
2^-Cr-lMo
1200F
tensile strength,
21
3Cr-lMo
1200F
the heat treatment, CI. 2 has a
5Cr-^Mo
or
60
Carbon
200 F
course austenitic grain size
Fine grain practice (FGP) quality preferred for
low-temperature service
2^-Ni
A(SA)203 gr.CorD
3f Ni
A(SA)353
9Ni
A(SA)410
CrCuNiAl
gr.
or
Min. operating temperature
-90F
itization
peratures over 650F. Furthermore, these steels
hydrogen attack.
may be
required to
resist
oxida-
two
of different
22
A(SA)442gr. 55
A(SA)203
service.
available in
gr.
gr.5
be
Elevated-temperature service
gr.
of fab-
and welding as well. The final overall cost of a carbon steel vessel may
much less than the cost of an alloy steel vessel.
2. Carbon-molybdenum steels, low chromium-molybdenum alloy steels (up
to 3Cr-lMo) and intermediate chromium-molybdenum alloy steels (up to
9Cr-lMo). Some of these can be used up to 1200F, where resistance to graph-
C-^Mo
A(SA)204
not limited by sulfur corrosion or hydrogen
attack, they usually represent the
tion, sulfidation, or
to 5)
55, 60, 65, 70
into five general types:

steels.
General pressure vessel material;max. available
may
Steels used in vessel construction for elevated temperatures can be classified
Carbon
REMARKS
number of
occur which affect mechanical properties
because of the resulting higher tensile, fatigue,
B, with an internal refractory lining thick
gr.
TYPE OF
STEEL
ASTM(ASME)
lower temperatures.
on several factors. At high temperatures,
microstructure
SA 204
complex
be preferred.
in the
These are used

steels
of high-temperature vessels are fabricated of cheaper, low-alloy
steels, for instance
Table 11.2.
temperatures, fine-grained microstructure (above
1.
steels assigned allowable
any, are available
The mechanical properties of alloys are affected both by chemcomposition and by grain size. Usually, at low and intermediate operating
steels
some
1200F, up to 1500F. A deusefulness above this temperature.
above 1500F. They include type 310 stainless
to a high degree.
better
in
for temperatures higher than
crease in oxidation resistance limits their
limits.
Selection of steels for elevated-temperature service
ical
These are used
steels.
applications.
then based on two
service lifetime
from
3.
289
-150F
-320F
Max. 0.12 percent C, min. operating
temperature -125F
290
enough to keep the wall metal temperature at a level where the full strength of
the metal can be used in computing the shell thickness. Internal insulation is not
practical,
however,
in
heat exchangers or small-diameter piping, where stainless
are more often used. Where an internal refractory is used, differential

thermal expansion of internals must be considered, as well as heat transfer
through internals welded to the shell, which cause shell hot spots.
steels
Table 11.1 summarized the steels most
commonly used
in the vessel design at
various temperatures. Table 11.2 provides a guide for quick identification of

steels
by type.
Glass, rubber, enamel, lead,
materials.
The
and teflon are successfully used
is
it
fabrication.
common and commercially readily available corrosion-resistant
most economical to use
carbon or low-alloy
In general, three
as protective lining
methods of
materials for petrochemical plants are stainless steels. For

shells
steel shells
backing
solid stainless steel
up
to
f -in.-thick vessel
plate; above this thickness
with applied corrosion-resistant layers are used.
methods of attaching the protective layer
recommended. Diffusion of carbon from
steels into austenitic stainless
ferritic
cladding occurs at high bonding tempera-
ture, but the carburized zone is very narrow and

does not affect the overall
strength or the corrosion resistance of the clad plate. Carbon
diffusion can be
minimized by nickel plating of the backing plate.
Where mild corrosion resistance is required, most cladding

materials are made of
chromium steels, types 405 or 410S. Both have lower thermal expansion
than carbon steel. For more severe corrosive service 18-8
stainless steels are
used. The grades with low carbon content or the
stabilized grades have to be
straight
if
PWHT
use of such linings calls for specialized
However, the most
suitable for the intended operating corrosive conditions.

Also, frequent service
inspections of the cladding are
used
CORROSIVE SERVICE
11.3.
291
welding
is
used in fabrication or a post weld heat treatment is required.

may be in the carbide precipitation range for unstabilized
temperatures
austenitic stainless steel and/or in the range of sigma-phase

formation; proper
attention has to be given to this in the selection of the stainless
steel
cladding
material, otherwise heat treatment
may
result in inferior
mechanical and cor-
rosion properties of the cladding material.
Table 11.3 lists some frequently used cladding materials; the backing
material
can be any carbon or low-alloy steel.
to the carbon steel
plate are usually applied; integral cladding, strip or sheet lining,
and weld over-
Strip or Sheet Lining
lay cladding.
An
Integrally Applied Cladding
is
fabricated in a steel mill
by hot
tures the pressure creates a solid-phase
strength required
minimum 20,000
psi in shear
by the Code. The thickness of the liner can be specified in

more often in fractions of an inch. For
percent of backing-plate thickness, or
most applications a thickness of
~-~
in. is
advantages.
It
Any
The
liner material
are
wide
weld metal should be of the same chemical composition as

the liner. A soap-suds air test is conducted after
completion of the weld to reveal
possible cracks and leaks in the liner or backing plate.
4
"T
in
is considered
of an integrally applied liner
FiI ler
Sheet-Type Lining.
fitted,
many
^-f
to the vessel shell.
in. thick.
Strip-Type Lining. Strips 3-5 ft long by 3-6 in. wide,

depending on service
temperature (narrower strips for higher temperatures), are attached
to the vessel
wall by a continuous weld around the edges. The
welds between the strips
in.
Integrally clad plate has
by welding
usually
quite sufficient and
a corrosion allowance. Rarely does the thickness
exceed |
is
used for integrally clad plates can be used for sheet or strip
lining.
weld between the backing and cladding
strength usually exceeds the
vessels with a corrosion-resistant layer
rolling of as-
semblies of carbon or low alloy steel plates (backing) and corrosion resistant
sheet (linear) which have been welded at the edges. In rolling at high tempera-
The bond
method to provide pressure
thickness of the alloy sheet or strip
Integrally clad or rollclad plate
metals.
alternative
a strip-type or sheet-type lining attached
is
can be hot or cold formed; lightly
loaded internal support clips can be directly attached to the cladding; and the
continuous bond eliminates the possibility of any corrosive substance getting
between the cladding and the backing metal. It would seem that differences in
and attached
The
sheets are several feet in width and length, tightly
to the vessel wall
by resistance spot welds on l| in. X 1} in.

square spacing for temperatures up to 800F and 1
in X 1 in. spacing for temperatures above 800F. Sometimes -in. plug welds
or
are used.
The purpose of spot welds
ment welds
is
in
seam
resistance welds
addition to the circumferential attach-
threefold:
thermal expansion might introduce peak stresses leading to cracks in the cladding,
particularly in the region of welds, but based
tegral
cladding perfor
However,
ms
special tests
on
practical experience, the in-
quite well at the elevated temperature or cyclic service.
may
be prescribed to prove that integrally clad plate
is
The spot welds provide
a tight attachment against the vessel wall.

Usually the protective sheet lining material has a different
thermal expansion rate than the carbon steel backing and the alloy
liner would buckle
t
2.
292
Table 11.3.
ASTM(SA) STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
INTEGRALLY
CLAD PLATE
ALLOY CLADDING
METAL
ASTM (SA)
SERVICE
08
U.Uo
K A 1740 Tvnr
-i v
IltdX.
7fr Al
1
1
15Cr
17Cr
1041
0 03
316L
J
347
zuu
700
ntn A
zuu nnoic
h
construction
is
vessel
expensive than
a vessel
where complete tightness
is
constructed from integrally
required integrally clad plate
preferred.
Weld Overlay Cladding
is less
notes 3, 5
Weld overlay cladding is another frequently used method to produce a continuous bonded layer of corrosion- or wear-resistant alloy on a base metal. In
notes 3, 5
C max
1
310S
C
L
way
clad plate; however,
...
REMARKS
1
L-iiromium-niLKi-i
A /C 41 ">A/t
-tnolc /\(,i3njiO*t
siceis,
fabricated in this
TEMPERATURE
.6
fl
429
430
293
grinding) to provide a suitable surface for application of the liner.
MAXIMUM
A(,oAj iypc*tiuo
Chromium steels,
A \ T
T
AA /C
J.O
OA)
ill
800
ouu
the construction of pressure vessels this
J1UIC u
ment
method
to the previous methods; for instance,
is
particularly used as a supple-
where the
liner has
been stripped
25Cr-20Ni
0.03 C max.
note 6
jldUtll'ivU
note 6
replaced by a weld deposit of the same chemical composition. With
note 6
lay irregular shapes can be covered without difficulty.
Cb
to allow a support bracket to be
800
stabilized
welded
directly to the base metal,

a
it
must be
weld over-
There are several potential disadvantages to weld overlay cladding:

Nickel and mcKcl-base
alloys,
/CD"!
A(SA)265
400
*t Uu
Inconcl 600
Incoloy 800
77
soo
Mrnrl
IVHjNL.I
168
409
424
1200
1200
1.
2.
Copper and copper-base

alloys,
Bl 52
Cu
P-dcoxidized
alloy
No. 102
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
mum
90Cu-10Ni
70Cu-30Ni
No. 715
and introduce
may
metallurgical reaction
large residual interna! stresses
take place, such as carbon diffusion from the
base to the austenitic weld, with resulting pollution of the alloy layer.
in.
is
usually 1^-4- in. thick to provide a mini-
of chemically pure cladding.
3. Differences in
Internal parts (trays, pans, baffles, etc.) are of the same class of alloy as the shell lining.
Maximim service temperature of the lining can be controlled by the maximum service
temperature allowed for the backing material.
The Code does not recommend the use of the Cr-stainless steels with a content of Cr over
14 percent for service metal temperature over 800E.
Operating temperatures should be outside the temperature range from 750K to *>S0F,
where the material is subject to embrittlement.
Not suitable for welding,
Because of the different thermal expansions of austenitic steels and carbon steels and
graphitization of carbon steels the operating temperature is also quite often limited to
800
distort
The thickness of the weld overlay
oxygcn-frcc,
B402 No. 706
ferritic
copper,
No. 122
B432
The procedure may
into the clad object.
Incoloy 825
coefficients of thermal expansion
become important
for
high-temperature service (over 800F). Each time the austenitic weld overlay on
carbon
steel is
heated and subsequently cooled, shear stresses of yield magnitude
arise at the fusion line.
Nozzles of small size
(<4
in.) are
usually
made of solid
alloy steel
up
to
800F
design temperature; larger nozzles are lined with weld-overlayed flanges.
The weld overlay method
is
the most expensive of the three methods described.
E.
under high operating temperature. The spot welds keep the

and force the
liner sections to
compress
elastically; in
liner
time
from buckling
this
11.4.
BOLTING MATERIALS
changes into
Bolts for Pressure Connections
partly plastic deformation.

3.
The spacing of the spot welds should be close enough to protect the
permanent buckling in case of seepage of the test liquid behind the
against
and
sudden release of the pressure of the liquid
in
Bolting material for pressure connections must conform to the specifications

listed in the
the vessel during a hydrotest.
Usually, sheets and strips are welded to the vessel wall after the vessel
tirely
liner
liner
is
en-
welded and otherwise completed. However, sheets can be attached to the
base plate before rolling or forming. Carbon-steel surfaces are prepared (by
Code. Bolts are designed not only for strength but also for tightness
at the joints. In
order to prevent leakage of a bolted joint, the total force exerted
by the bolts must exceed the sum of the force due to the operating fluid pressure and the force necessary to keep the joint tight. The latter depends on the
gasket material and the design of the joint.
Bolts have to be tightened to
some
initial elastic strain
and corresponding
294
elastic stress. In
high-temperature service, or over a long period of time, creep
occurs in the bolts and

strain,
with
the elastic strain
is
When
cannot keep the joint
ASTM(SA)
SPECIFICATION
ALLOWABLE SERVICE
METAL
TEMPERATURE (F)
TYPE OF STEEL
REMARKS
the joint leaks. Therefore, a high resistance to
AISAH93
B7
lCr-^Mo
-20-1000
B16
lCr-f Mo
-20-1100
see
in the design are
B5
5Cr-f Mo
-20-1200
ferritic steels
and coefficient of
B6
important. Since the relaxation can occur also in the flange and
is
Bolts for Pressure Joints.
is
relaxation occurs to the extent that the total force

tight,
Table 11.4.
transformed into a plastic
corresponding reduction in stress and tightening force. This
called relaxation.
relaxation
some of
er
gasket their properties should be checked as well.
Other important properties of bolting materials to consider

yield strength, notch toughness, notch sensitivity, ductility,
note
-20- 900
13Cr (type 410)
thermal expansion.
Allowable bolt stresses permitted by the Code include high safety factors and
A(SA)193
gr.
during the pretightening
retightening will be
may become
A maximum
required.
severe
design temperature of
its
450F was
B8C
gr.
carbon
A(SA)320
gr.
L7
B8
Cr-Mo
B8C
B8F
temperatures. Generally, they are used on pressure joints for low temperatures
on high-temperature
bolting should be controlled. For other temperatures, handwrenching
series)
It
is
it
common
is
problem with
practice to use slightly different alloys for bolts
under pressure than are
SA193
In practice,
303) nuts and

galling
when
gr.
B8 (type 304)
1 1
.4
and
.5
Type G-n
as operating
or additional stress in bolts, gasket,
and nuts.
in sliding
con-
SA194
gr. 8F (type
To minimize
made up with a
temperature
and flange
A453 with
is
rises either
set
(300
series).
up when materials with

and flanges.
are used for bolting
four grades (660, 651, 662, 6"65) covers a bolting
This material, a steel with high Ni and Cr content, requires
B8T
\
treat
"
Table
1 1 .5.
SPECIFICATION
(SEE
NOTE
2)
TYPE OF STEEL
A(SA)194
or 2
gr.
gr.
2H
carbon,
QT
gr.
QT
C-Mo, QT
gr.
12Cr (410),
gr.3
gr. 7
5Cr,
QT
ICr-^Mo
Type 303,
For instance,
316, S.Tr.
used by some valve manufacturers for bolting for nuclear austenitic stainless
gr.
8T
8C
321, S.Tr.
is
valves. Specification
A437 with two
grades
max, service
min.
temperature
+100
min.
min.
min.
ALLOWABLE SERVICE
METAL
TEMPERATURE (F)
-20- 900
carbon
8M
not intended for general-purpose applications, but
where the additional safety factor
min.
Nuts for Pressure Joints.
8F
is
min.
Notes:
1,
For use at temperatures from -20 F to -50 F, this material must be quenched and
tempered.
2. The identification Cl.l describes solution-treated material. When increased mechanical
properties are desired, austenitic bolting can be both solution treated and strain hardened (CI. 2).
justified.
gr.
steel
gr.
processing, and
for important joints

is
303
3I6
321
-150
-425
-425
-325
-325
-325
gr.
special
it
QT
leakage occurs
material with thermal expansion coefficient comparable to austenitic stainless

steels
note 2
-20- 450
ASTM(ASME)
Paste.
different coefficients of thermal expansion
Specification
300
describe most often used bolt and nut materials.
As previously mentioned,
see
galling.
the nuts are tightened, stainless steel fasteners are
thread lubricant such as Molykote
Tables
bolts are used with
austenitic steels;
-20-1500
Type 304
347
B8M
usually
like metals.
compositions are close enough to cause
their
is
stainless steels (particularly
should be remembered that unlike metals are more satisfactory
tact
C1.1
A(SA)307
Austenitic stainless steels have low yield strength and tend to gall at higher
satisfactory. Since galling
316
321
347
low resistance
to relaxation.
or for corrosive service. For best results, the preload stress
Type 304
CU
B8T CU
and also that an additional
specified for ordinary carbon steel bolting material because of
Cl.l
B8M
take into account the fact that additional torsion and bending stresses induced
in bolts
B8
(B4B and B4C),
a high-alloy
gr.8
S.Tr.
347, S.Tr.
304, S.Tr.
-50-1100
-20-1100
-150-1100
-20- 800
-20-1000
-325- 800
-325-1500
-325-1500
-425-1500
-425-1500
bolting materia] with 12 percent Cr could be used for special high-temperature,
high-pressure service with intermediate chrome-steel constructions of the same

heat expansion properties.
Notes
Impact test is required for Type 303 in low-temperature service if the carbon content
1.
above 0. 10 percent.
2. These are the product specifications; no design stresses are required.
is
296
Bolts for Structural Connections
the corrosion resistance of such steels approaches the relatively poor corrosion
Bolting for structural nonpressure parts

tightness of the joint
is
resistance of ordinary steel.

is
designed for strength only, since the
not important. Consequently,
SA307
corrosive service, carbon-steel bolting
or high-temperature service bolting material
gr.
A 193
or
gr.
The
expensive materials
less
can be selected with properties suitable for the design environment. For non-
SA325, for corrosive

B5, B6, B8C, B8T, B8 are
nickel and
Internal bolting for lined vessels
The allowable tensile

than Code allowable
is
of the same material as the lining and the
usually also of the
is
same material
stresses.
good guide
it
No
410 or 405 are less coramount of alloying elements, such
as well. Stainless steel grades
grades 304 or 3 1 6.
protective coatings such as paints are applied to the surface of stainless
steel parts, since
for allowable bolting stresses for
they would only prevent oxygen penetration for formation of
the passive layer. All grades of stainless steel are affected in
mechanical properties. Welding metal deposits are of cast structure.

in ref. 9.
Stainless steels are
produced mostly by the
electric furnace process.
Based on the principal alloying constituents the stainless
known
chromium content of
1 1
percent or more, but
than 30 percent,
less
1.
classified as heat-resisting
2.
The most important
3.
the straight
chromium group (400
Stainless steels are basically alloys of
additional alloying element
is
carbon, manganese,
and
sulfur,
all
of which
nickel.
chromium and
iron.
Other alloying elements
may be
added,
molybdenum, columbium, titanium, selenium,
many
other applications.
Some of the
reasons for this use are:
to provide the necessary resistance to a corrosive environment, thus increasing
the service
life
series)
with Cr and Ni varying
in
with chromium content up to
percentage; and
re-
placing a portion of the nickel.
Based on their metallurgical microstructure, these stainless
result in properties required for special service.
Stainless steels are frequently used for construction of petrochemical processing

in
used for pres-
the chromium-nickel-manganese group (200 series), with manganese
sified as
equipment and
steel
the chromium-nickel group (300 series), quite often referred to as 18-8

stainless steels,
alloys.
silicon,
cost
30 percent;
as stainless steels because of their excellent resistance to corrosion.
With over 30 percent chromium content they are
including
The
the grades are
sure vessel and piping construction can be divided into three main groups:
are
all
readily available in every form.
STAINLESS STEELS
Steels with a
some manner by
welding heat, which modifies their resistance to corrosion and changes their
of stainless steels varies with type, form, and quantity, and not
11.5.
amount
can be greatly improved by the addition of
rosion resistant than those having a higher
as the internals.
or shear stresses used in stress computations are higher
nonpressure parts can be found
molybdenum
steel;
or
used.
bolting for internals (trays)
variation in corrosion resistance appears to be dependent on the
of the chromium in the
as the
commonly
297
austenitic, ferritic, or martensitic.
hardening stainless
of pressure
steels, for instance
steels
can be
clas-
(The fourth group, precipitation-
17-4 PH, are not used in the construction
vessels.)
of the equipment and the safety of the working personnel; to
provide strength and oxidizing resistance at elevated temperatures and impact

strength at low temperatures; to facilitate the cleaning of the equipment.
Stainless steels
become corrosion
resistant (passive) because
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Because of their large percentage of nickel, 300 series stainless
of the formation
austenitic structure after cooling, with Cr, Ni,
and C
steels retain their
in solid solution
with iron.
of an unreactive film which adheres tightly to the surface of the metal. This can
be chromium oxide or an adsorbed oxygen film that acts as a barrier protecting
Under a microscope only
the metal against further attack in certain types of environment. This protective
even at temperatures up to 1500F, and hardenable only by cold working, and
film,"
which
is
not
visible, is
formed within minutes or months, depending on
The formation of the film may be hastened or

produced artificially by a strong oxidizing agent such as solution of
the type of alloy.
it
may
be
nitric acid
in water. This artificial formation of protective film, or passivation, serves a
double purpose, since
it
also helps to
remove any foreign metals or other sub-
stances that might contaminate the stainless-steel surface.

If the
chromium content
is less
than
1 1
percent the film
chromtum-nickel-iron alloys. They are nonmagnetic, highly corrosion resistant

they possess high impact strength at low temperatures. The typical and most com-
monly used grades of
discontinuous, and
stainless steel are grades
304 and 316. Higher-chromium-
content austenitic stainless steels (grades 309 and 310) are resistant to oxidation
and sulfur attack up to 2000F.
The primary problem with austenitic

Most austenitic stainless steels
zation.
is
austenitic crystals can be distinguished. These are high
stainless steels
are furnished
is
grain-boundary
by producers
sensiti-
in solution-
annealed condition. Solution annealing of type 300 stainless steels consists of
raising the metal
solvent.
in the austenitic
corrosion resistance together with the
299
weld
temperature above 1850F, where austenite acts as a powerful
With Cr, Ni, and C dissolved
maximum
To
298
matrix, these steels offer
maximum ductility and strength.
retain this microstructure at lower temperatures, these stainless steels have to
be cooled rapidly to below 800F. However, at any subsequent

perature (for instance at welding) to the range of
diffuse
to the grain boundaries and
chromium carbide (Cr 4 C) at

tion of chromium content
carbide formed
is
precipitate
out of the solid solution as
the boundaries (see Fig.

in
the tem-
rise in
800-1600F carbon molecules

1
1.1).
The
effect
is
deple-
the thin envelope surrounding each grain.
not as corrosion resistant as the metal from which
and the corrosion resistance of the envelope depleted of chromium
it
is
The
develops,
reduced. The stainless steel becomes susceptible to intergranular corrosion and

said to be sensitized. If the thin
falls
out and
chromium
corrosion
is
is
is
envelope corrodes, the grain rich in chromium
anodic with respect to the
rest
of the grain, and galvanic
all
the material
may be caused by slow
cooling from annealing
or stress-relieving temperatures. For instance, stainless steel parts welded to a
carbon-steel vessel shell can be sensitized

will
by
result in sensitization
stress relief given to the carbon-steel
of a band of material
in. wide
weld on each side (Fig. 11.2). These
two areas are the heat-affcctcd zones where the steel has been held in the sensi-
slightly
removed from and
parallel to the
tizing range longer than elsewhere
including the weld metal,
is
and cooled slowly. The material
not sensitized, since
above 1600F and subsequent cooling

Sensitization
Heat-affected zones, susceptible to intergranular corrosion in austenitic stainless
steels.
may
tinuous exposure to liquids
is
when
not involved and
operating temperature
does not exceed 120F.
possible.
Welding
Fig. 11.2.
metal begins to disintegrate. The boundary envelope poor in

also
Sensitization of
shell.
heat-affected zones
drastically
not be har mful
in
is
its
temperature
is
in
between,
raised well
comparatively rapid.
certain environments, for instance if con-
The corrosion properties of sensitized steel can be restored by desensitization

is, heating above 1600F to dissolve carbides and subsequent rapid cooling
(see Fig. 11.3). The effect of sensitization on mechanical properties is far less
that
important, being almost negligible at intermediate temperatures, and causing
some
low temperature.
ductility loss at
According to the degree of possible sensitization of the grain boundaries, the

austenitic stainless steels can be divided into three groups:
Group L
These
are
the
normal-composition,
nickel steels, such as typical grades 304, 316, 309,
to sensitization,
which means that
cutting of openings.
to give the
scattered intergranular
weldment
applications.
relieving
low chromium
(depleted) areas
To
is
regain full resistance to corrosion,
is
it
welded or
may be
for
necessary
a final full solution annealing. However, the required quick

stresses
which are too harmful
for certain
avoid impairing corrosion resistance, low-temperature stress
(below 800F), holding
procedure
environments
reduced by welding or by flame
at that
temperature for a relatively long time,
and then allowing the weldment to cool slowly,

this
chromium-
are susceptible
for preparation of edges that are to be
quenching may introduce residual
carbide deposits
grain boundaries
To
18-8,
their corrosion resistance in
usually encountered in petrochemical plants

cutting, whether used
so-called
and 310. They
not very effective, since the
is
sometimes used. Obviously,
maximum
locked-in stresses after
a stress relief are equal to the depressed yield strength at the stress-relieving
temperature. In comparison with carbon steels, the stainless steels require a
much
continuous intergranular
carbide deposits
Fig. 11.1.
steeL
Schematic representation of the grain structure in Type 300 sensitized stainless
higher stress-relieving temperature and a longer holding time, since they
retain their strength at elevated temperatures.
To summarize,
the standard 18-8 stainless steels in the solution-annealed state
are suitable for parts in corrosive environments,

are required
when no welding
and the operating temperatures stay below 800F.
or stress relief
300

Group
These are the stabilized
II.
boundary
sensitization
columbium which
is
301
Types 321 or 347. Grain-
stainless steels,
eliminated by using alloying elements like titanium or
by preempting the carbon: because
stabilize the stainless steel
of their stronger affinity to carbon, they form carbides in preference to the
chromium, which
A. Austcnitc grain structure in fully annealed Type 304 (prior
to welding). Outlines of crystal grains as made visible under the
microscope by etching prepared specimens with a suitable reagent. This microphotograph shows absence of intergranular
carbides
The carbides formed do not
stays in solid solution in iron.
tend to precipitate at the grain boundaries, but rather remain dispersed through
The creep strength of stabilized stainless steels is superior to that of

Cb is stronger stabilizing agent than Ti, making Type 347
superior to Type 321.
the metal.
unstabilized steels.
To summarize, stabilized grades of stainless steel in the annealed condition are

immune to intergranular corrosion. They can be welded and stress relieved and
cooled slowly in
They can be annealed
air.
without sensitization of the
locally
adjacent areas. However, under certain special heat treating conditions they can
known
be sensitized and become susceptible to a corrosion
They present some problems when welded, being

Same
A above, except for heavy black lines surrounding

These are the locations of carbide deposits along the
grain boundaries. Their intensity varies from light, scattered
precipitates (dots under the microscope) to heaw lines, as
shown, completely surrounding the individual grains. Whether
they are scattered or non-continuous or whether they are continuous depends on the carbon content, the ratio of combined
chromium and nickel to carbon percent, and the length of time
the metal is held within the carbide precipitation range (as exB.
as
the crystals.
plained in the text). The condition shown may be regarded as

an extremely severe sensitized condition in Type 304.
cost
is
as knifeline attack.
susceptible to cracking. Their
quite high, and therefore they are used only for special jobs, such as for
operating temperatures above 800F.
when
to intergranular corrosion
They
also tend to lose their
their surfaces are carburized
by
immunity
the process
environment.
Group
ill.
These are extra-low-carbon grades
304L
like
or 316L. Grain-
minimized by using low-carbon stainless steels

with 0.03 percent C maximum, at the expense of lowered strength. The rate
boundary
sensitization can be
of chromium carbide precipitation

the
is
so retarded that they can be held within
800-1 500F range for up to several hours without damage to
their cor-
rosion resistance.
To summarize,
extra-low-carbon stainless steels can be stress relieved, welded,
and slowly cooled without significantly increasing

granular attack.
as
C. Same as B above, after the same area has been subjected to a
subsequent anneal for the re-dissolving of precipitated carbides
and the restoration of corrosion resistance properties. This treatment results in putting the metal back in the condition shown in A.
solid
They
plate or for
internal
normal-composition stainless
ing the carbon.
their susceptibility to inter-
are very often used in pressure vessel construction, either

lining
steels
However, they
subject to sensitization
if
material.
They
are
more expensive than
because of the difficulty and cost of remov-
are not equivalent to
group
the operating temperature remains
TI,
since they are
in the
800-1 500F
range for a prolonged period of time. Consequently, the extra-low-carbon grades
can be used for applications
at
shows some time-temperature sensitization curves for
Fig. 11.3.
Grain structure of Type 304 stainless steel [88]
(Courtesy of Allegheny Ludlum
up to 800 F. Fig. 11.4

Type 304 stainless steels.
operating temperatures
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Steel Corporation.)
Ferritic stainless steels usually include straight
chromium
stainless steels
16-30 percent chromium. They are nonhardenable by heat treatment.

stainless steel
of
this
group
resistant cladding or lining
is
is
with
typical
type 430. The grade quite often used for corrosion-
type 405, which contains only 12 percent chromium;
302
1800
303
weld
heat affected zone
800
1min.
10sec.
1Qmin.
1hr.
10hrs.
Heat-affected zone in a straight chromium

Fig. 11.5.
zone extends across the weld deposit.
1000
lOOhrs.
ferritic stainless steel.
The
sensitized
hrs.
Time
Effect of carbon content on carbide precipitation (depicted schematically) in
Fig. 11.4.
shows several time-temperature sensitization curves for Type

304 stainless steel with various carbon contents ranging from 0.019 to 0.080 percent.
Carbide precipitation forms in the areas to the right of the various carbon content curves.
The
stainless steels.
figure
(Source: ref. 130.)
it
from austenite to martensite and
become
brittle
it
ware (trays) for
no
is
does not harden
general transforma-
However,
in air.
it
corrosive environments, since they are not as expensive as
weld
susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Ferritic stainless steels are sensitized by
ment, that
is,
are cooled
temperature of 1700F and then
air
/.ones,
cooled
at
and they are
normal
rates. If
they
slowly (in a furnace) their resistance to intergranular corrosion
preserved. Annealing of a sensitized ferritic stainless steel at
chromium
is
1450F allows
ferritic
weld deposit and the im-
stainless steels sensitizes the
mediately adjacent narrow bands of base material on both sides of the weld, as
shown in Fig. 11.5. The composition of electrodes used for welding ferritic
stainless steels
is
often such as to produce austenitic or air-nonhardening high-
alloy weld metal.
austenitic stainless steel.
is
much
The methods used
less
corrosion resistant then sensitized
to suppress sensitization in austenitic
stainless steels are not effective with ferritic stainless steels.

less steels are
heated into the 750-900F range for
notch toughness
temperature
is
reduced. This has been termed
been ascribed to the precipitation of a chromium
low temperature range.
ferritic stain-
prolonged period of time,
885F embrit dement and
rich
has
a-prime phase.
Ferritic stainless steels also exhibit lower ductility at

limits their use in the
When
it
is
chromium steels, usually with

They are hardenable by heat
and hardness can be increased
at
has ferritic structure.
When
of the austenite changes into martensite,

is
low temperatures, which
In general, ferritic stainless steels
room
heated from 1500F to 1850F

is
hard and
to
treat-
the expense of
typical of this group. In the annealed condition at
microstructure changes to austenitic. If the steel
its
then cooled suddenly, for

air,
part
brittle material. If the cooling
very rapid from 1850F, the final martensitic content will be at a
maximum.
Post-weld heat treatment with controlled cooling will reduce residual stresses
and
will allow the austenite to
transform to ductile
the hardenability of straight
content,
Sensitized ferritic stainless steel
their strength
Type 410
ductility.
as alloying element.
instance as in deposited weld metal with adjacent base metal zones in
to diffuse into depleted parts to restore the corrosion resistance.
Welding of
magnetic and finished parts can be checked
Martensitic stainless steels include straight
chromium
hea-ting to a
are
Martensitic Stainless Steels
16 percent
sensitive in heat-affected
They
magnet.
may
heat-affected zones because of rapid grain growth. Ferritic
in
may become notch
less
austenitic stainless steels.
also
steels
except for corrosion resistant lining or
and nonhardenable. When
ferritic
type 405 cools from high welding temperatures there

tion
in vessel construction,
cladding (grades 405 or 430S), heat-exchanger tubing, and vessel internal hard-
by
however, addition of aluminum renders
seldom used
are
chromium
ferrite.
With normal carbon
stainless steels
is
markedly
reduced with above 14 percent chromium. With increased carbon content, they
remain hardenable above 14 percent up to 18 percent chromium. With 18 per-
chromium content they become non-hardening and their microstructure

remains ferritic at all temperatures. The division line between hardenable (mar-
cent
tensitic)
and nonhardenable
stainless steels are
parts.
They
welding
is
(ferritic) steels is
not always distinct. Martensitic
only rarely used as construction material for pressure vessel
are the least corrosion resistant of the stainless steel grades, and if
used
in fabrication
heat treatment
is
required.
They are most corrosion
304
when
resistant
checked by
in
hardened and polished condition. They are magnetic and
condition.
Table
1 1
.6 lists
as well their
the nominal composition of individual stainless steel grades
approximate price
ratios,
Table 11.6.
easily
magnet. Martensitic stainless steels are generallyfree from sensitized
failures
40S
2Cr-Al (0 08
C max and
0.85
0 10-0 30 All
429
430
446
15Cr (0.12
17Cr (0.12
27Cr (0.20
C max.)
C max.)
0.90
C max.)
of stainless steels can be traced to the wrong selection of material,

Martensitic
410S
409
410
Selection of the right grade, with possible heat treatment for a particular seris
FACTOR
NOMINAL COMPOSITION
Ferritic
based on the price of plate.
to poor design, or to improper fabrication and handling.
vice,
RELATIVE COST
STAINLESS STEEL
ASTM TYPE
Alloy Selection, Design, and Fabrication
Most
305
usually done
by
13Cr (0.03 C max.)

llCr-Ti (0.12 C max.)
13Cr (0.15 C max.)
0.90
0.85
0.80
a metallurgical engineer or a process engineer with the
assistance of an experienced metallurgical consultant.
The most common
Austenitic
causes
201
17Cr-4Ni-6Mn
302
18Cr-8Ni (0.15
granular corrosion, stress corrosion, pitting, and crevice corrosion. Localized cor-
303
rosion attack also occurs quite often at areas contaminated because of improper
of corrosive failure in stainless steels are localized attacks, in the form of
inter-
0.95
304
18Cr-8Ni (0.15
18Cr-8Nt (0.08
C max.)
C max.)
C max.)
304L
18Cr-8Ni (0.03
1.10
316
16Cr-l 2Ni-2Mo (0.08
C max.)
1.40
316L
16Cr-12Ni-2Mo (0.03 C max.)

18Cr-13Ni-3Mo (0.08 C max.)
18Cr-13Ni-3Mo (0.03 C max.)
2.01
18Cr-10Ni-Ti
1.32
1.04
1.00
handling (see below).
Design procedures for austenitic stainless

steel vessels,
steels will
be the same as for carbon-
modified by the technical properties of austenitic stainless
steels.
317
Since austenitic stainless steels are used mainly for highly severe environmental
service conditions, they are
are carbon steels.
317L
subject to stress-corrosion cracking than
Under such conditions they
tions, particularly at higher
tures
more often
321
347
are sensitive to stress concentra-
under cyclic conditions. Surface conditions have
a great effect
on
fatigue
strength and on corrosion resistance.

fluid
are often
minimum
stress
Weld surfaces in contact with the operating

ground smooth. Welded connections should be designed with
concentrations. Abrupt changes, e.g., fillet welds, should be
avoided, and butt welds should preferably be used and fully radiographed.
The
edge of the weld deposits should merge smoothly into the base metal without
undercuts or abrupt transitions. Sound, uncontaminated welds are important.
The welds should be located away from any structural discontinuities. Weld
more slowly than carbon steel, and expand

the same temperature change. Thermal dif-
and contract to
a greater degree for
ferentials, larger than for carbon steels, should be minimized by construction

which permits free movement. These steels tend to warp and crack due to thermal stresses. All stainless steel parts should be designed to facilitate cleaning and
self-draining without
any
crevices or spots,
where
dirt
could accumulate and
obstruct the access of oxygen to form the protective layer.
2.20
(stabilized)
1.70
1.56
1.70
2.05
2.22
to Table 12.6. The straight chromium steels (Type 400) suffer from pitting corrosion,
while austenitic steels (Type 300) are susceptible to stress corrosion. Therefore, for extra
corrosive environments, new high alloy stainless steels with both higher resistance to pitting
corrosion and stress corrosion are sometimes used (151). They are austenitic alloys with the
following designations:
Note
ASTM
deposition sequences should be used that will minimize the residual stresses.
Austenitic stainless steels conduct heat
1.55
18Cr-10Ni-Cb (stabilized)
23Cr-12Ni (0.20 C max.)
23Cr-12Ni (0.08 C max.)
25Cr-20Ni (0.25 C max.)
25Cr-20Ni (0.08 C max.)
309
309S
310
310S
temperatures (above 650F) or at normal tempera-
max.)
They
and sheet) (0.02C max., 20 Cr, 25 Ni, 4.5 Mo,
B 62S
(plate
B 677
B 709
(seamless pipe and tube)

(plate
and sheet) (0.020C max., 27 Cr, 31 Ni,
are classified as nonferous alloys since the total

rest is iron.
50 percent and the
3.5
1.5
Mo,
Cu)
1.0
Cu)
amount of alloying components
is
over
306'
Fabrication and Handling.

tance to corrosion only
Since stainless steels exhibit the
when thoroughly
maximum
resis-
and cracking, can attack
blistering
steel, particularly plain
carbon
307
steel, in the
clean, preventive measures to protect
following manner. At elevated temperatures atomic hydrogen can be formed by
cleaned surfaces should be taken and maintained during fabrication, storage, and
The iron carbide (Fe 3 C) in pearlite lends to

decompose, with carbon atoms precipitating toward the grain boundaries. At
the microscopic boundary voids, these carbon atoms combine with permeated
atomic hydrogen to form methane gas(CH 4 ), which again cannot diffuse out of
made
shipping. Special efforts should be
at
all
times to keep stainless steel sur-
from coming into contact with other metals. For cleaning, only clean
wool and brushes should be used. If flame cutting is used, additional metal should be removed by mechanical means to provide clean, weldable
edges. All grinding of stainless steels should be performed with aluminum oxide
faces
stainless steel
dissociation of molecular hydrogen.
the steel. After the pressure has been built
which
up high enough, intergranular
crack-
or silicon carbide grinding wheels
under the microscope. The material becomes spongy

and embrittled, and the damage is permanent, since it cannot be reversed by any
viously used
heat
bonded with resin or rubber, and not preon other metal. Proper identification and correct marking of the
ing results,
Under the
machined are sandblasted to clean white metal, and the component

exposed to weather. After several weeks, surfaces are visually examined for
evidence of rust or contamination.
consequences.
is
that are not
visible
treatment. Notch toughness and fatigue strength are markedly reduced.
important. The stainless steel components (Fig. 12.1)

exposed to the weather are often subject to the exposure testing. The surfaces
types of the material
is
stresses,
stresses
imposed by operating conditions combined with any
Hydrogen embrittlement,
is
condition of low ductility in steel resulting from
the absorption of atomic hydrogen in
the metal lattice
phenomenon. After the atomic hydrogen

is
11.6.
Since
residual
microcracks can propagate into a delayed fracture, with disastrous
is
only
temporary
diffuses out of the metal, ductility
restored.
SELECTION OF STEELS FOR HYDROGEN SERVICE

many
high-temperature petroleum refining processes are carried out under
Damage by
Preventing Hydrogen
the Selection of Suitable Materials
high partial pressures of hydrogen, the material selected for vessel construction
Plain carbon
for such
operating temperatures and high pressures or low pressures and high tempera-
hydrogen attack, which can cause

deterioration of the material and subsequent failure.
service should safely withstand
The mechanism of hydrogen damage in steels is based on the fact, that the
monatomic hydrogen diffuses readily through metal, whereas molecular hydrogen does not. Diffusion of atomic hydrogen through steels depends on a number
of factors such as temperature, partial hydrogen pressure, time and composition
of the material.
is
created by a chemical reaction at intermediate
temperatures at the steel surface, for instance by hydrogen sulfide attack, it

diffuses readily into the metal before it can form molecular hydrogen. If the
hydrogen atoms enter the voids in the steel and then combine
hydrogen, they can no longer diffuse out.
The voids can be microscopic

the diffusion of atomic
is
surface, cause blistering. Dirty steels
attack
it
is
To
steels.
and hard
steels
with yield strength close to
form of hydrogen attack. In the case

is
sufficient ductility to
the hydrogen source
is
ferritic steels
may
considerable.
(over 600F) the atomic hydrogen,
molybdenum
addition to
chromium
or
or both.
In selecting steels for petrochemical service the Nelson curves [87, 119],
which show the operating limits for steels in hydrogen service, are strictly
followed and extensively used. According to these curves carbon or low-alloy
for the type
mum
of
steel.
if
the operating temperature and
on or below or to the
left
of the curve applicable
safety factor need not be applied to these curves. Maxi-
operating partial hydrogen pressure and temperature inside the vessel are
used in selection of the material. In most material applications
in
the petro-
chemical Industry, hydrogen sulfide corrosion will probably require a higher

grade alloy steel than will hydrogen service alone. The Nelson curves are revised
from time
in
Sound,
provide adequate protection against hydrogen
often necessary to use low-alloy steels containing
not attacked by atomic hydrogen
the voids are under the
steel.
low
reaction of hydrogen with the carbides in steels can be decreased or prevented

by adding carbide-stabilizing elements such as chromium or molybdenum.
Non-carbide forming elements such as nickel and silicon do not prevent internal
partial pressure fall
if
service at
high-temperature hydrogen service. The
steels are
withstand these internal local stress concentrations, although
At higher temperatures
form molecular
in
hydrogen
with comparatively low yield strength there
if
to
hydrogen
be influenced by the cleanliness of the
welds are desirable
laminations, or slag inclusions. If
the ultimate strength are susceptible to this
suffer blistering
will
steels are satisfactory for
sustained for a period of time, high pressure
in size, gross
hydrogen
can'build up, which can either crack the shell plate or,
steel
The damage
inclusion-free
hydrogen damage to
When atomic hydrogen
of a
tures.
and low-alloy
tice.
to time
Some of the
and obviously, only the
curves are
shown
in Fig.
latest revision
1 1 .6.
should be used in prac-
308

2-3
in-long
<fe.
309
rwzle
fissure
6.0 Cr 0.5
reinrorcmg paa
Mo (SA357)
>L
MoTsA387E)
3.0 Cr 0.5
2.0 Cr 0.5
<
Mo (SA387D)
/
fissure
heat-exchanger
channel shell
Carbon
large original
(SA516)
steel
lamination
Welded or hot bent
in
plate
A204
Material:
gr.
B
7FinF
Design temperature:
J_J
300
0 100 200
XR
S.R., Full
500
2000
1500
1000
2500
3000
îg. 11.7-
Hydrogen
Fig. 11.6.
partial pressure, psia
Suggested operating pressure-tempeiatuie limits for some carbon steels and low
of an ultrabeen prevented by eliminating plate lamination defects by mea'

sonic test (not required by the Code), making the distance between the flange
1
alloy steels in hydrogen service.
The upper dotted
lines represent the limits
above which the
surface decarburization due to the hydrogen attack occurs. (Source: ref. 119.)
and the reinforcing-pad welds

blending the reinforcing pad
All of the austenitic stainless steels resist
hydrogen
still
is
shell.
Also, a nozzle
with an integral reinforcement should have been considered.
selected as hydrogen attack resistant for hydrogen service,
without taking any benefit for possible protection by the stainless
Hydrogen embrittlement can become

important
Code required minimum, and by
weld smoothly into the
diffuses through them. Therefore, the backing material for stainless-
steel
steel-clad
hydrogen damage. However, atomic
larger than the
fillet
in ferritic
steel layer.
important in martensitic steels;
and virtually unknown
it
is
less
in austenitic stainless steels.
11.7.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
aluminum
In petrochemical plants
materials
for
pressure
vessels.
alloys are not often used as construction
In spite of
many
outstanding qualities (light
weight, good corrosion resistance) they cannot match the steel alloys in price,
strength above
Design for Hydrogen Service
room temperature,
atmospheres. Also,
combined with
Special design
closely supervised fabrication techniques
necessary for process equipment exposed to
hydrogen atmosphere
may
at
be
high
pressures and temperatures. For hydrogen service as encountered in petroleum

refineries a
well
designed vessel performs quite successfully. In practice, the
designer should carefully avoid any stress concentrations, include in specifications additional tests for
in the
any laminar discontinuities
welds, particularly in thicker plates (over 2
material with a
Figure
1 1 .7
minimum of
shows
and service
life in
heavily polluted
If
aluminum
alloys are
storage tanks, alloy 3003,
and workability,
is
employed
which
is
for low-temperature
equipment such. as
the least expensive and of good weldability
generally specified. If higher strength
is
required at tempera-
tures below 150F, the easily worked alloys 5083 or 5086 are used; at tem-
5454
aluminum
peratures above 150F, alloys
or 6061 should be considered.
resid-
become more competitive with stainmore often used. There are no Code requirements for impact
testing of wrought aluminum alloys down to -425F, or for cast aluminum
alloys down to -325F. The alloys 5050-O, 5083-O (preferred), 5086-O, and
5454-0 are most frequently used. On average the coefficient of thermal expansion
6
a for aluminum alloys is about twice as large as that for steel (a = 12.9 X 10"
zone between the welds. The cracking could have
in./in./F for alloy 3003), an important factor in the design of piping for cryo-
a fracture in a heat-exchanger
thermal expansion between the
ill
between them acting
ual stresses in the heat-affected
reliability,
welding shops are not equipped to handle the fabrica-
tion of all-aluminum-alloy pressure vessels.
as a
For cryogenic
less steels
in
shell (the air
and impurities
and use normalised
residual stresses.
bined effect of built-up hydrogen pressure

differential
in the plates
in. thick),
many
channel shell due to the com-
the original plate lamination,

fitted reinforcing
pad and the
thermal barrier), and the probable
and
vessels
alloys
are
310
genie temperatures.
The modulus of
third of that for carbon steel
elasticity
(E - 10
10
at
of aluminum alloys
is
only one
room temperature). Under
same loading conditions, an aluminum structure has three times the
the
elastic
The second
digit indicates specific alloy
the second digit

the specific
is
zero,
aluminum
it
alloy in the group.
from the alloy designation number by
the weight.
alloy:
Aluminum
surfaces
which
will
be
in
alloys with other metals
strength of
aluminum
alloys can be increased
The
series.
annealing range.
group includes the alloys
2000, 6000, and 7000

Their strength can be increased by thermal treatment. High-temperature
heat- treatable alloy
treatment
is
in the
but unstable: After an aging period of several days at room temperature, pre-
from the supersaturated solution begins and the
become considerably stronger.

heating for some time. This is
alloys
called artificial aging or precipitation hardening.

in
and near the weld zone
in
aluminum alloys, reduces the weld strength, and impairs corrosion resistance.
The Code recognizes this by allowing the vessel designer to use the allowable
stress values of -0 o; -7 type alloys as welded material for welded constructions,
which include practically
recommended
all
vessels.
Fusion welding of the "strong" alloys
unless subsequent heat treatment
is
is
not
possible.
Alloy Designation [97]
Wrought aluminum alloys are designated by a four-digit number, for instance

3003. The first digit indicates the alloy group, according to the major alloying
elements, as follows:
1.
99+ percent pure aluminum,
2.
copper,
3.
manganese,
4.
silicon,
5.
magnesium,
6.
magnesium and
7.
zinc,
8.
other elements.
silicon,
letter,
two
If
digits identify
following and separated
dash, designates the temper of the
no
special controls are applied (properties of
F temper
are
not specified or guaranteed),
-H: cold worked, strain hardened (always followed by two or more

-T: heat treated (followed by one or
more
digits),
digits).
Additional numbers following the letter, indicate degree of cold working or a

specific heat treatment:
-HI:
strain
hardened only,
-H2:
strain
hardened, then partially annealed,
-H3:
strain
hardened, then stabilized by applying low-temperature thermal
treatment,
-T4: solution heat treated and naturally aged to a stable condition,

-T6: solution heat treated and then
artificially aged.
by
further increase in strength can be attained
Fusion welding always produces partial annealing
Aluminum
as fabricated,
followed by quenching in water. The alloys become very workable
cipitation of constituents
The
last
-O: annealed and rcctystallized,
by adding alloying elements,
by heat treatment, or by cold working. Accordingly, aluminum alloys can be

divided into two classes: heat-treatable and non-heat treatable alloys. The nonheat treatable alloy group includes high-purity aluminum and alloys in the 1000,
3000, 4000, and 5000 series. Their strength depends on the amount of cold
working. The strength attained through cold work can be removed by heating
in the
-F:
must be prevented by insertion of nonmetallic
separators for protection against electrolytic corrosion.
The
The
contact with concrete or mortar after
erection must be well protected by a protective coating, and contact of alumi-
num
modification of the original alloy.
indicates the original alloy.
deflection of a geometrically identical steel structure, and also about one-third
311
The second
digit
is
digit after the letter indicates the final
quarter-hard, 4
For instance, -H18 alloy
is
half-hard,
is
strain
is
degree of strain hardening:
three-quarter hard, and 8
hardened,
full
is
full
hard.
hard. Extra-hard tempers are
designated by the digit 9. The third digit indicates a variation of the two-digit
temper. The -HI 12 temper
is
generally considered a controlled F-temper with
guaranteed mechanical properties.
NUMERICAL METHODS
313
Sleeve-type
Pressure take-off
12
Numerical Methods for Stress Analysis
of Axisymmetric Shells
Large Universal Venturi Tube flow meter. Accurate dimensional stability

quired for over a long period of time under high operating pressure.
Fig. 12.1.
INTRODUCTION
12.1.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a designer who has no experience in

numerical methods with the minimum background on the numerical methods
necessary for understanding a computer input and output of fairly complicated
axisymmetric pressure vessels under axisymmetrical loadings.
internal pressure will develop

d.
By
inspection, the
some compressive force on the end edges
maximum
develop at the point b.
stress will
By
is re-
at point
analytical
ingly encounter pressure vessels of physical shapes
method, the calculations become lengthy and can be considered more as rough
technique
stress estimates than as a satisfactory solution, and some experimental
most impossible to
for stress
Although most
there
is
solve
and loadings difficult or alby analytical methods with acceptable accuracy. Usually,
not a closed-form analytical stress solution available for the actual physi-
cal shape,
and the problem requires
lytical solution
desired
vessels consist of simple geometrical shapes, designers increas-
is
unknown
large
and excessive simplifications. (An ana-
a derived mathematical expression that gives values of the
desired, the applied analytical
Much
better results can be ob-
axisymmetric
Finite element analysis-displacement
2. Finite
3.
4.
shells [20]
method (FEA).
element analysis-force method.
Method of stepwise integration.

Method of finite differences.
those methods possess distinctive advantages over the others. Howthe others.
ever, for certain types of problems, one method may be preferred to
Usually, the results by one method are checked by another to ascertain the de-
None of
becomes impossible.
In the past, the approximate analytical stress solutions of such difficult vessel
parts
have to be applied.
by using a numerical method.

There are four important practical numerical methods for solution of such
1.
methods for pressure

vessels often require advanced engineering mathematics and knowledge of differential equations beyond the background and available time of an average practicing engineer. For the case of an arbitrary shell shape, an analytical solution often
is
will
tained
quantity such as strain or stress at any point in a body.) If a
more accurate solution
measurements
were usually accompanied with the experimental
stress
measurements such
gree of accuracy of the computations in addition to the verification
as:
by
stress
measurements.
1
method (two-dimensional, three-dimensional or just photoelastic

method is quite expensive since it includes the fabrication of a
Photoelastic
coating). This
model, and therefore in practice

2. Strain
is
not used too often.
gage measurements, usually during the hydrotest.
3. Brittle coatings,
not expensive and good for check of stress
Hydrostatic tests of
full-size or
scaled-down models to destruction, expensive
and time consuming.
and conical
parts. It is
Venturi flow meter, consist-
open-ended, although the considerable
finite number of tiny sections, elements. This procedure

amount of engineering judgment and some experience for the
any continuum) into a

requires a certain
Fig. 12.1 represents a piping pressure part, a large
ing of cylindrical
background are understood, they can be applied by rote in the

same manner as the ordinary equations of the strength of materials.
As the first basic step in the analysis, all numerical methods divide the shell (or
their theoretical
raisers, limited
to surfaces only.
4.
Numerical methods provide numerical approximations rather than exact soluacceptable accutions. They yield results valid for a particular problem with an
and
racy, but not a general closed-form solution. Once the numerical techniques
best results.
314
NUMERICAL METHODS
315
The division of a complex system or a body into distinct separate parts (elements) in order to analyze the behavior of the entire system is a routine procedure often used in the engineering practice. If the system can be solved by applicamethods leading to differential equations (and an infinite
number of elements) the system is called continuous. If on the other hand the
system is divided into a finite number of elements the system is called discrete.
As a general rule, the regions over which the bending effects are significant
and/or compound stress gradient is steep (stress raisers) should be divided into
tion of analytical
smaller intervals than the sections over

profile changes are small. If
curs, the
which the bending or compound stress

any discontinuity in load, material or geometry oc-
elements should be arranged so that the discontinuity coincides with
the end of the element.
its
The most important numerical method is the finite element analysis-displacement method. One of the reasons the FEA has been gaining predominance is
that the method can be formalized in a standard procedure that does not require
any engineering decisions to be made during the computation process and is
eminently suitable for computer programming. The method is also readily applicable to other fields (fluid mechanics, electricity, heat transfer etc.)
nodal points.) The individual elements are assumed to be interconnected at
corners (nodal points, nodes) pinned with specified degrees of freedom. The
nodal points are the points where the forces are being transmitted. This makes
the stress analysis of the element possible.
By comparing Figures 12.3(a) and (b) it can be seen that as the plate of the
beam is divided into more elements, the more closely the discretized beam in (b)
resembles the solid cantilever beam under the load F in (a); for instance, the
All numerical methods depend on solution of large number of simultaneous

equations and require therefore the use of high-speed digital computers. For a
shape of the bending curves will be more alike.
practicing engineer, only written, worked-out
the elements. However, the elements are not just cut out
tions of
more complex
computer programs
for stress solu-
vessel shells are of practical importance.
To develop
procedure, or a computerized program, for a complex vessel problem

the time available to a designer and requires a special mathematical
is
beyond
skill.
The nodal
ture,
but represent special types of
ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) DISPLACEMENT METHOD
FINITE
elastic
from the
original struc-
elements constrained to deform in
specific patterns such that the overall continuity of the entire assemblage of
elements tends to be maintained under the strains induced by the loads. This can
be achieved
12.2.
forces replace the continuous interaction between the borders of
if
the compatibility of displacements (deflection and rotation)
satisfied along the hypothetical inter -element boundaries.
is
For each element, using
the element elastic properties and reasonable approximation of its deformation,
General Description of the Method
a relationship in a
In the cantilever framed beam, Fig. 12.2, the distribution of forces and stresses
in all structural
Every member
members under
is
the load
form of a matrix equation can be derived which gives the forces
at the corners (nodes)
of the elements in terms of the dispalcements of the nodes
F can be computed without difficulties.

y
subjected to different strains and stresses and expands or com-
on sides independently of other members. The continuity of the

preserved only at joints which can be pinned, fixed or elastically
presses freely
structure
is
beam consists of short rectangular deep plate as in

becomes more involved. To simplify the problem we
cannot divide the plate into sections resembling the structural members. The
predicted stress distribution through the plate would be grossly distorted compared to the actual. A different approach is required here.
The plate, or any continuous structure, is broken artificially into an assembly
restrained. If the cantilever

Fig. 12.3, the stress analysis
of
many
the plate
small finite elements of various suitable shapes as in Fig. 12.3(b) where
beam
is
divided into a
number of rectangular elements. (An element is

is described by the coordinates of
a well-defined region of a system. Its location
(a)
Actual plate cantilever beam.

Fig. 12.3.
Deep
(b)
Finite element idealization
cantilever plate
beam.
316
NUMERICAL METHODS
317
of the elements. To achieve a reasonable approximation of the element deformation a displacement
(trial,
shape) function has to be selected fa function assumed
to give (approximate) displacements at
any point within the element in terms of

nodal displacements and at the same time assumed to preserve the displacement
continuity between the elements along the hypothetical dividing lines. The displacements of the nodes become the basic unknown quantities of the problem in
the same manner as the unknown joint displacements in the matrix analysis of
the framed structures. The
number of unknown displacements to be computed

number of chosen degrees of kinematic indeterminancy
(degrees of freedom). The proper choice of the displacement function for an
per joint equals the
element
is
crucial. It
actual element
is
should be chosen so that the true displacement field of the

represented as possible, since the degree of the result
as closely
accuracy depends on
it. (Here lies the main difference between the finite element
analysis-displacement method and the matrix analysis of framed structures,
where the joint displacements are relatively few and readily evaluated.) Once the
nodal displacements are
known
the stresses at any point in the element can be
computed. The system of external applied loads acting on the actual structure
has to be replaced by an equivalent system of forces concentrated at the element
nodes since
all
forces are
assumed to be acting and transmitted by the nodal joints.
In the case of concentrated loads, a node
selected at the point of application
is
of the load. For distributed loads, equivalent point loads are established (by
inspection or computation) and applied at nodes. Simultaneous forces acting at
the same point are added.
FEA-displacement method is sometines considered by some technical writers

as an extension of general matrix analysis of framed structures, and it certainly
resembles
it
to
some degree
in
more simpleappUcations.lt would seem, therefore,
logical to use stiffness analysis
rules of
relationship
between the given external load F (Fig. 12.4.) and the reactions
and displacements of joints can be derived describing the
at points of supports
behavior of the whole system under the load F. First, the stiffness influence coefficients
of the individual members have to be evaluated. (The stiffness influecne
coefficient of the bar
member is defined as the force required to produce a unit

members can be stressed only in tension or compression.
displacement.) Both bar
From
of a simple framed structure to clarify the basic

to point out the differences between
the strength of materials, the stiffness coefficients are:
~AEjL
for
member
1:
kx
for
member
2:
k 2 = AE cos a/Li = k x cos a
lb/in.
FEA-displacement method and
two methods.
FEA-Displacement Method Applied to
Fig. 12.4 represents a simple
(The example
where
a
Framed Structure.
Illustrative
example
two-member wall bracket of pinned construction.
taken as simple as possible, so the computations do not obscure

the basic principles being discussed and are easy to follow and remember.)
is
The way to subdivide this system into discrete elements is immediately obvious.
The system consists of two line (one-dimensional) structural elements and three
where the external forces are transmitted and the displacements
is assumed that every member has two pinned ends
and two degrees of freedom [Fig. 12.12(a)] Displacement u in the direction of
the x-axis and a displacement v in the direction of the y-axis are joint displacements under the load. The members can only resist axial forces and no bending
ing
on
are to be computed. It
posssible.
lb/in.
the cross-sectional area of both members.
is
and 3 (F lx
Flyt
,F$ X
F3y )
or they can be
computed
The
forces at joints 1, 2
are the external forces or their
the structure at the joints.
They
components* act-
are either given as part of the design data,
as reactions to the given loads required for the overall
equilibrium.
The external
forces
F lx
etc. in Fig.
joint displacements:
joints, points
is
Pin-connected wall bracket. (Line representation.)
Fig. 12.4.
Load
Member
F lx
= kl ul
k x u2
Fi y = 0
Flx
kiUt +
k^ 2
12.4 can be expressed as functions of the
318
and
NUMERICAL METHODS
matrix form the force-displacement equation
in
or in matrix form:
-*1
-*i
*1
u2
v2
fJ
is:
o"
"I
n,
<
F*y\
319
cos
- sin
sin
cos
2x
-sin
3x
cos
3,
cos a
cos
sin
or in short
or in short:
Mi
]k]
where
{5>!
{6}j
is
the nodal deflection vector for
member
{F'} 2 = [T] {F} 2
in global cordinates.
Member
2: in local coordinates x'y
"*2
3*1
'J
&2
*2
and similarly
/ 'N
u2
v2
cos
sin
=
1
"3
I-
-sin
cos
sin
a
ct
-sin
oc
cos
or in short
or in short:
{F'h'\k'] 2 {S'h
(1)
{5'} 2
where {5'} 2
is
the nodal deflection vector for
member 2
= IT]
{8} 2
consisting of nodal
displacements in local coordinates. (The words node and joint are used here
Substituting the above into the
main equation
(1):
interchangeably.)
Before both matrix equations can be combined into one master stiffness matrix
for the entire structure, the stiffness matrix [k']
2 and the displacements of the

expressed in local coordinates x'y' must be transferred into the global
coordinates xy (+y' project into +y).
member 2
In global coordinates
computed from loads

F'tx
Fk y
(all
assumed to be
positive, the actual forces
its
is
called the transformation matrix
T
transpose [T]
Utilizing this relationship
and
we
-1
its
inverse [T]
is
equal to
get:
{F}=[T] T [k') 1 [T}{&} 2

Fix
F2y
sin
~ F2x
sin
a+
F2y
cos
forces are
be positive or negative):
cos
F'sx* Fs x cos a
F'i y
xy
will
where [T]
F3x
sin
a+
The above product of three matrices represents the

ten in global coordinates:
F3y
sin
F3y
cos
[kh =
[T]
[k'h[T]
stiffness
element matrix writ-
NUMERICAL METHODS
320
If the multiplication is carried
zos*
out
sin
-cos
sin
a cos a
sin
For
get:
a cos a
-sin
a cos a
sin
we
cos
sin
a cos a
-sin
cos
-sin
sin
a cos a
-sin
- sin
a cos
this particular simple case
Flx =-
ot
we can
321
write without evaluating [K]
*12
Fix =
a cos a
F2y - -
a cos a
The force-displacement matrix equations of both elements can be now combined into one master matrix equation in global coordinates by the principle
(*2 cos
a + kx ) u2
(k 2 sin
Fix =
" (^2
F$ y =
(fc 2
cos
(k 2 sin
cos a) v 2
(2)
a) v 2
(3)
ae
cos a) u 2 + (k 2 sin
a) u 2 + (k 2 sin a cos a) v 2
a cos a) u 2
sin
(k 2 sin
a) u 2
of superposition:
Substituting the design data into the above equations (2) and (3)
t \x
~*1
Fly
-*i
0
r
Fix
ki + k 2 cos
~k%
a cos a !-*2 cos
sin
u\
u2
k2
a cos a
sin
u2
v2
<)!
F&
>!
oj
-k 2
sin
a cos a
2
-k 2 cos a
ft 2
sin
k2
sin
&2
sin
a
a cos a
a cos a
-fc 2 sin
^2
â
&2 cos
-&2
sin
F2x = 0 and
c s
a
a cos a
-&2
sin
- 2
sin
*2
sin
=-2309 X
1000
10" 6
=-10155 X
we
get, for
lb.:
in.
10" 6
in.
v2
a cos a
2
F2y =
V\
Fiy
"3
The above displacements can easily be checked from the Williot diagram and by
using the force method. From the known u 2 and v 2 we are able to compute the
displacements in the local coordinates (equal to ALi and AL 2 ) and the axial
forces
or in short:
It
is
and
stresses in the
obvious that the
members.
FEA-
displacement method even in the simplest prob-
lems requires a considerable amount of matrix algebra. However, once the master
The
required at node
is
k i}
stiffness coefficient
i
in the master
system
stiffness
matrix [K]
is
the force
to cause a unit deflection at node/. Also note that the matrix
symmetric kif A:,,-. All diagonal terms are positive.

The unknown displacements can now be computed from the equation:
-
is,
programmed,
all possibilities
"
Example
12.1.
is
is
1.
Node
in Fig. 12.5.
released,
nodes 2 and 3 fixed:
F% -
Mi
Pi -
^3-0
Mi
the displacements are
Step
2.
Node
2 released, nodes
î =
2
k1
=AE/L=QJ5X
in.
Ui - Vi
- w3 =
L = 40in
v3
10
=0
=30 X
10
psi
k 2 =0.65 X 10 6
F=
"
ka u 2
F2
and 3
fixed:
= ka u 2 + k b u 2
F3 ~-
10001b
a = 30,
(boundary conditions required to-define the problem)
established and
required then
is
to substitute
Determine the force-displacement matrix equation for the spring
system as shown
is usually a major task done by a computer. Once

known, the forces, strains and stresses in the members can
be determined using the boundary conditions that make the problem determinate.
The following design data can be substituted into the above equation:
find the inverse matrix [K]
are covered. All that
the given data and the boundary conditions.
Step
To
the final force-deflection matrix) equation
matrix (that
Step
3.
Node
3 released, nodes
Fi
=0
and 2 fixed:
F2 -fcjMj
F3
=/c 6 3
kb u 2
NUMERICAL METHODS
322
The minimum stationary potential energy

respect to u and equal to zero
*.
Spring
*-s
Spring
all possibilities)
from
Fig. 12.5, the total
potential energy of the system:
U/2-Mi
n() =
(lb. /in.
= stiffness coefficient of spring
(Ib./in.)
Fig. 12.5.
kw FoiF-ku where k = spring stiffness constant (lb/in.)
For a system of two springs (including
stiffness coefficient of spring
kt
found by differentiation of U with
dli/du =
is
323
/2-î
+ (ka + k b ) u|/2
System of two colineai
+ k b ul/2
springs.
ka u x u 2 l2
k b u 2 u z ll
F3 u
k b u 2 u 3 /2
F2 u 2
and
or combined in the matrix form:
"
~K
'Fx
F2
.Ft.
-*.
(ka + k b )
-K
_o
an/3w!
=ka u t -ka u 2 -Fx =0
blildu 2
='ka u
0
-*
"2
8
-k
n/3 3 =
orF =ka u
t
+(ka + k b )u 2 -k b u 3
M2 " F
-F2 =0
=0
orF2 =- ka u x
or
F3 = -
ka u 2
+(fc a
+k b )u 2
- kbu 2
kb u 2 + k b u 3
."3
in matrix form:
This matrix equation becomes determinate
if
the boundary conditions in addi-
"
"K
tion to the external forces are given, for instance, u x = 0.
would seem important to point out that if the external load for
instance F2 ~ 0 then the summation of all internal forces around the joint 2 is 0
since the ioint is in equilibrium. With u = 0:
At
this point
it
F*
Fy
-K
(ka
-K
_o
+k b )
-k b
-k
M
lu 2
k_ l"3
or in short
The above force-displacement matrix equation can

principle of
minimum
also be derived using the
potential energy.
The principle of minimum potential energy states that if the potential energy
of an elastic loaded structure (linear or nonlinear) is expressed as a function of
the unknown joint displacements, then the structure will be in stable equilibrium
when
[F] = [K] [6].
the displacements have such values as to
make the
assume the minimum value. The potential energy
n for
total potential energy
the entire system
is
given
by the sum of the potential energies of the individual elements. In engineering

practice, most systems are in stable equilibrium.
The potential energy of a simple cylindrical spring is the strain energy U of the
spring minus the potential energy of the external load Fon the compressed spring
FEA-Displacement Method Applied to Continuous Structures

Using previous examples as analogues and pointing out the main differences, the
FEA-displacement method as applied to a continuous structure (or any continuous system) can be divided into the following steps:
system by
1. Discretization (modeling) of the system, that is, dividing the
nodal
defined
with
elements
hypothetical lines or planes into suitably selected
points located
discretization
(a)
node
n=
U+Wp =ku
l2- Fu.
on
is
common
proper
selected element and the degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) per

determine the degree of accuracy of stress computations, computer
The type of
will
global coordinate grid of the entire system.
important for the following reasons.
running time and the price.
NUMERICAL METHODS
324
325
(b) The location of the points where the stresses will be evaluated determine the accuracy of the results. If the body is inadequately discretized, then
the resulting computer analysis can lead to erroneous results and misleading pre-
maximum
dictions of areas of
strains.
For symmetrical bodies symmetrically
loaded, only a section (repeating) needs to be discretized.
symmetry must be constrained

loading would destroy the symmetry.
planes of
The points along the

any side
against lateral displacements as
2. Derivation of the element stiffness matrix fkj relating the nodal displacements to nodal forces on the basis of the geometric, material properties and
chosen degrees of freedom. The elements of the element matrix are the influence
basic
from
all
ematical
other numerical methods.

skill.
It is a
All elements have to
major task requiring considerable math-
work
together.
They do not behave
as indi-
vidual elements just cut out of the system. Therefore, the computation of the
stifness coefficients
must include selection (assumption) of the displacement
function giving displacements at every point within the element in terms of nodal
displacements selected as close to the actual shape of the deformed element
under the load
as possible.
polynomial function of power
series
of the type
y=
a 1 + azx + a 3 x +
is usually selected to represent the displacement function since they can easily be mathematically manipulated by limiting the number
of terms, the desired degree of approximation (and accuracy) can be achieved.
The above
FEA
procedure
is
essentially equivalent to the Ritz
method [137,
Plate under an eccentric load F.
Fig. 12.6.
Computation of the element stiffness matrix [k] is the

computation of the method, making the FEA fundamentally different
stiffness coefficients.
Discretization
1.
of the
Plate.
only two triangular elements
So
and
as
not to obscure the procedure discussed,

are used. (In practice this
would
result in
computed stress distribution. To obtain usable results many

more elements would have to be used.) The loaded plate is a plain stress problem,
that is all strains and stresses are in the two dimensional xy plane. The external
force acting at the node 2 and the support reactions R 3 and R 4 act at points 3
and 4 respectively. The effects of the force F can be be distributed between the
nodes 3 and 4 as follows:
grossly distorted
= Fjh 6Fy'jh 2
and for/ =
/i/2
167] applied to each element.
Combining the element stiffness matrices of individual elements into one

system (master) matrix which enables computation of the nodal displacements.
The basis for an assembly method is that the nodal interconnections require the
displacements at a node to be the same for elements connected to that node.
Forming the load vector matrix {F} and setting the matrix equation relating the
3.
external loads with nodal displacements
{6} gives
{F} = [K] {6} where [K]
is
the system stiffness matrix.

4. Solution for the
unknown nodal displacements
using the boundary condi-
15}=[K]5.
and
{F}.
stresses in the
Illustrative
displacements {6} and boundary conditions the strains
elements (usually
at the centroids or at
(2/ 4
+/ 3 )
*a=(*/6)
(2/ 3
+/ 4 )
For
F acting at node 2 at h/2
tion for
the
axis:
R4
F and # 3
0.
The system force-displacement matrix equation can be written for the plate in
same manner as for the bracket in Fig. 12.4, if we assume ele-
Fig. 12.7 in the
where
B elastic:
(F)
is
[K]
is
Example
shown in Fig. 12.6 will be anaFEA-displacement method. The system torce-displacement equadetermining stress and displacements has to be formulated.
by
from the
the load matrix consisting of
known
loads.
nodal points) are
stress distribution plotted.
thin rectangular steel plate subject to a load as
lyzed
andA 4 =(*/6)
{F}=[K]{S}
From known nodal
computed and
ments A and
tions:
- 4F/h
7F/h
/3
the stiffness matrix to be determined. It consists of combined

element stiffness matrices [k] which are determined from given
data.
{S}
is
the nodal deflection vector, consisting of
unknown nodal
displace-
ments to be computed.
In the previous examples the stiffness matrix [K] consisting of stiffness coef-
NUMERICAL METHODS
326
m (xy)
and
2U 2
4(0,^1
y7
is
any point
in the triangular
327
element with displacements u
v.
p-F
Element B
is
force vector,
summation of all forces
(their
components) acting
at
nodes 1, 2 and 3 in the direction of x- and >>-axis, respectively, in
3(0,01
short {/}.
Element
^^^^^
1U V
\
Two
0)
lines are
shown hereto emphasize
the separation of the elements A

and B. Usually only one line is used
is
to indicate the hypothetical element
dividing
was
ficients
easily
lines.
There are
Finite element idealization.
Fig. 12.7.
nodal displacement vector, summary of
all
nodal displacements,
in short {5}.
six
nodal displacements (2 per one node) possible, there-
fore a plane triangular element has six degrees of freedom. These are
the quantities to be computed.
computed using the procedure from the strength of materials.
Here, however, the computation of the stiffness matrix of the system represents
a
major
matrix of the individual elements has to be
task. First, the stiffness
evaluated.
Derivation of Triangular Plane Element Stiffness Matrix [k]
2.
The procedure
(b) Selection
(a) Selecting
a suitable coordinate system (see Fig.
2.8),
where
(xy) are rectangular coordinate axes (global coordinates =

1, 2,
)t
(u, v)
of any point
x and y. This function, called the displacement function,

approximates the actual distorted shape of the element strained under the nodal
forces. It should satisfy the geometric boundary condition of the element. Clearly
the point coordinates,
local coordinates).
and 3 are the vertices of the triangle and the nodes with defined coordi-
nates (x l y l
of displacement function. The displacements
within the element under the nodal forces can be written as some function of
can be divided into the following steps:
the choice of the displacement function as closely representing the actual strained
(x 2 y 2 ), (xsys), respectively.
element shape
as possible
siderable mathematical
is
skill.
desirable for a
the strained elements at least to
The
good end
result.
This requires a con-
preservation of the physical continuity between
some degree
essential (see Fig. 12.9).
is
simplest representation in form of the displacement function
u
r
"HI
0
^
2(x 2 y2
"i
^ fu
Element thickness
(a)
Elements
and B unstrained.
(b)
Elements
and B strained.
Side 23 remain adjacent with

compatible displacements.
Fig. 12.8.
the
first
Nodal displacements and nodal forces of plane triangular element. Historically
FEA
Fig. 12.9.
element.
|
is
given
by
NUMERICAL METHODS
328
two
linear polynomials:
329
or in short
u - a x + a 2 x + a 3y
v~a 4
+ a 5 x + a 6y
known. The unknown polynomial
All terms in the matrix [A] are

{a}
can
now be expressed
in terms
of unknown element nodal
coefficients
displacements {5}:
or
{a}=[AV
{5}.
The inverse of the matrix [A], [A]'

and is equal to:
x 2 y$ -x 3y 2
is
also called the transformation matrix
xiy 2 -x 2 yi
x x y 3 +X3.V1
y% -y*
y$-yi
x 3 -x 2
xi
y\ -y%
x2
as
\a6 J
-i _
2A
minimum of six
a 6 ) are required. The coefficients are also called
displacement amplitudes, since their magnitudes govern the magnitude of the
displacement amplitude, while the number of terms retained in the polynomial
Since a triangular plane element has six degrees of freedom, a
coefficients (a x
a 2i a 3
= (x 2 y 3
two common nodes will remain linear even in a strained state. This insures physical continuity between the elements; however, the resulting condition differs
from the actual strain and stress distribution. Unless this is minimized by using
triangular elements or using
Unknown
the nodal
v.
The
known
result
is
six
y 2 -ys
x 3 -x 2
~x 3 y 2 )-
x\y 2 ~x 2 yi
y 3 -yi
y\ -y2
*i-*3
*2 -Xl
-xiyz +
xî
ol
w3
v3
We
unknown
-xty^ + ix^ ~x 2 y^
(x x y 3
coefficients (a lt a 2i
ment can be expressed
in
a 6 ) of the polynomials
become
linear
combina-
terms of the element nodal displacements:
(to be
substitute the values of
x 2 x 3 y lt y 2t y 3 ) into the equations for u

equations with six unknown coefficients and six unknown
coordinates (x i7
nodal displacements.
0
u
tions of the displacements of the nodal points. The inversion of the matrix [A]
is usually performed by a computer.
(d) Using the above relationship, displacements of any point m within the ele-
suitable elements, the resulting stresses
coefficients a x to a 6 are expressed in terms of
computed) nodal displacements u x

and
more
The
be distorted and useless.
(c)
x 2 y 3 -x 3 y 2
where 2 A = 2 X area of triangular element
No gaps occur between the sides of adjacent deformed elements because the
displacements are assumed to be linear. The adjoining sides of two elements with
will
*l
determines the shape of the element displacements.
many
-x 3
"
/a l u +
1
ot 2
u2 + a3u 3 \
2A
V= {
+ fc"2 + fe 3\
2A
2A
where
/M
72
~*i
*3
y%
73
= X2
Xi
x 3y2
ft
=y 2
ol 2
=x 3 y
x xy3
ft
=y 3 ~y
~ *2JVi
ft
-^1
2A
~ a + a +oc 3 where
2
x
The above equations enable

compute displacements u and
"
y3
A is the area of the

us,
v at
= *3 "*i
-x 2 y 3
a3 = x l y 2
X +
)
7i
ot x
/ 7iî + 7z"2 + 7 3 " 3 \
2A
-
X +
2E~^r
2A
y
)
triangle element.
once the nodal displacements are known, to

any ôint within the element (see Fig. 12.8).
330
(e)
From
the theory
of
elasticity
using two dimensional strain-displacement
relations (the strains are the derivatives
aw
bv
y*> =
3nd
NUMERICAL METHODS
of the displacements)
dv
we
or in matrix form:
have:
-v
bu
te*Ty
is all
that the FEA-displacement
Substituting into the above equations for u and v
ticity.
Jd
Oy
Rearranging the above equation
we get:
Ox
= b(a A + a s x + a 6 y)/by = a 6 and

yxy = a 3 + a s
the theory of elas-
+ a 2 x + a z y)/bx = a 2
ex =
e
method borrows from
-v
Ifxy,
This
331
1-
1
l-v 2
or
or
"o
- [D]
The matrix [D]
a2 I
{e}.
is
called the elasticity matrix
strains. Substituting for vector
I-
and
relates the stresses to internal
get:
"i
= [C]
we
0$
or simply {e}
matrix {e}
{a}.
3
Substituting for {a}
we
= ID]
[D)[B]
get:
[B] {8}.
'xy
"3
where [5] =
[C]^]"
The
x3
x3
x2
-x 2
y 2 -y z x
Xj - x 3
x3 y 3
x2
x 2 -x x y
y 2_
The displacement-strain matrix [B] is one of the most important terms in

the
FEA. It is important to notice that [B] was assembled for a triangle with vertices
123.
It
is
the expression relating the element strains to the element nodal
displacements.
(f)
The
last equation relates internal stresses (ox o Txy ) to the nodal element disy
displacements {6}.
Clearly, once the nodal displacements under given external loadings are known,
Both matrices [D] and [B] consist of known

terms and are constant. Therefore, the strains and stresses are constant throughthe stresses can easily be computed.
out the element. The element
state
of stress in a plane problem (homogeneous isotropic) at any point

by three stress components: aX) oyi and Txy The stress-strain
.
relations for plane stress (a

2
ex
= ox /E
ey
=- vox/E + o /E
y
= 0)
POy/E
yxy =Txy/G =
2(\
+v)Txy /E
are then as follows:
we used
known
is
as Constant Strain Triangle
(CSTG).
The value of nodal displacements depends on external forces. The next step
between the assumed state of stress of the element and the
nodal statically equivalent forces (fXx ,fiy
/3y ) that would cause this type
of stress. In a simple triangular element, they can be derived by the direct equivalent force approach which is also the most illustrative. The total force acting at
the node 1 in the x direction in Fig. 12.10 is:
(g)
is
can be expressed
to find the relation
fix
= l-o t(y*
x
-yi) + ox t{y 2 -yi)]/2+
'frx<>2
-yz)+Txy (x z -x 2 )]/2
and
[rxy t(x 3
~x
)~ r xy t(x 2 -x,)]/2
similarly for fi
y
J2x ,f2y Jz x ,h y
332
/s
O ^
X H
1
^^
>\
-f*
>
7^7
+
?
w 2 "
\#
/"->
x x
t
^w ^
m
X
<**
*t3
5
.
"
^ O.
w ^
" r
H
i
|i
J-
^^
X
!*
*
O
m
^1
cX
/~
X
1
-J?
^ ^
/-^
M
X
X H
&
X*
'
?s
rn
c*
Ps
1
- S "
<n
z +
/-~>
(*
<N
H
M
rt
*
1
-<
Ou ^
s
w
+
Fig. 12.10.
V5
w +
^ O- ^
1
">
&
^>
.
^>
V57
Si
-15
N r +
V
13
or in matrix form:
7,;
">2
*3
*2~
(N
rJ-.
X
"1
fiy
hx
J>3
"*2
-y%
yi "^3
"*3
iS-
jT
tn
UPI
^
1
^
1
^ ^
^H
-h - &
0^>T3 ^
n +
"
X 2 -*1
y\ ">
X
y-S
2
1
above equation equals to At [B] T where [B] T

the transpose of the matrix [B] and we can write:
By inspection the matrix
AtlB]
/
fl
*1
{f} =
f*
in the
is
O
+
X*
16
w+
i
1
OK S
i
m s
jT
w r +
K
I
t3
O.
O ^
x x
1
^>
to
N O,
<s
called the element stiffness matrix:
<n
=At[B] T [D][B]
A is
the area of the triangular element and
page 333.
[B]
is
:T
w c
1
t is its
thickness. If the product
form for
'fit]
is
as
shown on
aT
S
+ w
.
t3
~*
X*
1
H
t
S m
si
carried out the full unabbreviated
x,
ff-
At[B] T [D]
X
1
where
OK
**3
[k]
2 -
is
to
{D][B]{6}.
The product At[B) T [D] [B] provides the force-nodal displacement relationship
and
/-s
y* -^1
*1
fix
<f*y>
13
<
fry
'
^ ow ^
i
n
13
334
NUMERICAL METHODS
where the terms d Ui d 22 ,d 33 ,d 21
d l2
in case
of the plane
stress
However,
(o2 = 0) are
computer programming the matrix
in
[k]
is
335
usually written as:
as follows:
rfll-<*M-/0-l' a )
rfia-rfai-^/O-f 2 )
tf 33
=72(1 +
k\2
ki3
ki4
*15
ku
k2 \
k% 2
k23
k2 A
k 2S
k26
*M
k%2
^33
^34
k 3s
^36
&41
k*2
&43
^44
k4 $
^46
*SI
ks2
ks3
&S4
k ss
k 56
*61
k 62
k 63
&64
k6s
[*]-
0)
If the individual terms in the
kixm s
ku
^[dn(y 2
matrix
[fc]
are
named by
letters
fc,
for instance,
-y*) +^33(^3 ~x 2 f]
subscripts correspond just to the
The
then the matrix equation for a triangular element can be written in a closed form:
kixvi
kixui
k\ XV 2
klxu3.
klyu2
klyv2
kly U 3
klyv3
rows and columns
in the matrix.
The
above simplification in subscript notation means that only one symbol is used to
denote joint displacement components and only one symbol is used to designate
joint force components, e.g., f3x -k $l u t + k S2 v x + k$û 2 + k S4 v 2 + * S5 u 3 +
k S6 v 3
3. System
.
fix
k\yv3
k 2x u2
k 2xv2
kzxui
k2xv3
hy
k 2yui
k 2yu2
k 2 y v2
k2yu3
k2yv3
fix
%3xul
^3xu2
k$xv2
k^xus
k$xv3
Jly,
^3yvl
^3yu2
k$yv2
klyu3
For element
kA
kA
k IXV3
*
kA
k Ayvl
A
k
* \yu2
kA
lyv2
kA
* Xyu3
kA
K
fax
kA
kA
kA
^2xu2
kA
K
kA
*'2xu3
kA
*
2xv3
fay
kA
kA
*-2yvl
kA
kA
*"2yV2
"2yu3
kA
kA
*2yv3
**
kA
3XU\
kA
kA
K
3xu2
kA
kA
K
3xu3
kA
*
3XV 3
kA
kA
kA
K
kA
K
kA
kA
K
<
<
yV l
v2
lyul
3yu2
2XV2
3yv2
ft-
3yu3
\yv3
<
"3
3yv3
For computation of the matrix [B] the proper coordinates of nodes have to be
used, (xj = L x y x = 0 etc.) along with the area of the triangle Lh/2.
"3
coefficients
ft.
ft-
* 1XU2
fax
The
kA
hy
&3yv3
From the above derivation of the stiffness

we can write the following solution at once:
[K]
K lXUl
(f
Jlx \
v
K
Stiffness Matrix
matrix for a triangular element,
k associated with the displacement terms
to as the stiffness influence coefficients (or stiffnesses)
(w,
are referred
and usually denoted by
For element B:
lr B
'fax
fSr
the letter k with subscripts.
The two subscripts used here with k, for instance, k lxu3 denote the force
(component of flx ) which must be applied at node 1 in the* direction to sustain
a unit displacement in the x direction at node 3 (u = 1) with all other nodal
3
displacements controlled to be equal to zero. For an element with six d.o.f., the
[k] matrix is of the sixth order (6 X 6) and symmetrical, k
2yul = k lxv2 due to
2xu2
kB
K
2xx/2
B
k
*2XU$
k 2XV3
*
k
*2yv3
kB
"
kB
*>2xv4
"2
kB
kB
K
2yv4
v2
fay
*-2yu2
kB
kB
kB
K
2yu3
fax
kB
K
3XU2
kB
k 3XU3
K
k
^3xv3
"3xu4
kB
kB
K
3XV4
fay
kB
kB
kB
kB
3yv3
kB
K
kB
fax
kB
K
kB
kB
kB
kB
K
kB
kB
K
4yv2
B
k
K 4yu3
kB
K
4yv3
k 4yu4
*-2xu4
"3
4
ft-
Zyul
4xu2
reciprocity.
fay
t
3yu3
3yu4
4XU4
ft.
3yv4
kB
K
4xv4
kB
4yV 4
ft.
U3
"4
NUMERICAL METHODS
336
Again to evaluate the matrix [B] the proper node coordinates have to be used
along with the area of the triangle Lh/2.
The combined
resulting stiffness matrix [K]
for the entire plate (system)
is
an (8 X 8) matrix. Using the principle of superposition we get:

K lxul
K lxvl
kA
A
k
*
A
K
2xul
!r
2xvl
K lxu2
kA
kA
kA
K
IXV3
kA
K
iyu2
kA
K
kA
K
\yu3
kA
K
ly V 3
A
K
A
K
k 2xu3
K 2xv3
Ir
2XU2
\yv2
lr
2xv2
kA
K 2yv\
kA
K
2yu2
+k 2yU 2
lr
kA
K 3XU2
kA
*2yv2
+k 2yV 2
]c
kA
kA
K
2yv3
"1
"2
kB
*2xv4
^2
Q
+ k 2 yu3 + *2yt;3
i^
0
'
B
+k B
2xv3 k
+lc 2xv2
kA
K
2yul
K 2yu4
= 0) the matrix equation can

conditions in the above example ( 3 = u 3 = 4 = v 4
nodal displacement, other
definite
if
a
However,
degree.
be simplified to a great
would be given at nodes 3 and 4, then a modified procedure will be
than zero,
displacement vector is
required for solving the system matrix equation, since the
unknowns.
the
of
entirely
consist
to
assumed
vector
The applied external nodal loads in overall equilibrium form the load
the nodal force vec{F} for the entire structure. {F} is not to be confused with
equivalent to the internal
tor for the individual elements {/}, which is statically
load (term in the
applied
externally
stresses in the element. At any node the
forces (terms in
nodal
the
of
sum
the
{F} vector) must be in equilibrium with
external load is
no
When
node.
that
at
the {/} vector) of all elements meeting
node are in
the
forces
at
nodal
element
acting at a particular node, than the
*2yv4
equilibrium.
<
5.
A
k
K 3XV3
"3X143
337
Stresses. Stress
computations are accomplished by the equation:
"3
j
+ kfxu2
o
lr
0
0
kA
0
0
+ kfxv2
kA
kA
*3yv2
k yu3
+k B
+ k$yv2
+ kfyu3
kB
kB
K
3xv4
kB
kB
k 3yv3
K
+kz yv 3
^3
kB
K
4xu2
kB
K
kB
kB
kB
kB
K
4XV4
K Ayu2
kB
kB
kB
kB
kB
4xv2
K 4yv2
K 4yv3
*4yu4 * 4yv4
"4
*>4
or in short:
where the matrices [D] and [B] nave been already evaluated
The maximum and minimum stresses in the elements are then:
{F}=[K]{8}.
4.
Solution for Nodal Displacements,
From
the equation
2
- rl ]
0,2 - (Px ~ o y )l2 [(ax - oy ) /4
y
=[*]{}
/e
can
now compute
with tan
the nodal displacements:
They
2<t>
for
1/2
it xy l (ox - ay ).
are usually given at the centroids of the elements
and plotted to show how
oy rxy ) in the
the applied loads are carried through the body. The stresses (ax
above triangular elements are constant within the elements.
,
{6}
To
evaluate the inverse [K]
each element.
-1
a digital
computer
is
required. Using the
boundary
Description of
Notes to the above matrix equation:

The stiffness coefficients to be added together have the same subscripts, for instance k 2xu2 +
k 2xu2- The external load vector {f} and the stiffness matrix [K] aie known, the displacement vector consists of unknown displacements (uj
etc.) to be determined using the
boundary conditions. The displacements u x v x and u 4 u 4 have no direct influence on the
force at the node 4 and 1 respectively, since they have to be transferred and distributed
through nodes 2 and 3.
Some Elements Used
in
the FEA-Displacement Method
FEA-displacement method the unknown quantities are the joint disthe points
placements of the structure. The joints of a structure are defined as
the free ends
and
support,
points
the
intersect,
of
elements
more
where two or
are equivalent to
of any projecting elements. The unknown joint displacements
of kinematic
degree
kinematic unknowns and their number is called either the
number of
The
(d.o.f.).
mdetermiriacy or the number of degrees of freedom
In the
338
d.a.f.
equals the
number of independent
NUMERICAL METHODS
quantities defining the position of the
system. Generally, the more d.o.f. an element has the more" powerful
instance, the plane stress triangle in Fig. 12.13 with
two
Node
for
node versus
d.o.f. per
Node
wt
Node
Node 2
it is;
u7
339
"J"
the triangle used for solving bending stresses in plates with three d.o.f. per node.
However, the more complicated the displacement functions become, the more
expensive the equations become to run through the computer.
The concept of the kinematic indeterminancy can be made, understandable if
we Consider the cantilever beam in Fig. 12.11. Although the cantilever beam is
statically fully determinate,
gree because there are
it is
1.
is
Line element, 2 d.o.f.
(bj
Beam element, 4
axial
kinematically indeterminate to the second de-
two unknown
d.o.f.,
deformation neglected.
Fig. 12.12.
joint displacements (two d.o.f.)at the free
end of the beam, namely, the translation

6. Joint
(a)
in the vertical direction^
and rotation
fixed and cannot undergo any type of displacement.
Line element and beam element. Both are one-dimensional elements, the
The elements used in
simplest ones used mainly in the frame matrix analysis.
FEA are minimum two-
or three-dimensional, a chief characteristic of
FEA. They
are described in Fig. 12.12.

2.
Constant plane strain triangle or plain
two-dimensional elements used where

displacements.
They have
all
of freedom (two per node), that
six degree
is,
six dis-
placements (see Fig. 12.13). The triangular element has the advantage of simplicity
and
ability to
irregular boundaries.
fit
Fig. 12.13.
(CSTGj. These are

forces are in plane and produce plane
stress triangle
However, in practice
this
element
should be avoided. For accuracy, a very large number of the elements has to be
used.
3.
Constant plane
stress rectangle
nates. It has eight d.o.f.
(two
more accurate than the plane
(PSR) with sides parallel to global coordinode). The rectangular plane element is
d.o.f. per
stress triangular
element without adding
signifi-
The strain distribution over the element is

assumed to be linear and therefore more suitable to represent body regions with
steep stress gradients. Fewer elements can be used; however, there is a difficulty
of approximation if the body boundaries are irregular. It is suitable for axisym-
Fig. 12.14.
cantly to the computer running time.
metric
stress, and
whenever possible
4.
it is
general shell problems.

Fig. 12.15) the
preferred to triangular elements in case of the plane stress
(see Fig. 12.14).
Triangle for bending. This type of element
is
used in solving plate and
and the force vector
flz
{/J
Fig. 12.11.
m lx
m
It
posseses nine d.o.f. (three per node). At node one (see
displacement vector
is
is
340
341
Fig. 12.15.
Rectangle for bending.
5.
NUMERICAL METHODS
It is
used for plate and shell bending problems.
It
has 12 d.o.f. (three per node) (see Fig. 12.16).

Triangular element for tridimensional plate
6.
and
shell stress. It has five
per node and 15 d.o.f. total (See Fig. 12.17).
d.o.f.
One-dimesnional ring torus.
7.
origin
is
arbitrary. This
element
is
It
possess six d.o.f. total (three per node),
used for solving thin-shell problems (See Fig.
12.18).
8.
shell
Two-dimensional ring torus used in solving solid bodies or irregular thick

it has six d.o.f. (two per node), origin 0 is also arbitrary. See Fig.
problems,
12.19. Ring torus elements cannot be coupled with other types of elements.
9.
Tetrahedral element in Fig. 12.20
with 12
10.
d.o.f. total (three d.o.f. per
is
the simplest tridimensional element
node).
Tridimensional stress element in Fig. 12.21, also called brick element with
Fig. 12.19.
W3
24
d.o.f. total. It
has a limited application, since
it
does not
fit
into irregular
It is used to model bodies where forces and deflections act in all

three directions or when the structure has a complex geometry that does not
boundaries.
allow two dimensional analysis.

1 1
Fig. 12.17.
The shape of the
structure can
make
it
necessary to develop special ele-
ments, using curvilenear coordinates, higher order
finite elements.
342
NUMERICAL METHODS
V"7
3
Fig. 12.24.
12. Fig. 12.22
two
d.o.f. per
are quadratic.
shows
Plane Stress Hybrid Quadrilateral element (PSHQ)with
node. Here the boundary stress
tion and in practice
PSHQ
element gives
13. In Fig. 12.23(a), Shallow Shell

five d.o.f.
is
linear
but the internal stresses
Hybrid elements posses better characteristics
per node
is
shown, and
ment (16 nodes) with 3
d.o.f. per
for stress determina-
reliable results.
Curved Rectangle element (SSCR) with
in Fig. 12.23(b) Isoparametric
node
is
shown. Both are used
Quadratic
in
ele-
modeling of
343
Flat
tie
rod with two holes and notches subject to steady pull.
under arbitrary (symmetrical

pressure vessel shells, thin and thick respectively,
they are much more versatile,
or nonsymmetrical) loads and supports. Obviously,
elements in Fig. 12.1 8 and
but also more expensive to use than the axisymmetric
Fig. 12.19.
JU
achieved by:
More accurate results with smaller number of elements are
12.17.
Fig.
in
as
node,
each
at
freedom
(a) allowing more degrees of
as in Fig. 12.23(b).
(b) using additional side or internal nodes,
results. If all the nodes which are
complexity
However, a greater mathematical
used to define the undeformed
also
are
geometry
deformed
used to determine the
for instance, the conisoparametric;
called
is
element
the
shape of the element,
isoparametric. If only corner nodes of the
stant strain triangular global element is
as side nodes) are used
element define the undeformed shape and all nodes (such
element is called subparametric.
to determine the deformation pattern, the
benefits from knowing how the
In conclusion it can be said that the designer
to individual problems. Typvarious elements are accurate before applying them
of the FEA-displacement
stress problems to be solved by application
ical
plane
and Fig. 12.25. In most large computer programs,

shown in Fig. 12.25.
the elements of different types can be mixed as
method
are
shown
in Fig. 12.24
Pin
Fig. 12.25.
(b)
(a)
filling
Fig. 12.23.
by means of a pin closely

symmetry and only one half needs to be
Stresses created in a plate eye-bar with a load applied
the opening.
The
modeled and analyzed.
eye-bar has one plane of
NUMERICAL METHODS
344
FE A Displacement Method Applied to
Axially
The most important problems
a vessel designer
to
which
Symmetric
345
Shells
can apply
finite
element
analysis occur in axisymmetric shells with loads, supports, material properties,
and
shell thicknesses
symmetric about the axis of rotation but varying along the

components in Fig. 3.2P$ equal to zero
rotational axis. In such cases the load
and
<J>et
M N N
0<ttt
e<tti
tt,
and
Q e -vanish. Consequently, the displacement
tangential direction to parallel circle will be zero.
Axisymmetric
shells
in the
of prac-
importance can be devided into two categories:
tical
A. Thin shells with a large ratio R/t.

B. Heavy wall vessels or solid bodies. Generally, any
compared to its mean diameter.
shell
with a heavy wall
In subsequent discussions, only the element stiffness matrix will be derived in

detail for cases
A and
B.
A. Thin Axisymmetric Shells

z-axis
The whole procedure of analyzing
a thin
axisymmetric shell by
FEA
can be
di-
vided into the following steps:
of suitable element. The shell is broken into an assembly of finite

They can be short, conical, frustrum-shaped elements as in Fig. 12.26
or a section of tori, forming an "equivalent shell."
and
six degrees
They have two
ring-end nodes
are subjected to
both bending and membrane
The displacement of
is uniquely determined by two
components u and w' in tangential and normal directions. At each node, the
axial and radial movements and a rotation is prescribed. All three components
are required as the shell is assumed to be able to carry bending moments. The
coordinates for identyfying points on the meridian of the midsurface of the shell
a point
As
in previous cases, equilibrium equations of forces are developed at
nodal
set
circle in
terms of
unknown nodal
in Fig.
stresses.
12.26 on the middle surface
2.
displacements.
each
solution of this
Derivation of the stiffness matrix for a conical element.
(a) Selection
of a suitable coordiante system and number of nodes. Cylindrical

node 1
r, z are chosen for global coordiante system. Then at
polar coordinates
the displacement vector
s, measured along the meridian, or the angle 0 between the normal of the midsurface and the axis of symmetry. The type of shell
usually determines which of the two coordiantes should be used. For conical
segments the length
is:
s is used, while for toroidal sections the angle coordinate 0 is

expedient to perform an analysis of the individual elements within
a local displacement system which has directions different from those in the
.a.
and the force element vector
it is
global system.
circle
of equations presents a solution to the system.
can be either the arc length
used. Here
of one conical
of freedom per element. Owing to the axial symmetry, the three-
dimensional problem becomes effectively a two-dimensional plane problem; and

the elements (cross-sections) become one-dimensional line, the simplest type.
They
circles
element, positive as shown.
Selection
elements.
Applied loadings, displacements and rotations at nodal
Fig. 12.26.
The element
and loads must then be transformed into a

global coordinate system when the master matrix [K] is formed. The applied
'/./
stiffnesses
loads at nodal rings are axially symmetrical in and out of the plane of the shell.
fir
'
is:
NUMERICAL METHODS
346
The matrix equation
for
one
entire element will then be:
(c)
nodal displacements.
coefficients (a's) are expressed in terms of
The
displacements u and
( f \
At node
are thus defined as functions
At node
-0
2: s
=L
=a x +a 2 L
u'2
w 2 =03
=
[*]
dw'/ds =
fu
W2
fir
fl
dw'/ds
[fc]
is
the stiffness matrix for the element of order
6X6
and has to be
evaluated from the element geometric and material properties.
known from the given design data. The nodal displacements

be computed. From computed nodal displacements the stresses in the
The load vector
is
elements can be determined.
of any point
(u' t s)
ment and therefore the

s
=a 3 + a 4
w'
f$
state
+ as
(/*,
of
u and
z).They define the state of strain within the
ele-
stress:
To
trix
+a 6
s
obtain the coefficients
must
be inverted.
a 2 =(u'2 - u\)jL
+ 3a 6
2
s
L3
2L
3L
(a's) in
terms of nodal displacements the (6
6) ma-
However, here the equations can be solved by elimination:
The displacement
a s --(2/LXdw'/*)i "
a6
Since the element has six d.o.f., there are six

the above equations.
[dw'/ds
a 4 = dw'/ds
= dw'/ds = a 4 + 2a s
vv'
+ 2a 5 L + 3a 6 L
within the element in terms of the local element coordinates
or global coordinates
u = a 1 + a2
=a 4
(b) Selection of the displacement function that defines displacements
2
3
L +a s L +a 6 L
In matrix form:
m2
are to
+fl4
/3i
where
The
of nodal displacements.
fir
347
(minimum)
vector in matrix form
coefficients (a's) in
=(UL 2 )(dyv'lds) 2
(MLXdW/ds)2 + (3/L)(w 2
(HL
)(dw' /ds\
(VL
w\)
)(w'2 -
w[)
In matrix form:
is:
"
1
-HL
<
w\
(dw'/ds),
<
2s
3s
The above matrix equation specifies the relationship between point

ments and unknown coefficients (a's) to be determined.
V
m displace-
-3/L
2/L
-2/L
HL
0
31
-2/L
-UL
l/L
^dw'/ds).
representSubstituting the above values for a coefficients into the equations

within
point
any
at
ing the assumed element shape under load, the displacements
the element are
now
expressed in terms of nodal displacements.
NUMERICAL METHODS
348
349
However, here the displacements are in local coordinates which means that
they are not algebraically additive with the adjacent conical element displacements. Therefore, they have to be transferred into the global coordinates i and r.
From
u\
Fig. 12.27
w\ and
get equations for transformation
cos
a+
of the local coordinates
0i
u\
w'j
we
=u
Wj sin a +
(dWlds), =-
sin
cos
N \
0i
"six
ft
or in matrix form for one node:
sin
0"
cos
I -A
-1
.A.
mm
For one
Pi
single element:
cos
sin
or
o"
-sin
cos
-1
> =
u2
cos
w'2
-sin
02
sin
(1
u2
- p) COS a
2
(l-3p +3p
X
sin
(1
3
)
-1_
0 0
0*
-l/l
III
-3/L
-2/f.
3/Z,
2/1*
HL 2
-2/Z,
III
i
u2
-III
3
where p = s/l
IT]
x <
or in short:
w2
sin
[A] {6}
p COS a
+ 2p
X cos a
where the (6 X 6) matrix
is the transformation matrix [T] for the entire single

element. Substituting the above values for the coefficients (as) into the
equations, for u and'w, displacements of any point within the element,
we get:
- p)
a-3p
w2
cos a
stress resultants in a conical element.
After carrying out the matrix multiplication:
01
Unit
Fig. 12.27.
3
)
-L(p -2p
+p
3
)
-(3p
sin
-2p
a
3
)
Op'
- 2p
X cos a
J
)
X(-p +p
3
)
NUMERICAL METHODS
350
A/*
where [^4] is the (2 X 6) matrix specifying the relationship between displacements within the element and the nodal displacements in global coordinates.
(d) Introduction of strains at any point
above equation. From
Fig. 12.28, based
on
351
within the ring element into the

ref.
18,
we can
write the matrix
equation:
d/ds
cos
sin otjr
^9
Xs
Xe
ot/r
lds
(sin otfr)(d/ds)
meridional strain
where d/ds = (l/L)(d/dp).

In the axisymmetric problems there
any
radial displacement
is
no tangential displacement; however,
(w) automatically induces a strain
direction (e#). Substituting for u and
into the above matrix equation
we
cL
Adsfd<t>
RL
sin ot/r
cos ajr
d 2 /ds 2
-(sin a/rXd/ds)
If
Xs
- Ar/r -
ee
d/ds
- (du/ds)
{Rl + w)IRi_ -
(1
expansion):
shell
(dufd<t>) d<t> (1
+ w/R L = du/ds for wIR

)
+ wIRtf
1
get:
tangential strain e f
(from ab to ab' after the
[ds + idu/d$) d<p - ds)
Ads -
in the cicumferential
e/.
(u sin
a+
w cos a)/r -
(u sin a)/r
assumed here constant the element
is
change
[A] <
in
is
+ (w cos
a>/f.
conical.
expansion
curvature X J> n 9 u,ar variation between the points a, b and after shell
R^d^): rotation of meridional tangent from a to a', ^ x and from 6 to
to a, b' divided by
b',
Xe
/
4>
since the strain-displacement laws involve differentiation, the strains
and there-
iu/Ri_)
+ dw/Rt_d&
in
radians
= iu/Ri_) + dw/R^dQ + [diu/R/_ + dw/Ri_d4>)/d0]
Xs" ^2
Ô/RL^'^^ds
ioru/R^
d<t>
fore the stresses will not be determined as accurately as the displacements. After
differentiating the matrix [A]
change
in
xe (between the element
Xe m - [iu/RO + dw/R L d<t>] cos Qddfrdd = -
Fig. 12.28.
(sin air)
W> 2
ab and cd
(see Fig. 3.1 for the Bntire
(cos
4>/r)
idw/ds)
{dwlds).
Derivation of expressions for the shell strains and changes in curvatures in terms
of the shell middle surface displacements.
Xs
faces
element):
= 01
curvature
NUMERICAL METHODS
352
Substituting for the strain vector from the step (d)
or in short
where [B]
is
(-cos
ip
the strain nodal displacement (4
.l
-p)(cos a
-(1 -
sin a)/r|(l -
+ 2p
3
)
a)jr
3p
1
-L(p-2p
*2p i
+ p
3
)
sin
a)/r
-(1
x (sin 2a)/2r
-4p + 3p 2 )
(sin a)jr
(sin
sin
M3p 2
X (COS
-2p J )
x (cos a)lr
tt)/f
Up)
(l/ )(6 - 12p)
(l/i)(6p
2a)/2r
(sin
sin
2p
-(l/I)(-4 + 6p) -d/L 2 )(6 x
2
-(l/L)(-6p + 6p )
p=s/L:
a)/L
(sin
a cos a
-(3p
x cos a
6) matrix-and with
(cos a)/
X (CQSa)/r
(l/)(-6p + 6p 2 )
(sin
j(l/L )(-6 + 12p)
a
J
p) sin
x (cos
+(1
-(l/I )(-6 + 12p)

sin
(-sin a)(L
2a)/2r
(sin
get:
= [B] {8}
{e}
(1
we
353
~(l/)(-2 + 6p)
x cos a
-6p 2 )
-a/L)(6p-6p 2 )
a)//-
(sin
2a)/ 2r
-(-2p + 3p J )
X
(sin a)/r
Here the product of matrices [D] [B] relates the internal
stress resultants to
nodal displacements. If only a membrane solution is required, x s Xe>MSi

can be omitted and the computation procedure is greately simplified.
>
(e) Internal resisting forces, stress resultants
strains (es
Xa) and
e e>
way
in this
(Ns
Ne M M B
,
Si
are related to
stress usually governs, the transverse shear stress
neglected.)
(f)
due to
Q0
can be
The
internal resisting forces (stress resultants
within the element and
and stress resultant couples)

above equation are the un-
nodal displacemetns in the
knowns. To determine the nodal displacements, the external forces, acting at

nodes of the element and in equilibrium with the internal element stresses, are
Et
Ns=
to nodal displacements. Using the theory
of elasticity the stress resultants can be expressed in terms of strains.

(Since the
bending
lbs/in.
substituted for the internal resisting forces. In doing so the principle of virtual
to advantage. During a virtual (hypothetical, imaginary)
element
of a deformable body in overall equilibrium will be
each
deformation
in shape. The forces acting on the element (both
deformed
and
also
displaced
work can be used here

Et
lb-in./in.
^ (Xs + Xe)
and external nodal loads) will perform a virtual work [1 37, 1 39]
work, performed by external loads {/}, in our case acting at nodes
of the elements, is equal to: W ext = 2 {/}S, where 5 is the nodal displacements
in the direction of the loads. This work is equal to the virtual deformation work
= / oed (vol.), ^here
done by the stresses alone (absorbed by the element):
internal stresses
Et
Ms= YT7Jj(^
+ ^)
lb-in./in.
The
7
1 "
y2
[Z>] is
is
the virtual strains.
external forces (loads) acting at their full values

applied,
0
0
where
the internal stresses and e
The equation S{/}5 = foed (vol.) represents the principle of virtual work: "If
a deformable body in equilibrium under the action of a system of loads is given a
very small virtual (hypothetical) deformation, then the virtual work done by the
or in matrix form;
N$
is
virtual
0
0
vt
is
equal to the virtual
stress resultant couples,
the virtual displacement."[137]

If
we
when
the virtual displacement
is
the internal stress resultants and
which depend on the deformation of the element, during
/12
the stress-strain matrix.
work done by
designate the virtual nodal displacements 6 (arbitrarily imposed) for one
element to distinguish
it
from the
real displacements as:
354
NUMERICAL METHODS
355
Pi
{5}*= <
The
{hi
performed
total
virtual
forces (stress resultants)
then
AW^d (area) =
work
across one unit element due to the internal
is:
InA
{es e Xj x*}*
Vd (area)
<
/i,
Uj
Substituting for the strains and stress resultants, stress resultant couples,
ht
kz
As previously pointed out, {/}
[B]
the nodal force vector,
composed of nodal
within the element
and not to be confused with the load vector {F} for the overall structure.
The virtual nodal displacements {6}* will cause virtual strains within the
ment and the
virtual strain vector
{5}*
[D][B] {6}
d (area).
-J
statically equivalent to the itnernal stresses
is
get:
/area
m 2>>
element forces
we
According to the principle of the virtual work
wext
ele-
we can write:
wint (the principle of conservation of energy)
is:
{}*
{/} = (jf
IB]
{/} =
W T W[B]2itrLd)j{8}.
{8}*
[D] [B]
(area)^ {8} or
w
Pi
Xs
(l
In short
Xd
where
or in short
All
it
to* =[*]{}'
is
its
M MQ are caused by actual forces at nodes.
JJ [B]
therefore known.
The
variable coordinate r in [B] has to be expressed in
and the matrix multiplication carried out before the integration, term
by term, can be performed with respect to p - s/L between the limits 0 to 1
terms of
The actual stress resultants Ns Ndi

They will perform a virtual work per
[D] [B] 2-nrL dp is the element (6 X 6) stiffness matrix.

terms are given by geometric configuration and material properties and
[k]
Si
unit area of the element:
3.
After the stiffness matrices of individual elements [k] have been combined
356
NUMERICAL METHODS
into
357
one master system matrix [K] the nodal displacements can be computed:
,
Nodal circle
The load vector {F} becomes here again an assembly of external

nodal
Once the nodal displacements
4.
forces acting at
circles.
(Wj
w lt 0 ls etc.) are known, the
stress resul-
and stress resultant couples at nodes or any point within the element can
be computed by adjusting the element matrices [B] using the appropriate radius
tants
r, a,
p and L.
Fig. 12.29.
toroidal ring element with triangular cross-section with z

and
as coordinate
axes.
Net
t
ft
V>hWi<
becomes:
Usually, the stress resultants and couples are used to
compute the compound
Jlr
k\ru\
k lru2
k\rv2
^lruS
k\rv3
fiz
k\zu\
kizui
k\zv2
*l2u3
k\zv3
hr
stress:
%2rvl
*2ri2
^2ru3
<
oL
=Ns/t6Ms/t
ot
=N9 /t6M0 /t2
fu
^2zul
hr
.
The above approach is used
in several large
computer programs.
^3ZUl
*J
&2ZU2
&2ZV2
^2zu3
^2zu3
v2
k$ru2
%3rv2
^3ru3
&3rv3
"3
ktzui
k$zv2
kszus
^3zi>3
y3
or in short
B.
{/}-[*]{*}
Heavy Wall Vessels
The
where
steps in derivation of the element stiffness matrix are as follows:
2.
1.
Selection
ments
(rings
of suitable element. The
structure
is
replaced by a system of ele-
[k]
is
the element (6
6) stiffness matrix.
Derivation of stiffness matrix for a toroidal ring element

with triangular
cross-section.
of triangular, rectangular or quadrilateral cross-sections) intercon-
nected along circumferential joints called nodal circles (see Fig.

12.29). The
radial and axial displacements u and v at the nodal circles are unknown.
There is
(a)
given
The simplest representation of the displacements under

by two linear polynomials:
no tangential displacement due to the symmetry of the shell and load. However,
the tangential stress has to be included in the elasticity equations when
forming
u = ai +a 2 r + a 3 z
the stiffness matrix.
The equilibrium matrix equation of nodal forces {/} in terms of nodal displacements for one element to be combined into the system matrix equation
= a4
the nodal loads
is
+a s r + a 6 z
where a x to a 6 are unknown

equations are:
coefficients.
Combined
in matrix
form the above
NUMERICAL METHODS
358
359
2\
a2
{J~[o
This linear displacement field assures continuity between the elements since lines
which
(b)
are initially straight remain straight in their displaced position.
The
state of displacement
throughout the element described by displace-
ments of any point within the element (u, v) is expressed in terms of unknown
nodal displacements (u t v 1 ,u 2 ,v 2 ,u z and u 3 ). This is accomplished by substituting nodal coordinate values (given by geometrical configuration of the body)
Fig. 12.30.
into the above equation and solving for the coefficients (a's):
'l
r%
22
0
<
{5}
r2
23
{a}=[AV
'0
0~|
v)
[0
zJ
From
(c)
23
the theory of elasticity the element of an axisymmetric
ez
= bvjbz =a 6
= u/r = ai/r + a 2 + za z /r
7rt
~ 9w/92 + bv/br = a 3 + a 5
The
{5}.
tangential strain e e
shell is
>2*3 -r*Z2
is
components
done by computer:
becomes
infinite for a zero value
assigned to r for the node located on the axis.

The above equations written in matrix form are:
in.) is
-riz 3
+r 3 z 1
r x z2
-r 2 Zi
22
-Z 3
z3
-*i
2\
-*2
t*
-r 2
T\
~r%
r2
-r x
-r 2 z
=d/2 A)
0
r2 Z3 - r-$z 2
-^1^3 + r 3 z
r x z2
where
-Z 3
Z2
T%-T 2
A is the area of the
of r. Therefore,
triangle 123.
'22
Z$
-Zy
*1
T\ - r 3
r2 -ri
if
the
closed at the z axis (sphere, conical head) generally a small value (0.001
[A)~
body can be
(see Fig. 12.30):
er = bu/br = a 2
(a's):
The inversion of the matrix [A ]
be expressed in terms of
and z are the coordinates of any point within the element.
as
{a}
and the coefficients
fl
where
= [A]
u\
subject to four strain

'3
now
nodal displacements:
a2
>=
or in short
Displacements of any point within the element can
Irz
l/r
z/r
10 10
l
=[C]{a}=[C][A)- {6}=[B){i>}
360
Element
strain matrix [B]
= [C] [A]
NUMERICAL METHODS
relates strains
anywhere
in the
element
361
or
to nodal displacements. After matrix multiplication:
{o}=[D][B}{5}
0
..ii::}.A
n
o
'3
-^2
-r 3 z 2
r2 z 3
rt
-î^+^zx
-r 3
= (1/2a)
+(*2
-r 3 )
0
rx z2
"*2
*1
where matrix [D]
i
J
z*-z x
-r 2 z x
ra - r x
(f )
-z 2 )
is
the elasticity matrix for this particular case, relating the
element to
stresses.
strains within the
0
|
The
principle of the virtual
work can be here used to determine the
set
of
elemental nodal forces {/} statically equivalent to the internal stresses. If there
are no nodal forces due to initial strains (asumed here to be equal to zero) then:
+(r 3 -r2 )\
-r 3 )|
+ -('2 -ri)!
r
'
r3
~r2
22
"*3
r2
\B] T lD][B]d(vo\) j{6}.
-z 2
Matrix [5] is a (4 X 6) matrixand includes two point coordinates rand z, independent variables. Thus the strains are not constant as they were in case
of a
The
integral has to be taken over the
drdz, and the element
stiffness
volume of the
matrix [k]
entire element
(vol)
= 2 ti r
is:
plane strain triangle.
(d)
The
stresses in the axially
are related to strains,
symmetric
ez
ee
= ar /-
-vor /E-
oJE -
Inrdrdz.
Since the matrix [B] contains two independent variables, coordinates r and z,
The d
voq/E
(vol)
is
assumed to be 27rrA, where
(r x
r2
z 3 )/3 are the centroidal coordinates of the element
ment. The element stiffness matrix [k]
voJE+o0 /E
7rz=rrz /G
where
[D] [B]
to avoid the lengthy process of integration, a simple approximation
voJE- voe lE
= -vor /E +
=JJ
materials and ignoring the possible initial strains, for instance, due to
temperature
er
[B]
[k]
element a r oZi o e and shear rrz

using the theory of elasticity and Hooke's law for isotropic
vessel
is
and
r 3 )/3
is
and
usually used.
A is the area
(z x
+ z2 +
of the
ele-
assumed to be:
[k]=2x?A[B] T [D][B].
E - modulus of elasticity
The substitution of
G = modulus of rigidity = E/2(\
+ v)
v = Poisson's ratio
3.
(e) Solving the
and z and
makes the matrix
[B] constant for the entire
element.
above equations for ars az ,adi rrz
The element equilibrium matrix equations are superimposed to form the
global system matrix equation:

:
{F}=IK}{5}
/
l
*(!
u)
vk\-v)
vKi-
v)
vK\-v)
v/a-v)
from which we can compute the nodal displacements:

<
u/a-p) via-*)
(1
0
- 2v)
{6}=[K)-
0
2(1 - v)
{F}.
Trz 1
4.
The four
stress
components (art o z o e and

,
T rz ) are
computed from the
362
NUMERICAL METHODS
equation:
If
the load
is
concentrated at a point, then a node
the load application. If the load
is
is
363
selected at that point of
distributed, equivalent nodal loads
must be
computed. This can be done in simpler cases by inspection and direct formulation
assuming the nodal forces to be statically equivalent to the actual loads. The
loads at nodes are then called lumped. If a strain energy method has to be used,
vi
"3
work, the nodal equivalent forces are called

from the energy point of view. If more forces than
one are acting simultaneously at one node, the forces are added. In addition to
the external loads, sometimes body forces have to be added; for instance, the
V y3
weight or forces due to acceleration or centrifugal action. Both the direct lumped
load method and the variational approach offer procedures to determine the
for instance, the principle of virtual
[DUBU
Vz/
If centroidal
consistent, that
components
are
(a)
satisfactory accuracy.
Lumped loads,
direct formulation
method. In the direct method of formula-
tion of the element load vector, the usual approach
Rectangularly and quadrilaterally shaped ring elements were used to analyze
shown
much
simpler to assemble.
determined at the centroid of the element. This procedure yields the results of
the Venturi tube as
consistent
nodal equivalent forces for an element. However, lumped load vectors are
coordinates f and z are substituted into matrix [B] for variable co-
ordinates r and z, then [B] becomes constant, and the stress
is,
is
to consider the distributed
loads on an element to be proportionately divided among the near nodes of the

element. The load at a node is then taken as the static equivalent of that portion
in Fig. 12.31
of the distributed loading corresponding to the tributory region around the

node. A simple example of lumping the loads is shown in Fig. 12.32. The nodal
External Loads
The external loads acting on the
forces associated with the weight of the element are assumed to be equally dis-
actual structure have to be replaced by an equiv-
alent system of forces acting at the elements nodes to
make
tributed at the nodes. In the axisymmetrically loaded shells of revolution, the
the solution feasible.
external nodal forces are the actual loads axisymmetrically distributed around
the shell.
2.25
in.
more complex elements, the consistent joint loads

some uniform or varying surface or edge loadings can be significantly different than the loads one could get by using tributory area distribution
as in the lumped load method.
(b) Consistent loadings. For
equivalent to
Example
12.2.
As an example of both techniques of expressing the element load
vector the following problem from ref. 21
is
used:
Lumped
loads
hq/2
-+-hq
-A
q
Fig. 12.31.
Quadrilateral element
mesh
for analysis of the Venturi tube joint b.
thin triangular element, a
hr
hq/2
k(ib/in.)
external actual load
Fig. 12.32.
Thin plate subject to
pull-load.
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN HAND800K
364
NUMERICAL METHODS
365
and
to
Boundary
l-2
(!-')
-J
line
of the plate
or
W=[D]{e}
Fig. 12.33.
Using the principle of virtual work

part of a thin plate,
10~ 6
in./in.
pressure
F and
P = 2000
psi
E=
30 X 10 6 v = 0.3, a = 6.6 X
thickness t = 0.2 in. is subject on its boundary side 23 to
and a uniform temperature rise of 100F. Determine the
shown
with
in Fig. 12.33
element load vector.
[B]
{Q}=f
Loads on nodes due to external pressure. Using the lumped load method,
on nodes 2 and 3 are (see Fig. 12.33):
(a)
the loads
F2 =F3 =(tXPX
we can
write (see section
A) nodal
force
vector
[B]
{Q}=f
[D][B] {8} d
vol
[D] {e}dvo\
4.47)/2 = 894 lbs.

or in the written out form;
Fsy " ^2y =
("
894 X 4)/4.47 =
800
lbs.
= Fix =
(-
894 X 2)/4.47 =
400
lbs.
Qix
Loads on nodes due to the element temperature rise.

The strain due to the 100F temperature rise is ex = 0.00066
The strains in a freely expanding body in plane:
x 3 -x 2 y 2 -y*
Qly
Q2X
y z -y x
(b)
ex
=(ox
vay )/E +
aAT
= (o
y
vo x )/E +
aAT
in./in.
is
and the
unaffected
stress
by temperature change.
can be described
e y = bv/by
and from previous computions:
{e}=[B]{5}
yi
-y 2
-x 3 y 3 -y x
1-V
(1 - i0
x 2 -xi
x 2 -x x yi -y 2
in
A = (l/2X2X4) = 4in. 2
terms of displacement functions:

v
ex = bu/bx
X!
where
the shearing strain

strain
2a
Q*x
7xy * rxy /G
The
> =
Q2y
"1
X!-x 3
yxy - bu/by + bv/bx
ex
vol
x iy y t
= 0.3
= ey = a(AT) = 6 X 10" 6 X 100 = 0.00066

=4
in.
X0.2
in.
= 0.8
in.
are the nodal coordinates.
yxy = 0
vol
366
NUMERICAL METHODS
Substituting these values into the above equation
30 X 10
we get:
0.3
0.3
>0.8
0.91
0.35
Fig. 12.34.
Q lx
= -5143
2,,
= -10285
5143
1b
lb
Q2y
The nodal force vector
1b
23 x
01b
=0
'-Zy
10285
for the element 123, after
lb
combining the forces
due to the pressure load and the thermal expansion,
is
at
nodes
as follows;
-5143
-
10285
4743
>
{Q}
lbs.
800
-400
I 9485
See Fig. 12.34 for the physical interpretation of the resultant force vector for
the element.
Any
additional forces acting at nodes have to be added to the above
forces, for instance, the pressure forces acting
forces as
shown
are transferred through the
on the adjacent elements. The
nodes into the adjacent elements.
In practice, the conversion of the loads acting
on an element (body,
surface
and boundary forces) into equivalent nodal forces is usually included in the computer program. The analyst only defines the type of the load, for instance, internal design pressure of the pressure vessel. However, for some cases the equations
to be used to convert certain load types into node forces are given in the user's
manual.
Example
12.3.
deep cantilever plate beam as shown in Fig. 12.35
to illustrate the set of computer input
commands and output
is
used here
results as well the
367
368
interpretation of the results.
The
NUMERICAL METHODS
entire procedure can be divided into:
+12.0
+6.0
0.0
25
+48.0
-6.0
0.0
26
+48.0
0.0
0.0
27
+48.0
+6.0
0.0
modeling of the structure, that is replacing the realbeam by a suitable assembly

of elements,
preparation of the computer input,
checking and evaluating the computer output.
FEA
Modeling. Fig. 12.35(b) shows the selected
numbered
nodes
is
so that the
maximum
model. The nodes should be

numerical difference between two adjacent
as small as possible. This results in a
more compact computational
cedure run through the computer. The end load on the
between three nodes (25, 26 and 27). This
beam? has
pro-
to be divided
ELEMENT INCIDENCES
They
usually done
by assuming the end

load P acts as a transverse parabolical load at the end of the beam
[21 ] The two
support nodes 1 and 3 are vertically released, although the real beam is fixed.
Both adjustments give better final results, since the FEA model lacks the elasticity
is
identify the range of the
elements.
of the real continuous beam. All boundary joints are
any problem being solved by the
stiffness
ELEMENT
1
initially
assumed fixed, as
in
method. The forces which correspond

boundary conditions such as at
to displacements necessary to yield expected
support joints have to be released. The analyst should
list all assumptions made

modeling and how and to what degree they affect the results.
Computer input has to be set in a certain form. The following represents a
simple computer input as punched on the keyboard into the computer:
in
STRUDLE, 'CAPT' CANTILEVER BEAM
TYPE PLANE STRESS
> identifies
identifies
program
the type of the structure
15
22
25
26
23
UNITS KIPS INCHES
16
23
26
27
24
JOINT COORDINATES
JOINT RELEASES
NODE
1,3
FORCE Y
0.0
-6.0
0.0
SUPPORT
ELEMENT PROPERTIES
0.0
0.0
0.0
SUPPORT
TYPE PSHQ THICKNESS
0.0
+6.0
0.0
SUPPORT
CONSTANTS
+6.0
-6.0
0.0
E 30000 ALL
+6.0
0.0
0.0
POISSON 0.25 ALL
+6.0
+6.0
0.0
LOADING THREE
+12.0
-6.0
0.0
JOINTS LOADS
+12.0
0.0
0.0
JOINT 25 FORCE
7
8
1 .0
ALL
Introduce material properties
Y-
2.0
369
370
JOINT 26 FORCE
JOINT 27 FORCE
Y-
NUMERICAL METHODS
16.0
-0.30093E 02
-0.39878E 01
-0.07457E 02
2.0
-0.30075E 02
-0.40878E 01
0.41619E 01
STIFFNESS ANALYSIS
0.09 146E
PRINT DATA
LIST DISPLACEMENTS
AT JOINTS
LIST STRESSES
LIST
AT NODES
1
01
0.41244E 01
0.09396E 01
0.37538E 01
-0.07495E 02
-0.09396E 01
-0.37586E 01
-0.07495E 02
-0.09146E 01
-0.36586E 01
0.41244E 01
25, 26, 27
TO 9
SUPPORT REACTIONS
LIST JOINT FORCES 4
0.3007 IE
02
0.40878E 01
0.41619E 01
0.30046E 02
0.39878E 01
-0.07457E 02
TO 9
PLOT DEFORMED CONTOUR OF STRUCTURE
RESULTANT JOINT LOADS SUPPORTS
FINISH
as printed.
Only the most important sample data
GLOBAL
79.5
GLOBAL
GLOBAL
-79.5
FREE END JOINT DISPLACEMENTS
Y DISPLACEMENT ZDISPLACEMEN
GLOBAL
-0.02867
-0.15983
0.00000
26
GLOBAL
0.00000
-0.16007
0.00000
27
GLOBAL
0.02867
-0.15983
0.00000
20
SYY
FY
FZ
0.07000E 03
0.05751E 02
0.06000E 03
-0.43898E 01
0.33763E 02
-0.05610E
02
0.23763E 02
0.42488E
01
0.23763E 02
0.42488E
01
ELEMENT STRESSES
SXY
4
-0.34373E 02
-0.19503E 01
-0.35205E 02
-0.05277E 02
0.09346E 01
0.37586E 01
0.17715E
01
0.07085E 02
-0.17715E 01
-0.07085E 02
-0.09067E
02
-0.09396E 01
-0.37586E 01
0.44866E
01
0.35205E 02
0.05277E
0.34373E 02
0.19503E
-0.07819E
02
01
02
8
0.33763E 02
-0.05610E 02
0.06000E 03
-0.43898E 01
0.05734E 02
0.44866E
01
6
FX
ELEMENT JOINT
25
sxx
Z X MOMENT Y MOMENT Z MOMENT
NODAL FORCES
JOINT COORDINATE X DISPLACEMENT
ELEMENT NODE
are given
below for review and interpretation.
JOINT COORDINATES
Computer output
'
0.36585E
01
371
0.07000E 03
0.05 75 IE
02
-0.09067E 02
0.05734E 02
-0.07819E
02
Output checks. The analyst should examine

show that the results are reasonable.
End
as
many
locations as practical to
displacement:
2
3
6
y = -PL*/3EI=- (20000 X 48 /3 X 30 X 10 X 12 X
ys =
(6VL/5AG) =
- (6
X 20000 X 48/5 X 12 X
12
1)
X 10
0.1
6
)
70
in.
= 0.008
in.
NUMERICAL METHODS
372
0.178/0.16 = 1.1125
The actual beam
is
anlysis
more
is
accurately
known,
is
373
often used as a simple bench-mark problem to test
the efficiency of different elements under different types of concentrated and
flexible.
distributed loads.
Support reactions: 20000 X 48/12 = 80 kips

Element equilibrium check: from Fig. 12.36 the balance of the forces and moments acting on element 4 is:
At
least
two
one refined for the second computer

to use only one mesh because of price. Effect of mesh
The
stress
(35205
at section
check: The stress
It
psi) differs
a :Ma = 70 X 12 = 20 X 42 = 840
SXX
from the
psi) to a considerable degree
Maximum
stress
SXX (ax ) in
SXX=M/Z = (20000 X
as
stress
and
computed
SXX
tors
kips-in.
for the element 2 at the
node 6
of the element 4 at the node 6 (30046

need for a better refined mesh.
this indicates a
the beam:
6 X 48)/12
40000/35205 = 1.13 the maximum
stress
is
would seem important
= 40000
is
off
psi
tool;
stresses a
more refined mesh would have to be used.
5.75
its
its
theoretical
different results.
element type, load and boundary idealization
etc.
when
it is
building a
important for
him to become aquainted with the main characterises of various elements before
applying them to an important technical problem.
Large stress differences between the stresses at the same node of two joining
elements is often an indication that the mesh is not refined enough. However, at
a shell section
where two different
shell thicknesses
in stresses should appear.
can be predicted beforehand that the

computed quantities such as displacements will be greater or smaller than exact
it is
not the usual case that
it
any given joint.
of utmost importance for a new user to

secure a user's manual written in clear understandable English with established
terminology and where input/output are explained line-by-line in cookbook
Finally, in the writer's experience,
has to be kept in
it is
any slight deviation from the prescribed incomputer rejection or an erroneous output, and
mind
that
in results
and considers the com-
8
5.6
,
FEA-Displacement Method, Advantages and Limitations
5.6
-51?
CSTG)
puter only as a necessary tool and not an object of study.
4.25
4.25
size,
(10%)
time-consuming editing of the input.

The practicing engineer is mainly interested
70
versus
out that the linear elastic FEA method is a

degree of correctness is dependent on very many fac-
put procedure results in either
4.4
on accuracy of the
PSHQ
Since an analyst has to rely mostly on his own

discretization of a structure to represent the real structure,
style. It
is
size
(for instance
experience
solutions at
5.75,
Some elements
to point
some points (for instance at

are combined) the difference
by 13 percent
General Considerations. The cantilever beam problem, because
however,
such as mesh
In practice
For better results of SXY
considerable.
using comparable meshes, give slightly
powerful
moment
Total
after evaluating,
provide better approximations than the others even with less total number of
elements. Since FEA is a numerical method, different computer programs, even
X = 60 + 33.76 23.76 70 = 0
r = + 4.25 5.6 + 5.75 4.4 = 0
2> * 6 X (70 60) 6(5.6 + 4.4) = 0
-
used-one coarse and,
run. However, in practice the analyst tries
stress results
grids (meshes) should be
The following
is
a brief evaluation of the
FEA-displacement method.
Advantages
'
4.4
is a matrix method. All equations

and derivations and calculations are performed
with the aid of matrices. The use of matrices makes all computations systematic,
compact and suited ideally for computer programming. Matrix formulation pro-
1.
The
FEA method
as normally presented
are presented in matrix forms,
Fig. 12.36.
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN HAND800K
374
vides a
NUMERICAL METHODS
means of systemizing generalized procedures
computer solution
for thd
375
on the boundaries of the body, condition values of the dependent
tern; while
of structural problems, particularly of complex highly redundant system. An

important feature of the FEA matrix standardized procedure is that it does not
require any engineering decisions during the calculation process.
variables or their derivatives are given. These values are usually mathematical
The modeling (process of breaking the stucture into elements), locating

become essentially straightforward. The FEA model of a general arbitrary structure can be made to resemble
the actual structure very closely. No great simplifications and adjustments need
be' made as is often required in an analytical analysis. It preserves the complexity
computer programs.
2.
descriptions of experimental observations.) However, the general systematic applicability
of the
FEA method makes it
suitable for constructing general purpose
applied loads, and specifying the boundary conditions
of the actual physical problem.

arbitrary supports.
FEA
It accommodates an arbitrary load system and

can be applied to determine stresses within complex
structures of revolution subjected to axisymmetrical loads as well
thermal, and mechanical loads.
rical,
in analysis
When
classical analytical
of continuous structures (plates,
tered
when
tions.
FEA
nonsymmetmethods are used
shells), great difficulties are
investigating irregularities in structural
encoungeometry or loading condi-
can also successfully approximate structures composed of different
nonhomogeneous problems are handled with comby assigning different properties to different elements. A high degree
materials. Difficult analytical
parative ease
of accuracy can even be obtained here. If large amount of elements are used,
the
computed
The
3.
are
stresses closely
elastic
much
approach the actual
equations used in
FEA
Limitations
1
Only
specific numerical results are obtained for specific problems.
closed form solution

2.
(borrowed from the theory of
simpler than the governing differential equations.
The
elasticity)
resulting equais
deal of them. With the aid of a worked-out
complex
The used elements can be of
computer prgram,
FEA of a
a great
reduced to a simple procedure that may be conducted without a detailed

knowledge of the method or computer programming. The formulation of the
problem also becomes a straightforward procedure. One must provide the computer with some basic types of input data: nodal coordinate values, element type
information, material properties, and loads. Handling of the computer output is
made
easier if the results are plotted automatically
way
The method does not

boundary conditions.
4.
5.
Boundary conditions
by means of
the graphs of the principal stresses
require
trial
solutions or
may
a graph
any assumptions of ficticious
are prescribed to the final system matrix equation
if
the
and
The final matrix

boundary conditions change. The introduc-
tion of the boundary conditions into the final equation
is
comparatively a
straightforward process.
6.
(In a
FEA
and
sizes
depending on the
plicated, then the
become comcomputer input and output become too elaborate and too
difficult to prepare
and
3.
Some
if
the elements
interpret.
analytical stress experience
is
required for the best modeling.
Although the use of the computer program is comparatively simple, the

new program requires considerable mathematical skill and time. Only
available worked-out computer programs are of practical use to a practicing
4.
writing of a
FEA, although conceptually simple, requires much computation and is praconly when a high-speed computer is available. Consequently, the FEA
method is not necessarily the most advantageous and cheapest method for solving
5.
tical
a particular continuous problem.

7.
The
must be reviewed and interpreted with common sense engineercomputer input data may cause erroneous results. At
rough check by analytical method would be recommandable.
results
ing judgment. Imprecise
some points
Summary
be formed.
are not applied against the equations of individual elements.
equation need not be changed
different shapes
geometry of the investigated structure. However,
vessel is
plotter. Usually, in this
A general
not produced (as in any numerical method).
engineer.
stress.
tions to be solved are simple algebraic simultaneous equations, but there
also
is
is applicable to a wide range of boundary value engineering problems.

boundary value problem a solution is sought in the region of the body sys-
FEA-displacement method seems to be gaining upon other methods due to its

versatility and applicability to other fields of engineering. Its basic foundation is
well established and major breakthroughs cannot be expected. The method is
now in the process of being more refined (better elements) and new computer
programs are being worked out. The main disadvantage, the necessity of solving
large amount of simultaneous algebraic equations, is being overcome by new
high-speed computers with a decrease in price.
With the advent of the refined personal computers (microcomputers) and the
increasing number of the worked-out computer programs using the FEA-stiffness
method, it would seem important for a designer to know the basis of the numerical procedure for a better understanding and thus for a better interpretation of
376
NUMERICAL METHODS
377
the results. Although computer programs will be subjected to changes and development, the theoretical basis will remain the same.
Refs. 146 and 165 are here
12.3.
FINITE
for further study.
ELEMENT ANALYSIS-FORCE METHOD
Description of the
An
recommended
Method
actual pressure vessel
\,
component
by short elements whose
to be analyzed (Fig. 12.37) is approximated
is known. This means that the solutions of differential equations describing the elastic behavior of the shell of revolution with a bending resistance to applied loadings can be obtained. The short
structural behavior
elements selected to
fit
tums. The problem
this
is
the analyzed shell component are usually conical frus-
way reduced
to analysis of an assembly of short conical
ring sections [Fig. 12.37(b)] connected with each other at nodal rings, representing elastic junctures. Each element is so selected to have constant material properties {E, T, etc.).
Thus an
arbitrary shell with changing thickness
changing elastic properties can be investigated by selecting the length
Fig. 12.38.
Edge discontinuity forces
at
junctures
1, 2, 3,
and 4 of conical frustums.
and/or
L of
the
element.
so chosen that the junctures coincide with the load application points,
and the
load becomes an edge load.
The surface
forces, loads, can be applied over the surface of the ring section
(internal pressure) or at junctures as line loads.
The
lengths of the elements are
In the
FEA-force method, the unknown quantities
are the discontinuity forces
F2 andM2 m 2 To achieve
2
Thus the
oe narrow, L < (Rt)
(redundant shell reactions) such as in Fig. 12.38
f2
must
edge forces will influence displacements at both ends of the segments and the
computational procedure becomes more complicated. The accuracy of the
method will also depend on the number of segments into which the shell has
been divided and how well they fit into the actual structure. Short toroidal seca certain degree of accuracy the elements
Rotational axis z
Heavy end ring flange

Conical element
'
tions can be used for better approximation.
To
calculate the stresses at junctures
of the conical frustums the procedure

the
First,
sum of
is
as follows.
the internal forces at each juncture
1, 2,
and so on
in Fig.
12.38 must be in equilibrium with any forces resulting from the external Toads
such as internal pressure
For instance,
(EX = 0, 2y = 0,
1M - 0).
at juncture 2, Fig. 12.38,
we
have the following equilibrium
equations of forces in the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation causing

the edge bending with the edge deflection
and edge rotation 8
Heavy flange
Fixed end
f2
F2 -Z e2
m 2 +M2 =Me2
(a)
Vessel
component of an
arbitrary shape.
Fig. 12.37.
(b)
Vessel
component segmented.
where f2t F2t m 2i 2 are the internal shell forces and couples
For internal pressure P:Z e2 -PR 2 (tanaj - tana 2 )/2.
Second, to preserve the physical continuity of the
at the
node 2
shell {the compatibility
378
NUMERICAL METHODS
condition of the displacements) the total radial displacement of element 2 at the

w\ is equal to the total displacement of the element 3 at the juncture
2,
w\ Using the edge deflectional and rotational flexibility coefficients from ref.
joint 2
.
133 and
Fig.
12.38
we get:
379
uses only the basic equation of elasticity for approximation of state of stress and
strain in elements, the
FEA-force method has
to use the fundamental governing
differential equations to obtain the flexibility coefficients of the simpler shell
elements replacing the actual
shell.
The above computation procedure for stresses in shells can be accomplished by

hand only if few junctures are involved and time is available. The reader can now
w\ - w\
appreciate the simplification achieved in the section 8.6 where the cylindrical
or
edge influence coefficients were substituted for the conical, vastly more complicated influence coeffients
fiW22/2
+5^12^1 + $M12^1 +
+ 8if 22
+5^32^3
= $#22^2 + 5
#32/3
5a/22"* 2 +
when
stresses at sharp cone-cylinder junctures
Ap 2
Similarly, the edge 2 rotation of the element 2 at the juncture 2

the edge rotation of the element 3 at the juncture2
is
equated to
Flexibility Influence Coefficients
In
FEA force method we make
force and unit end
B\ = 02
are
known
(in./lb).
or
as
use of displacement caused
moment. Such displacements
+<*Afi2Afi
^22^2+^32^3
+<xm22 + Oh =^22^2 +ajr 33 /3

"
0P2-
edge flexibility influence coefficients, or in short
shell in Fig.
12.37
we
get:
distance x from the edge, they are called flexibility influence functions. For x =
0 and* = L (length of the element) they become flexibility influence coefficients.
The following
to
section. If the displacements
caused by unit edge loadings are expressed in terms of the independent variable
flexibilities is
very useful and allows speedy analysis of com-
posite shells in general.
4 16 equations with 16 unknowns (fh F

h h
for end joint 0 2 equations with unknowns (Foô,/,,^,)
for end joint 5:2 equations with unknowns
(/5 m s F4 ,MA )
for junctures
flexibilities
Their magnitudes clearly indicate the influence of the type of the load
The concept of
For the entire segmented
by unit edge shearing
at the edge of the shell sections
on the deflection or rotation of the edge of the shell
a/m/i +a& 13 Fi
were
investigated.
t)
are the notations
and
their definitions
from
ref.
133 as used
in
the above equations:
e
b mj = radial unit shear (deflectional) influence flexibility coefficient (in./lb).
It is
The above set of simultaneous equations can be aranged' in matrix form suitable
for computer programming. If TV is the number of elements
then AN is the total
number of the simultaneous algebraic equations available for the solution of the
moments (fi,Fh m h Mt). Substituting their values

stress resultants (Nti N
L
t
) expressed in terms
plied at the edge
of the edge forces, the stresses at junctures in conical frustums can

be determined.
The compound stresses at junctures will be a summation of stresses due
to the
discontinuity forces and
moments
both ends of the element plus any stress

caused by external loads, for instance, internal pressure and thermal
loads.
Clearly from the above discussion the entire calculation procedure
is greatly
simplified
by using the
for instance,
5# 12
is
H)
applied at the edge
(subscript
(where the deflection
is
lb/in. circumferentially ap-
the element 2 radial deflection
due to unit shear force (sub-
1 ).
&Mif = bending stress (subscript M) deflectional influence coefficient (in./in.-lb).

Radial deflection of the edge / of the element e caused by the unit bending
couple
(M =
aHif ~ element
1) applied at the juncture
1.
e radial rotational influence coefficient at the edge
unit shear force (stress resultant
H)
applied at the edge
/.
caused by a
(rad/lb).
flexibility influence coefficients.
in the technical literatiure as for conical
be. computed.
script
at
They may be available

frustums [133] otherwise, they have to
i\
H-
(superscript 2) of the edge 2 (subscript 2)
discontinuity edge forces and

into equations for internal
an element e radial deflection of the edge
measured) due to unit radial shear force
The difference between the FEA-displacement method and

FEA-force method now becomes obvious. While FEA-displacement method
o^fij
= bending rotational influence coefficient of the element e at the edge

caused by a unit bending couple applied at the edge i. (rad/in.-lb).
Apj ~ load
stress deflection, (in.) radial deflection
of the element e at the edge ;'
380
NUMERICAL METHODS
due to applied external load such as internal pressure^ plus

any expansion due to the temperature change.
Influence coefficients of conical elements are a function of the apex

angle (2a)
and must be evaluated for each conical frustum individually. Their
evaluation
will yield the magnitude and the sign, plus or minus. They
also include the third
basic condition in stress analysis, the law of material properties
(Hooke's law).
Only a basic description of the method has been presented here. The interested
reader will find a more thorough treatment of the method
in ref. 20. Also see
Code Division 2, Appendix 4, Article 4-7, Paragraph 4-730 for an
example illus-
method
to
compute
the discontinuity stresses in a vessel due to the internal pressure.
12.4.
The method computes the final results by means of multi-segment integration,

which requires the reduction of a two-point boundary value shell
a technique
Bpj = load stress rotation, (rad) rotation of the element

e at the edge / caused by
applied external load plus any rotation due to the temperature
gradient.
trating the application of the finite element analysis-force
381
METHOD OF STEPWISE INTEGRATION
problem, stated in terms of a system of first -order ordinary differential equations,

to a series of initial value problems to which the stepwise numerical integration
methods
(e.g.,
the Runge-Kutta
method
or
Adam's predictor-corrector method)
can be applied. In the above method the numerical integrations accomplished by
means of the Adam's predictor-corrector method which

size at
every step according to a prescribed accuracy.
selects
The
an optimum step
resulting set
of linear
by application of Gaussian elimination procedure.

The stresses obtained by the program are the compound stresses (bending plus
direct membrane) on the inner and outer surfaces at the end of each interval.
Loads in the program (symmetrical or nonsymmetrical) can be mechanical and
thermal. Thermal loads are defined by a prescribed temperature distribution over
two bounding surfaces of the shell.
In evaluating the method it can be said that, if applied to pressure vessel axisymmetric components, it is quite accurate when compared to known results.
For instance, the Venturi meter in Fig. 12.1 can be analyzed by the Kalnins
computer program, and the stress profile plotted (aXi o et Tx9 outside and inside
the shell). The stress profiles at the points b and c can be checked and refined by
the FEA-displacement method with rectangular toroidal ring elements. Much
fewer elements have to be used than would be necessary if only FEA-displacement method were used for the entire shell.
matrix equations
is
solved
The governing
shells
differential equations
of second or higher order for axisymmetric

are reduced to the first-order ordinary differential
equations. (For instance,
a differential equation, in one independent variable,

of the order n may be reduced to a system of n first-order differential equations.
The solution of this system is the solution of the original equation.) Various integration
procedures are
then used to integrate the resulting set of equations in
step-by-step fashion across
the given section starting from given values at the
initial point. Most of the shell
problems are two-point

tion
which
satisfies the
and final) boundary problems. To insure a soluboundary condition at the final point, additional steps
(initial
have to be taken.
An example
of such method
METHOD OF
12.5.
The fundamental idea of the method of
the Kalnins Static Shell Analysis
Computer Pro-
gram [143], applicable
finite differences is to replace the dif-
ferential equations governing the behavior of the thin shells of revolution (includ-
boundary conditions) with
ing the
is
FINITE DIFFERENCES
their finite difference approximations, differ-
ence equations and then to solve algebraically the difference equations, obtained
along the length of the shell generator for the unknowns.
to axisymmetric thin shells. Here, the arbitrary

shell is
divided into sections of the same geometry
(cylindrical, ellipsoidal, spherical,
at selected points
paraboidal, hyperboidal, toroidal or conical; other shapes

can be approximated
by conical sections). Then each section is broken into a number
of equal intervals
(segments) of maximum length less than (/?/) 1/2 shorter
intervals in regions of
,
steep stress gradients. The segments in a section
are generally selected so that
certain shell properties (material, thickness, load)
remain constant over the entire
interval. The basic differential equations are based
on the thin shell theory:
12.39, tne generator (meridian) of an arbitrary axisymmetric shell under internal
The
brief description of the computational procedure
pressure
is
subdivided into a finite
selected in such a
way
of the position, as
is
revolution, the analytical
The
(When
the curvatures of the generators are the func-
method of solution becomes
prohibitively difficult.)
of equilibrium differential equations of the second order for a shell of

revolution symmetrically loaded can be reduced to a set of two differential equa-
transverse shears are neglected
set
tions written in terms of
material
in the differential equations are replaced
homogeneous, isotropic and
the width equal to h,
the case in ellipsoidal, paraboidal or other shells of
bending strains vary linearly through the shell thickness

change in geometry due to loading is negligible
is
as follows. In Fig.
that the shell properties, material and thickness, remain
constant across the interval.

tion
number of intervals with
is
linear elastic.
Fig.
two unknowns;
for instance, displacements
w and u
in
12.29 or any other two desired unknowns. The derivatives of the unknowns
by
their finite difference
approxima-
SITS--'
NUMERICAL METHODS
382
383
found by solving the entire set of simultaneous difference equations.

Once the deflections are known, the stress resultant (jV0 W0 Af
e ) can be
0
computed by 5 w bstituting the numerical values of the deflections using the
tions can be
formulas for difference approximations. The solution of the above set of simultaneous difference equations in matrix form can be done in a number of ways
and
is
done by
computer. The
0 =AVr6AVr
tf
stress
magnitude
at
each point can be established:
,etc.
The accuracy of the method depends on the number of intervals into which
is subdivided. The advantage of the method is that it does not
the generator
significantly lose accuracy
with the increased length of the interval. However,

an optimum length of intervals when the results are most accurate. If the
mesh (intervals) is too coarse, the result differs from the accurate solution; but
there
as the
the
is
width h becomes
optimum mesh,
finer, the results
the accuracy
is
approach to accurate solution. Beyond

The width of each interval h is
impaired.
usually constant. Several uniformly spaced intervals are tried to find the opti-
mum mesh.
Fig. 12.39.
tions (see Fig. 12.40).

(i-1
i,
i-1
etc. in Fig.
The obtained
difference equations are written for points
12.39) selected along the generator and with given
known
At the end points 0 and n the difference equations are subject to

the boundary conditions; for instance, displacements are equal to zero. Because
coordinates.
there will be as
many
difference equations as
unknown
deflections, the deflec-
hrHH
dyjdx & (y i+l -yt-Olln
d 2y/dx 2 * [(y i+l + yi)/h

= [V/ + i
Fig. 12.40.
- {y t
yi ^)/h]/h
'2 yi + y i+1 )ih 2
Central difference approximations.
Appendices
388

APPENDICES
Fig
Al 2
Risk zones and damaging earthquakes

of the United States through
d
p ermission from American National
right 1972 by
bTth
the American M
National Standards Institute, copies
of which mav
from the American National
Standards Institute at 1430
ZT?m
s*^
19fifi
fThi
L
B^X^jRS
, \tl
389
A2
Geometric and Material Charts
for
APPENDICES
Cylindrical Vessels
391
00001
FACTOR A
Fig. A2.2,
Chart for determining
shell thickness
of cylindrical and spherical vessels under
when constructed of carbon or low-alloy steels. (Specified Yield Strength

38,000 psi inclusive) and Type 405 and Type 410 stainless steels. (Reproduced
external pressure
30,000 to
from the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division
with permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
FACTOR A
Geometric chart for cylindrical vessels under external or compressive loading
(for all materials). (Reproduced from the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section
VIII, Division 1, 1977 edition, by permission of the American Society of Mechanical
EnFig. A2.1.
gineers.)
1,
1977
edition,
A3
Skirt
Base Details
A4
Sliding Supports for Vertical
and Horizontal Vessels
Table A3.1.
Table A3. 2.
f dia.
BOLT
MIN.
SIZE
dia. skirt
base ring
= mean
dia.
3*
ii
3*
i*
3
J
3
->4
DIA.
3
8
2
5
Elevation
Fig. A4.1.
3|
* *
if
<i
li
2*
5|
*i
6|.
10
1*
bolt circle
8
3
2*
2
3
3
si
2^
*i
Section 'BB'
'8
boit hole
Mean
Merriman
Self-lubricating sliding base plates for vertical vessels.

Inc.)
(By permission of Ljtton-
394
A5
Glossary of Terms Relating to the

Selection of Materials
Aging
change
in properties in a
room temperature
(natural
metal or alloy that generally occurs slowly at

and more rapidly at higher temperatures
aging)
(artificial aging).
Alloy an intentional combination of two or more substances, of which at least

one is a metal, which exhibits metallic properties. It can be either a mixture of
two types of
Amorphus
crystalline structures or a solid solution.
noncrystalline.
Baushinger effect the application of a tensile force to a polycrystalline metal in

the elastic range raises the proportional limit of the metal but lowers its compressive proportional limit.
phenomenon is attributed to the fact that under tensile stress some yielding
occurs in the most unfavorably oriented crystals or grains. When the tensile
This
Details
Fig.
A4.2.
Self-lubricating sliding
Litton-Merriman Inc.)
base plates for horizontal vessels. (By permission

of
force
is
removed, some residual stresses
result.
applied for a second time, the residual stresses must be overand the proportional limit is raised, However, the proportional limit in
If a tensile
come
force
compression
is
is
lowered.
Similarly, the stressing of a metal into the inelastic range results in the increase
of the yield strength for subsequent loadings in the same direction.
Carburization occurs frequently on the inner surface of furnace tubes exposed to

hydrocarbon streams. The carbide formed embrittles the steel and is the cause of
tube
in
failures.
Generally, austenitic stainless steels can tolerate a greater increase

ferritic stainless steels without affecting ductility.
carbon than can
Caustic dip a strongly alkaline solution into which metals are immersed for
neutralizing acid or removing organic materials such as grease.
Corrosion deterioration of a material (usually metal) due to
its
reaction with the
environment.
Corrosion processes
may
be classified basically into two types:
Chemical corrosion (dry) is a direct chemical attack by a particular chemical

environment on the metal. The intensity of the attack usually increases
with rising temperature.
1.
in the
The various reactions between metals and chemicals and the corrosion
known. Typical examples are direct oxidation of iron.
rates are
generally well
(3Fe + 20 2
Fe 3 0 4 ) or
sulfidic corrosion
(S0 2 + Fe = FeS +
02
).
396
GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Electrochemical corrosion (galvanic, wet) is due to a potential difference

which develops between two points (anode and cathode) in" electrical
contact
and in the presence of an electrolyte (any liquid, for instance water,
which con2.
0 2 f rom
397
atmosphere
tains ions).
potential difference between
two points or areas on the metal surface may be

composition of one metal or of electrolyte (areas of different concentration of the absorbed oxygen) or due to the
presence of two
due to the variation
in
different metals.
The area where the metal atoms dissolve more readily into solution to become
and which therefore has less corrosion resistance, becomes the anode,
and
the more corrosion-resistant metal area becomes the cathode,
where the electric
current enters the metal from the solution and no corrosion occurs.
ions,
The passage of a current through an electrolytic conductor is always accompanied by reactions at the electrodes. The typical example is trie rusting
of iron.
The entire reaction can be described as follows (see Fig. A5.1):
At
the anode, Fe metal on the surface looses two electrons on

contact with
water and dissolves as ferrous ion (Fe 2+ ) in the water. It can be further
oxidized
by dissolved atmospheric oxygen to ferric ion Fe 3+
:
Fe 2* + 2e~
Fe
Fe
2+
>Fe 3+ +
e-.
The released electrons flow through the metal to the cathode.

Ai the cathode, hydroxyl ions (OH)" are formed according to the equation
2H 2 0 + 0 2
(in solution
from
air)
+ 4e~ = 4 (OH)".
In the water, the negative hydroxyl ion combines with the

positive ferric ion to
form ferric hydroxide, which is insoluble in water and precipitates as
rust:
Fe
3+
3(OHX
There are other possible reactions
in
Fe(OH) 3
Fig.
A5.2.
A common
protection of iron parts against galvanic corrosion is a thin layer of

formed by dipping the iron parts into hot liquid zinc; for instance, galvanized
(zinc-plated) pipes. Since Zn is anodic with respect to steel, it will provide protection even if the zinc layer is not continuous, as shown in Fig. A5.2 [89].
On the other hand, if tin is used for the protective layer, it must be continuous,
since tin, being more stable than iron, behaves as a cathode with respect to steel.
zinc
If the tin layer is disrupted (scratched), steel will corrode as shown in Fig. A5.3.
According their mode of resistance, corrosion-resistant metals and alloys usually
can be classified into two groups: those able to maintain their metallic structure
in direct contact with the environment (noble metals) and those with the ability
to form a firm continuous (passive) films and so become isolated from the elec-
example of corrosion resistance by a protective surface film is

Cr is anodic with respect to steel; however, it combines with
oxygen in solution and forms a passive film in the metal surface that prevents
any further corrosion of the metal. Various types of corrosion associated with
trolyte.
chromium
typical
steel.
vessel failures are listed
below, with short descriptions.
Stress corrosion cracking
is
the failure by cracking (brittle failure) of a material
due to the combined effects of galvanic corrosion and tensile

most often at points of high stress concentration or high residual
stress. It
occurs
stresses.
Localized corrosion is needed to initiate stress corrosion cracking. The crack is

propagated by simultaneous corrosion of the metal and tearing of any protective
film that may form at the notch tip. The crack will gradually increase until-the
remaining cross section of the part can no longer resist the load and failure
addition to those described.
occurs.
between
nd metal
iron
Fe
Fig. A5.1.
Rusting of iron.
Fig.
A5.3.
3+
+ 3 (OH)"
Fe (OH) 3
398
corrosion
may
be minimized by selecting proper material to prevent

pitting, by stress relieving to reduce residual stresses, and by proper design withStress
out any stress
Alloys with lower carbon content are tougher and more
raisers.
stress-corrosion resistant than those with higher carbon content.
Corrosion fatigue
is
Corrosion pitting
is
failure
by
stress corrosion
under cyclic
localized galvanic corrosion, also described as concentration
cell corrosion. It may result from differences in oxyge'n concentration of the

electrolyte in one spot (pit) on the metal surface acting as an anode and outside
the pit, acting as a cathode. The spots with less oxygen act as anodes. Suscepti-
bility to pitting
corrosion
This type of corrosion
is
increased by surface defects like scratches.
quite frequently found in ferrous or nonferrous metals.

In stainless steels, pitting failures are caused by chloride ions, which tend to
is
break through the passive film.
Some
materials are
more
resistant to pitting than
For instance, the addition of 2 percent molybdenum to 1&-8 stainless

type 316 results in a very large increase in resistance to corrosion pitting.
others.
stee!
Caustic embrittlement
the cracking of metal under tensile stress and in contact
is
Ductility ability of a metal to deform in the plastic range without fracturing

under stress. It tends to mitigate the effect of stress raisers.
Endurance
limit stress
The number of
stresses.
with an alkaline solution.
399
cycles
below which an alternating
is
in finite -usually
not
less
stress will
6
than 10
not cause
a failure.
in tests.
Erosion destruction of a metal by the abrasive action of a liquid or vapor or of

suspended in the operating liquid or vapor
solid particles
Fatigue
life
number of
finite
stress
cycles
which can be sustained under
operating conditions.
Fatigue strength stress at which failure occurs at some definite number of
cycles N. If measured in a corrosive environment it is called corrosive fatigue
metal can be
is then the highest cyclic stress the
strength. Endurance limit S
n
6
cycles) without fracture. (The
subjected to indefinitely (for steel, about 10
lower than under
stresses a metal can tolerate under cyclic loadings are much
static loadings.)
Galling seizure or welding of parts in close contact under pressure during relative
motion.
General corrosion is corrosion, either chemical or galvanic, which proceeds uniformly over the entire exposed surface.
Intergranular corrosion
is a
localized galvanic corrosion at the grain boundaries
of 'sensitized metal, particularly stainless steels. The grain boundaries are usually
anodic to the grains.
Crystal a solid
composed of atoms
pattern (crystal system) which
The
elastic properties
is
(or molecules) arranged in a certain geometric
periodic in three dimensions.
(E and G) of
vary to a considerable extent depending on the orientation of the crystal axis with respect to the induced stress.
a crystal
Metals usually have a microcrystalline structure.
They
consist of large
number of
minute crystals, called grains, whose principal axes have random orientations, so
they can be considered as isotropic materials, that is, materials with the same
physical properties in
all
directions
(homogeneous
Grain an individual crystal
The
aries.
grain
in a polycrystalline
boundary
is
all
cells
crystals
may
be divided; cubic,
(space lattices): simple cubic, body-
crystals,
and face-centered (FCC)
as in
7-iron crystals.
Metals with FCC structure do not generally exhibit loss of impact strength at
very low temperatures.
Decarburization loss of carbon from

result of heating in an
grains,
where the
high energy and stronger than grain
itself.
Grain boundary sensitization occurs in stainless steels in solution-annealed condition during any heating in the 800-1600F temperature range. See Chapter 1
for details.
usually specified by ASTM index numbers, based on the following

N~ where is the ASTM index number and n is the number of
2
formula: n
to 128;
grains per one square inch at 100 times magnification, n ranges from
= 1-5 are considered coarse grained steels
ranges from 1 to 8. Steels with
= 6-8 are fine grained. For example if
5 and n = 16, and assuming
with
the grain to be roughly square in cross section, its average actual side dimension
1/2 =
0.0025 in. Grain size may have a marked
would be (1 X 1/16 X 100 X 100)
Grain size
is
isotropic).
tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal, and rhombohedral.

The names of the groups describe the arrangement of the atoms.
The cubic system is subdivided by unit

centered cubic (BCC) as in the a-iron
two
changes from that of one grain to that of another.

orientation of
Between two boundaries there is a transition zone, where the atoms are not
aligned exactly with either grain. The transition zone is considered to be of
the lattice
N
Crystal system one of seven groups into which
metal or alloy with distinct bound-
the interface separating
a ferrous alloy, usually at the surface, as a
environment that reacts with the carbon
at the surface.
Deoxidized copper copper from which cuprous oxide has been removed by adding a deoxidizer (such as phosphorus) to the molten metal.
effect
N~
on creep and creep rupture
life
of the material selected.
Generally, fine-grained steels have a lower transition temperature than do those of

coarse grain. Steels with finer austenitic grain also have a greater toughness (i.e.,
ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation), lower hardenability, and
lower internal
stresses.
Coarse-grained steels excel in rupture strength with increasing test time and
temperatures. A coarse-grained high-temperature alloy has greater creep strength
than a fine-grained alloy. However, larger grain size results in embrittlement and
lowered ductility, since larger grains allow more penetration of carbon, nitrogen,
400
or
oxygen
aries.
which form brittle phases at grain boundusually considered an indication of poor fatigue properties.
(for instance in welding),
Low ductility
is
Grain growth increase in size of grain by reduction in number of grains.

Grain
growth will take place at higher temperatures during normal use. Loss of ductility
due to grain growth limits the metal usefulness.
Graphitization precipitation of carbon in the form of graphite at grain boundoccurs if carbon steel is in service long enough above 775F, and C-Mo
aries, as
above 875F. Graphitization appears to lower steel strength by removing

the strengthening effect of finely dispersed iron carbides (cementite)
from
grains. Fine-grained, aluminum-killed steels seem to be
particularly susceptible to
graphitization. Graphite itself has practically no strength and dispersed
flakes of
steel
it
act as cracks
weakening the metal. Graphitization during
primary; during heating, secondary. In welds, there

formation in the heat-affected zone.
is
solidification
is
called
Quenching rapid cooling of a metal from above the critical temperature with
change in macrostructure. It increases the hardness of steel with carbon content
of over 0.20 per cent. It raises 5 y S Ui reduces the ductility, induces internal
,
stress.
Solution heat treatment consists of heating an alloy to a suitable temperature,

holding at that temperature long enough to allow one or more constituents to
enter in solid solution within the grains of the base metal, and then cooling
rapidly to hold this solution at lower temperatures.
Heat-treatable alloy an alloy which
may be
strengthened by
a suitable
heat
treatment.
Hydrogen embrittlement low
ductility in metals resulting
from the absorbtion
of the atomic hydrogen.
a possibility of graphite
Macrostructure structure of metal as seen on a polished, etched surface by the

eye or under low magnification (not over 10 diameters).
Graphitizer material that increases the tendency of iron carbide (Fe C) to break
3
down
401
into iron and graphite.
Microstructure structure of metal as seen on a polished etched surface under

high magnification (over 10 diameters).
Inclusion nonmetallic material (oxides, silicate, etc.) held mechanically in a

metallic matrix as unintentional impurities.
Heat-affected weld zone a portion of the base metal adjacent to the weld which
has not been melted, but whose metallurgical microstructure and mechanical
properties have been changed by the heat of welding, usually for the worse.
Heat treatment heat treating operation performed either to produce changes in

mechanical properties of the material or to restore its maximum corrosion
resistance. There are three principal types of heat treatment; annealing, normalizing, and post-weld heat treatment.
Annealing
heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling

at a suitable rate, for such purposes as reducing hardness, producing desired
microstructure, etc.
is
Modulus of
to about
600F (mild
Nil-Ductility
is
heating steel to above
its critical
temperature and cooling
uniform heating of a weldment to a temperature below the critical range to relieve the major part of the residual stresses,
followed by uniform cooling in still air. Heating reduces the metal yield strength,
and any locked-in residual stress greater than the depressed yield strength will
first,
steels); thereafter progressively faster

at
below
comparatively slowly up
because of creep.
which, under a light load,
cast iron that has
alloy containing an element such as
been treated while molten with a master

to give primary graphite in spherulitic
Mg
form.
brittleness susceptibility of a material to brittle fracture at points of
In a notch tensile test the material is said to be notch
concentration.
stress
brittle if the notch strength is less than the tensile strength. Otherwise, it is
Notch
notch ductile.
sensitivity
measure of the reduction
in the strength
of a metal caused by
the presence of a stress concentration. Values can be obtained
from
static,
is
by plastic displacement. The maximum remaining residual

be equal to the depressed yield strength of the metal at the PWHT
temperature.
start
with rising temperature:
temperature (NDT) a temperature
Nodular cast iron
Notch
(PWHT)
(psi) defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain
in still
air.
Post-weld heat treatment
crack initiation and propagation results in a brittle fracture.
said to be
Normalizing
elasticity
elastic limit. It decreases
to dissipate
impact, or fatigue
tests.
ability of a material to resist brittle fracture under conditions

of high stress concentration, such as impact loading in the presence of a notch.
This is an important property for construction materials intended for low-
Notch toughness
stress will
temperature service.
Preheat treatment usually heating the base metal before welding to decrease
the
temperature gradient between the weld metal, heat-affected zone, and the base
metal. Preheat treatment has been found very effective in avoiding weld or heat-
Oxidation or scaling of metals occurs at high temperatures and access of air.

Scaling of carbon steels from air or steam is negligible up to 1000 F. Chromium
increases scaling resistance of carbon steels. Decreasing oxidation resistance
makes austenitic stainless steels unsuitable for operating temperatures above
affected-zone cracking.
1500F.
402
Passivation changing of the chemically active surface of a metal to a

active state, usually
much less re-
by forming an impervious layer of oxide of other compound.
ing point).
erally
homogeneous, mechanically separable,
physically
no
practical
distinct portion of a
Gamma
iron (7-Fe) is a solid, nonmagnetic phase of pure iron which is stable at

temperatures between 1670F and 2540F and possesses the face-centered cubic
material system.
Polycrystalline characteristic of an aggregate
crystals
has
is a solid solution of one or more elements in a-iron. The solute is genassumed to be carbon unless otherwise noted. It exist in two forms:
a-ferrite; and at temperature above 2540F, 5-ferrite.
Ferrite
molecular structure.
a
It
application at the present time.
Permeability a property of a material which permits passage. of gas through the
Phase
of body-centered cubic crystalline structure.
It is
403
composed of
usually large
number
latice
(FCC).
or grains (polygranular). Crystals have dissimilar orientation so that
Ledeburite
grain boundaries are present.
is
a eutectic
mixture of austenite and cementite in metastable equiin iron-carbide alloys with carbon content more
librium formed on rapid cooling

Precipitate to separate out a soluble substance
from
a liquid
or solid solution.
than two percent and less than 6.67 percent.
Precipitation hardening increase in strength and loss of ductility and toughness during elevated-temperature service, due to
compound formed
at elevated
Martensite
temperatures.
Proof
test
the load inducing the stress at which a material shows no or a specified
permanent elongation when the
stress
removed.
is
Recrystallization change of a plastically deformed crystalline structure into
more
perfect,
unrestrained
crystalline
Recrystallization a high temperature
the temperature of
Refractory
is a metastable phase in steel, hard and brittle, with needlelike appearance, formed by transformation of austenite below a certain temperature.
Martensite
marked softening
a material
is
is
structure
exhibiting higher softness.
called annealing (see
Heat treatment), and
called the recrystallization temperature.
of very high melting point with properties that
make
it
suitable for such uses as high-temperature lining.

Stabilizer any material that increases the tendency of carbon to remain as iron
is
produced during quenching.
of ferrite and cementite in alternate platelets

formed by transformation of austenite of eutectoid composition on slow cooling. It is a microstructure formed in iron and carbon alloys.
Pearlite
is
a lamellar aggregate
Sigma phase forms when

16.5 percent of
ferritic
chromium
1100F and 1700F.
It
pound, very hard and
brittle
is
and austenitic
stainless steels with
more than
between
complex, nonmagnetic, intermetallic Cr-Fe comat room temperature. A large percentage of sigma
are heated at a prolonged period of time

a
phase reduces the ductility, toughness, and also corrosion resistance of steel. It
can be transformed into austenite and ferrite by suitable heating and quenching.
Sigma-phase precipitation occasionally occurs
in
tube supports or hangers made
carbide or in solid solution within steel crystals and retards graphitization.
of 309 or 310 stainless steels in the radiant section of petroleum refinery furnaces. During shutdown for replacement of defective tubes, there supports be-
Steel crystalline phases
come exceedingly
Alpha iron (a-Fe) is the solid phase of pure iron stable below 1670F, with
body-centered cubic latice (BCC). It is ferromagnetic at temperatures under
1418F.
Austenite
carbon or other elements in 7-iron. The solute is

usually assumed to be carbon, unless otherwise noted. It is soft and ductile, with
is a
solid solution of
considerable tensile strength.

into ferrite and cementite. At
On slow
cooling, austenite tends to
room temperature
it
decompose
can be present only in alloy
brittle
and frequently break when handled carelessly by
maintenance crews.
if steel is stretched beyond the yield point into the plastic
some increase in stress is required to produce an additional increase in
The phenomenon of strain hardening, by plastic deformation (as in eold
Strain hardening
region,
strain.
working below
the
recrystallization
if
the material
is
Stress range the algebraic difference
Cementite, loosely referred to as iron carbide (Fe 3 C), is characterized by an

orthorombic crystal structure. It is the hardest constituent in carbon steel, and
is nonductile. Its presence in steel increases strength. Some atoms in the
cementite
latice may be replaced by manganese or chromium in alloys steels. Cemetite is in
metastable equilibrium and tends to decompose into iron and graphite at higher
in
Delta iron (6-Fe)
is
the stable form of pure iron from
2540F
to
2802F
(melt-
is
reduced. The hardening disappears
subjected to annealing temperatures.
steels.
temperatures.
temperature) improves the mechanical
properties of steel, except that ductility
between the maximum and minimum
stress
one cycle.
Sulfide corrosion cracking stress corrosion cracking in sulfur-containing environ-
ments. The corrosive agent
is
usually hydrogen sulfide.
Thermal fatigue the development of cyclic thermal gradients producing high

cyclic thermal stresses and subsequent local cracking of material.
Thermal shock the development of
a steep thermal gradient
and accompanying
404
high stresses within a structure, as might occur

part
is
when
the surface of a cool metal
heated rapidly.
Toughness
Standard Specifications Pertaining to Materials
A6
ability of a material to
absorb energy during plastic deformation.
Transition temperature (T.T.) the temperature at which the material changes

from ductile to brittle fracturing. Since brittle fracture requires much less
energy than shear-type fracture, a marked drop in absorbed energy occurs at

a fracture below the transition temperature. For any service, the steel with
lower T.T. is usually preferred, since it offers additional safety.
ASTM SPECIFICATIONS
A20 General Requirements
for Delivery of Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels.
load per unit of original cross-sectional area

which a test specimen of a material can sustain before fracture, usually in
Supplementary Requirements SI to S13 when specified.

A262 Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in Stainless
A3 70 Mechanical Testing of Steel Products.
A380 Descaling and Cleaning Stainless Steel Surfaces.
single tension or
A435 Longitudinal Wave
Ultimate strength the
maximum
compression.
Yield strength the load per unit of original cross -sectional area on a test specimen at which a marked increase in deformation occurs without the increase of
load. A part of the deformation becomes permanent.
Weld structure the microstructure of
weld deposite and the heat-affected zone.
Ultrasonic
Steels.
Inspection of Steel Plates for Pressure
Vessels.
A480 General Requirements
Rolled Stainless and Heat
for Delivery of Flat
Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip.
A577 Ultrasonic Shear Wave Inspection for Steel

A593 Charpy V Notch Testing Requirements
Plates.
for
Steel Plates for Pressure
Vessels.
E7 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Metallography.

Short-Time Elevated Temperature Tension Test of Material.
E94 Radiographic Testing.
El 09 Dry Powder Magnetic Particle Inspection.
E21
El 12 Estimating the Average Grain Size of Metals.

El 14 Ultrasonic Testing.
El 39 Conducting Creep and Time-for-Rupture Tests for Materials.
E142 Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing.
El 65 Liquid Penetrant Inspection.
El 86 Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (2 to 4^ in. thick) Steel Castings.
E208 Conducting Drop Weight Test to Determine Nil Ductility Transition Temperature of Ferritic Steels.
E280 Reference Radiographs
for
Heavy Walled (4^
to 12 in.) Steel Castings.
AWS SPECIFICATIONS
Specification for Mild Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes.
A5.4 Specification for Corrosion Resisting Chromium and Chromium Nickel
Steel Covered Welding Electrodes.
A5.1
ANSI SPECIFICATIONS
Bl.l
Unified
Screw Thread
for Screws,
Bolt,
Nuts and Other Threaded
Parts.
Square and Hex. Bolt and Screws, Including Hex. Cap Screws and Lag
Screws (heavy series).
B18.2.2 Square and Hex. Nuts (heavy series).
B16.5 Steel Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
B18.2.'l
B46.1
Surface Texture.
FLANGES
A7
407
Flanges
Most of the inspection openings or nozzles on vessels are provided with circulartype standard flanges for quick, easy disassembly of closing covers or connected
piping. Only special flanges are designed or existing flanges are checked for maxi-
mum
working pressures.
According to the available methods for solving the stresses in the flange connections under the pressure, flanges can be classified under four main categories,
as described
1.0. reverse shell flange
below.
I.D. vessel shell
1. Flanges with a ring-type gasket inside the bolt circle and with no contact
outside the bolt circle under internal or external pressure. Flanges in this category, constructed of forged steel or forged low-alloy steel with a raised face and
spiral-wound, metal-asbestos
filled gasket, are the most commonly used flanges.

they are attached to the shell, they can be further subclassified
as (a) integral flanges, such as welding neck flanges, which are welded or forged
with the connection shell, forming a continuous structure, or (b) loose flanges,
According
such
how
as slip-on flanges or ring flanges,
which
are either
not attached to the
shell
attached by welds which are not strong enough to carry the load from
the flange to shell and to form an integral part with the connection shell. The
basic flange design was established in ref. 116 and is incorporated in the Code.
The derivation of the design can also be found in refs. 44 and 1 17. Reference
1 10 is generally used in selecting the dimensions for a desired flange.
Both types
can be designed with different types of facings adjusted to the gasket. Slip-on
flanges are used for lower pressures (<300 psi) and where no temperature expansion stresses from connected piping are anticipated.
2.
14,
Flanges with flat face and metal-to-metal contact inside and outside the
The basic design is derived in refs. 13 and
and the method
is
incorporated
in
the Code.
3. Flanges with flat face and full-face gasket.

This type of the flange
only for lower operating pressures. Design is as given in ref. 111.
is
shoestring construction.
Among
other equipment the unit consisted of a high-
pressure, small-size converter running intermittently for periods of time depend-
on the amount of the accumulated residues.

The converter cover was designed as shown
ing
in Fig.
A7.1.
From
ginning the cover flange leaked and continued to leak even after
at all or
bolt circle, with self-sealing gasket.
Fig. A7.1.
used
were made.
careful analysis revealed the following errors
made
the very be-
some changes
in the design:
1. The operating conditions were not specified as cyclic, 2 to 3 weeks in 2

months. High peak operating temperature and high peak operating pressure were
grossly underestimated. No requirement for easy removal of the cover for clean-
ing of the reactor
was
Flange bolts.
specified.
between the thermal coefficients of expanbetween the flange and bolt materials would make no difference in noncyclic
service but caused trouble in a cyclic service. Since the bolts were designed as stud
bolts it was nearly impossible to replace them in field. The cost was prohibitive.
3. The gasket, seat was not in perfect plane as should have been for a metal
gasket. A soft metal gasket ring was chosen on the basis of past good experience.
After several operating cycles a new gasket had to be used since the gasket became grossly deformed. The bolts had to be retightened during one operation
2.
slight difference
sion
cycle several times.
Special flanges.
These include large-diameter flanges (over 6 ft), flanges

for high design pressures (over 1,500 psi), and flanges with special gaskets
4.
(double cone, lens,
large
etc.), as
chemical
4.
The groove
for a possible back-up gasket (metal o-ring) could have been
fabricated only in shop at high cost.
described in refs. 112, 160, and 171.
company decided
to utilize
some
residues of a chemical
process for production of high nitrogen content fertilizer. The liquid residues
were collected in a tank and a small process unit was erected adjacent to the
main plant. The entire design should have been done as cheaply as possible, a
Clearly the following conclusion could have been reached; A design choosing
standard tongue and groove welding neck flange with through bolts easy to
replace would produce a better result. A high quality bolting should have been
selected.
Any
saving in the initial cost or in the laying space were insignificant
FLANGES
408
A =
Operating conditions:
29.5
24-
13/16 dia holes
root area a = 0.302

spacing 3.6
in.
2
k 2 = 0.785(G
1/16
fc
D = (C- B)/2= 1.875

h T = (h D +h G )l2= 1.375
=0.785 2 =452
kx
for 3/4 dia bolts
ft
52 )=78.5
= IbttGm = 102
hG
hD =
848
m T =k 2 Xh T =
m G =k 3 Xh G =
m0 =
108
mD
Shape constant
MQ
=(5r X
= (C- G)/2 = 0.875
90
1046
Y=
BX
9.50 for
2
t
K = A/B =
1.23
2
)/Y= 1 7500 X 24 X 2.375 /9.50= 249400
Pf = M0 lm 0 = 238
fl
409
in.-lb.
psi
= 24
Bolting-up conditions:
Welded-on ring
Fig. A7.2.
flange.
MQ = WX
comparison with the leakage problem during the operation. In the writer's
experience, a shoestring design never pays.
in
Pf
is
/i
larger than
24X
P bi
0.302 X 19200
X 0.875= 121800
therefore the latter
is
the
in.-lb
maximum
< 249400 in.-lb.
allowable operating
pressure.
Example A7.1. Determine,
maximum
the
shown in Fig. A7.2,

P using the Code computational
for the welded-on ring flange as
allowable operating pressure
Design Remarks.
procedure for loose-type flanges.
diameter should be of
Bolts for flange connections in size over 1 inch in
are used where a certain
bolts
series
eight-thread
Generally,
series.
thread
eight
deformation of the bolt and of the
initial tension has to be set up by elastic
1.
Design data:
Design temperature 450F
Allowable bolt stress: (SA 325) S b = 1 9,200 psi
Allowable flange stress: (SA181grII) Sf = 17,500 psi
Corrosion allowance: none
Gasket: Metal jacketed asbestos
TV = 0.5
filled:
in.,
joined parts.
2.
bQ = b
=0.25
= 2.5,7 = 2900
mln. seating width
(a)
Maximum
N = 24 X
0.302
9200/2 X 2900
allowable operating pressure
Pb
3.14
X 26 = 0.29
for bolting:
in.
This equation usually governs.
= 24 X 0.302 X 192 00/(0.7 8 5 X 26 2 + 2 X 0.25
3.14
X 26 X
2.5)
= 220
computation, with large
should be used
usually prove to be better and cheaper.
gasketed conequal pretightening of all flange bolts on pressure vessel

approximate
with
assemblers
the
supply
should
designer
The
important.
nections is
equation for T in
required pretightening torque T for initial bolt preload. The
pretightening usually
section 4.4 is only approximate, but gives good results. For
An
the torque wrenches are satisfactory. For

bolting the strain gages have to be used.
psi
stress
pressure levels for

choice of facings for various gasket types as well as for all
manufacturers. They
almost all practical applications are today available from
In the end they
in preference to calculated, custom made flanges.
3.
P b = FV/(0.785G 2 + 2btrGm)
Standard flanges, which do not require any
more
critical applications
and
large size
psi.
root tensile area equal to 0.334 in. is used, P b
(b) Maximum allowable operating pressure Pf for flange:
If
= 243
with flanges are required for hydrotests, the use

should be considered. The maximum allowable
4. If special calculated covers
of self-sealing gaskets [162]
410
ELEMENTARY MATRIX ALGEBRA
stresses, even in non-Code applications, should be kept in, the allowable range.
Otherwise the flanges will deform excessively, and the joints develop leaks. The
bolts used in tests are usually of ordinary quality and are replaced after tests
the design bolts for operation.
by
A8 ELEMENTARY MATRIX ALGEBRA
The order of any

of columns)
is
the
space: x s
Chapter 12 are presented here. Using the matrix algebra,

relationships between large sets of numbers can be stated in a clear and concise
manner. This way, particularly the system of simultaneous equations with clearly
specified unknowns can be solved with systematic procedures suitable for digital
computers.
number of
rows.
[C] below can be interpreted

,y t = 4, Z\ = 1 etc.
Only the most important concepts of the matrix algebra necessary to understand
FEA
(mXn, that is, number of rows by number

The element of the matrix is classified with
is the element in the third row and in the first
the row number and / is the column number.
rectangular matrix
two subscripts, for instance a 3 i

column. In general ay where i is
Two matrices are equal to one another only
[A]=IB].
The matrix
as presented in
[C]
411
if
as
they are identical, ay = by and

coordinates of three points
in
Matrix addition and subtraction. Matrix addition and subtraction can be

if both matrices have the same number of rows and columns.
2.
performed only
Definition of matrix.
1.
matrix
is
an array of quantities (elements) arranged
number of rows and n number of columns and subject to certain rules of

operation. The elements may consist of pure numbers, constants, variables or
complex numbers. The numbers in a matrix may be given some interpretation,
for instance we may have a system of linear equations:
in
<*U*1 +<*12*2 + ^13*3 + <*14*4 = bi
Two
matrices of different orders cannot be added or subtracted. The process

simply to add or subtract the corresponding terms, for instance:
is
or in matrix shorthand:
a 2i X 1 +fl 2 2*2 +fl 2 3*3 +fl 2 4*4 = b 2

a 3\
x l +^32*2 + <*33*3 + <*34*4 " *3
041*1 +ff 42 .X2 + fl 43*3 + ^44*4 - 64
[A] IB] = [ayby] = [cy]
where [A] and [B] are both
or in matrix form using the bracket notation:
a li
<*12
Al3
a 21
<*22
<*23
3I
<*32
<*33
_<*41
42
<*43
n matrices.
3.
certain conditions
Multiplication
of matrices. Multiplication of matrices
used matrix manipulation

fl
mX
where two matrices of different orders must be

added, (for instance, forming the system stiffness matrix [K]), it is permissible
to increase the size of the smaller matrix by inserting rows and columns of zeros
to make both matrices of the same size.
Under
(a)
in
is
the most
commonly
FEA.
To multiply a matrix by
a constant (scalar multiplication)
means
that
every term of the matrix has to be multiplied, for instance:
or in short
k
[A] {*} =
{/?}
where the coefficient matrix [A] is a square matrix of order 4 with number of
rows m equal to 4 and number of columns n equal to 4 (4 X 4 matrix).
{*} is the column vector of the unknowns (that is one column matrix)
and
{B} is the column vector of constant terms.
or in short
k[a if ] = [kay].
(b) To multiply a matrix by another matrix is possible only if the number of
columns in the first matrix (m X r) equals the number of rows in the second
412
matrix {r X n) to give (m X n) matrix. The order of multiplication is important.

As an example we can multiply [A] matrix (2 X 3) by [B] matrix (3 X 2) with
the result product matrix [C]
rîi
an
a i3|
(jZ 2 l
a 22
a 2Zj
,(2X2)
&12
b 2X
*>22
&31
&32.J
+ a 12 b 2l +ai 3 6 3
is:
{B}
~l
is the inverse of the matrix [A )

Obviously, to obtain the inverse of the matrix and the solution of a large system of linear simultaneous equations is one of the important tasks in numerical
where [A ]
analysis.
"11^12 +ff 12^22 +fl 13^32
{x}=U]"
matrix.
6ll
then the solution for variables x
413
Matrix differentiation.
5.
may
matrix
be differentiated by differentiating
+ a 22 6 2 l +023^31
a 21^12 +fl 22^22
+a 23^32j
every term.
c lt
= flu&u + fli2*2i + fli3*3i
(row
c 2!
flu i>i 1 + <*22*2i
(row 2 by column
+fl 23^3i
by column
for instance, a matrix [A
_[V
4x1
16
2x\
^22
;;]
where
If,
is
given:
then
1)
1) etc.
2x
\x
4*1
2_)
d[A)ldx =
row of the matrix [A] is
column of the matrix [B] The element
Cij of the matrix [C] is then the product of the j'th row of [A] and the /th
column of the matrix [B] Assuming that the matrices [A], [B] and [C] can
be multiplied, then: U][][C] =([A][B))[C] =[A]([B][C]) and ([A] +
[5])[C] = [^][C]+[B][C].
In general, in forming the product matrix [C] each
multiplied once and only once into each
Product by partitioning. Partitioning of matrices is a device to facilitate manipulations and examination of several large matrices and does not change the final
result. A submatrix is a matrix obtained from an original matrix by including
only the elements of certain rows and columns. The partitioning lines must run
all
across the original matrix, for instance:
Ml
a 2l
a 12
13
flu"
a 22
*23
A24
a 32
033
A34_
[A 3
]
U4
Al3~
A21
a 22
23
*32
A33_
(h
rxTx 2
rx
X
J0
|_6
[k]
[B]
or
For instance:
first
performing the
multiplication.
Some
types of matrices. Here are
Transpose of a matrix [A)

rows and columns; for instance, if
[a u
]{*} = {*}
L6x
2x]
2* 2 1
T [D][B] 2-nrdrdz
b2
!:!
_IV/3
4 /|
can be integrated between the limits term by term only after
7.
get:
Integration of matrix expression, consisting of several matrices and functions,

can be done after the multiplication is performed by integrating each term of the
(a)
_fl31
we
Matrix division. Matrix division in a strict sense does not exist. Instead, an
is defined. If we have a system of linear simultaneous equations:
a l2
matrix can be integated by integrating each term.
If
inverse matrix
flu
integrate the above matrix
resulting product matrix.
[A 2
4.
Matrix integration.
6.
To
a 21
a l2l
a 22
is
some types of
matrices used in
FEA:
obtained from matrix [A] by interchanging
414
then
flu
a 22
<*33
ID] =
<*22j
[f\2
The transpose of
force vector
is
415
column vector becomes
row matrix. For
{/} and the displacement vector
is
{5}, then the
instance,
if
the
work associated
with the force vector and the displacement vector becomes a product of a row
matrix and a column vector:
If
the elements a xx = a 22 = ^33 = a 44 = a constant fc, the matrix [D] is called

matrix. If the constant k= 1 the matrix is called identity matrix of n
a scalar
order and
denoted by
is
= {f lx fly --'}
[/]
for instance:
0"
.0
1.
"1
W={f} T {8}
<*44
[/]
The transpose of the sum of two matrices
is
the
sum of
defined only for nonsingular square matrices. Nonwhose determinants are not equal to zero.
_1
must satisfy the relationship:
inverse of the matrix [A] denoted by [A]
(d) Inverse of a matrix
their transposes:
is
singular square matrices are matrices
[A]
T +[B] T =
The transpose of
(IA] + [B))
An
the product of
two matrices
is
the product in reverse order of
wr -wr wi-m
l
mi
their transpose:
where
([A][B)) T =
[B)
[/]
is
the identity matrix.
For example,
if
for a matrix
X IA]
[A]
- [A] T The
stiffness element matrices [k] are symmetric. Since the terms a 7 = fl//, the
;
symmetric matrix is fully specified by all diagonal terms and terms above the
(b)
Symmetric matrix.
square matrix [A]
is
symmetric
if
[A
we assume
the inverse matrix
diagonal.
(c)
i
>
/.
Upper triangular matrix

For instance:
[A]
is
a square
matrix whose elements ay = 0 for
[! a
then
All
Oil
13
aXA
a22
a 23
^24
<*33
<*34
_ 0
[A] =
[A)[A]
[-:
"Ml
0-[:
for evaluating determinants (denoted by \A\) of square matrix

certain rules. Only determinants of order two and three are
governed
by
U]
amenable to hand computations.
Determinant of the order two:
The procedure
0 44-
is
is
an upper triangular matrix.

square matrix whose elements ay = 0 for
</
is
called a lower triangular
matrix.
square matrix which
matrix, for instance:
is
both upper and lower triangular
is
called a diagonal
3-
a i2
\A\ =
a xx a 22 - a x2 a 2X
a2
a 22
416
Determinant of the order three:
A9
tfll
fl
13
*13
a 2X
<*22
a 23
31
a 32
*33
a 22
a 23
<*32
033
- a
X2
"11
1.
a 2i
<*23
*31
*33
a 2l
"22
"31
"32
ASME
Boiler
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145. Paulsen, W. Ch. Finite element stress analysis. Part

14,
FEA
Tabakman, H. O. and Y. J. Lin. Quick way to calculate thermal stresses in cylindrical

shells. Machine Design, September 21, 1978.
160. Jawad, M. H. and J. R. Farr. Structural Analysis and Design of Process equipment.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1984.
161. Gallagher, R. H. Finite Element Analysis Fundamentals. Prentice- Hall, Inc. Englewood
165. Cook, R. D. Concepts
144. Wilson, E. L. Structural analysis of axisymmetric solids.
tember 30, October
Methods
(It
159.
combined
143. Kalnins, A. Analysis of shells of revolution subjected to symmetrical and

metrical loads. Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 3 1 September 1 964.
146. Huebner,
York, 1971.
162. Parker O-Ring
Utku. Elementary Structural Analysis. 3rd ed.

141. Weaver, W. J. and J. M. Gere. Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures. 2nd ed. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1980.
142. Awwa Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
D100-79. American
B.
J.
New
transfer problems.)
138. Riley, W. F. Experimental determination of stress distributions in thin walled cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels with circular nozzles.
Bulletin 108, September 1965.
New
Co.,
by
York, 1972.
139. Norris, C. H. and
1982 IMechE
1983.
1982.
137. Timoshenko, S. P. and
3,
1982.
158. Mayers, G. E. Analytical
and Piping: Design Technology,
Tooth. The stresses induced
157. Escoe, Keith, A. Heat transfer in vessels and piping, Hydrocarbon Processing, January
codes that fight fatigue. Machine Design,
September 23, 1976.

136. Pressure Vessel
S.
pipes by saddle supports. Journal of Strain Analysis, Vol. 17, No.
nal of Applied Mechanics, 26 (241-245), 1959.
cylindrical
and spherical
shells to with-
stand uniform internal pressure. In Pressure Vessel and Piping Design, Collected Papers.
ASME, New York,
1960.
K. Mokhtarian, G. V. Ranjan and E. C. Rodabaugh, Local stresses in
cylindrical shells due to external loadings on nozzles. WRC Bulletin 297 (August
1984). Supplement to WRC Bulletin 107.
J. L.,
171. Singh, K. P. and A.
I.
Soler, Mechanical Design of
Heat Exchangers and Pressure Vessel
Components. Arcuturus Publishing Co., Cherry Hill, N.J. 1984.

172. Ross, C. T. F., Finite Element Programs for Axisymmetric Problems
J. Wiley and Sons, Inc., N.Y. 1984.
in Engineering.
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
A10
Abbreviations and Symbols
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section VIII. Rules for Conduction of Pressure Vessels. Division 1.
Code Division 2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section VIII. AlternaRules for Construction of Pressure Vessels. Division
2.
WRC
American Institute of Steel Construction

American National Standards Institute
American Petroleum Institute
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Society for Metals
American Society for Testing and Materials
American Welding Society
American Water Works Association, 6666 West Quincy Ave, Denver,
80235
Welding Research Council
abs.
absolute
API
ASCE
ASME
ASM
ASTM
AWS
AWWA
C.A.
corrosion allowance
C. G.
center of gravity
cps
cycles per second
Dia.
diameter
degree Fahrenheit
feet per
fps
second
ft
foot (feet)
ft-lb
foot-pound
thousand pounds
kip
diameter, flexural rigidity of shells, point
diameter
unit strain, eccentricity
point, constant (usually with
modulus of
column computations
allowable weld load
in lb/lin. in.
height
J
Jw
moment of inertia
moment of inertia
polar moment of inertia
linear polar moment of inertia
constant, stress concentration factor (usually with
coefficient, radius of gyration, length
length, span in
unit load in longitudinal direction, lb/in.
rectangular
linear rectangular
M
CO
subscript)
load per linear inch
f
fw
h
elasticity, efficiency
yield strength in
Code
AISC
ANSI
point, constant
ABBREVIATIONS
tive
B
C
bending or overturning moment, constant

membrane force resultant, number of support
point of origin
concentrated static load, point, pressure
pressure
external line load, lb/in.
radial shear, lb/in.
radius, radius of gyration
radius, reaction force
AR
radial
displacement
direct
normal
sy
yield stress in tension or compression
Sys
yield stress in shear
su
ultimate strength
in
tension or compression
ultimate strength
in
shear
stress, stress intensity,
Strouhal
kips per square inch
lb
pound (pounds)
Sa
mph
miles per hour
âtm
allowable stress at atmospheric temperature
mil
0.001
Sw
allowable stress in weld
MPY
mils per year
pounds
pounds
pounds
pounds
psi
psf
psig
psia
rad
per square inch

per square foot
per square inch gauge

per square inch absolute
radians
distances, points, dimensions
allowable stress at design temperature, allowable alternating stress intensity
torque, thrust force, temperature, period of vibration
weld thickness
wind velocity, transverse force
weight
weld leg
rectangular section
size, unit
wind load, unit
shell
displacement, weight
modulus
height above ground
rectangular linear section modulus of weld
angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, numerical coefficient
&
index
number
shell thickness, throat
a, b, c,
legs, grain
SYMBOLS
area, point, constant
subscript)
A, a
beams
ksi
in.
425
angle,
numerical
parameter
coefficient,
concentration
factor,
cylindrical
shell
426
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
numerical parameter, cylindrical shell parameter, shear strain

increment, angle in radians
SUBSCRIPTS
deflection
allowable
angle, angular distortion, angular nodal displacement
atm
atmospheric
shell
absolute viscosity
parameter
bending, bolt
cone, concrete
equivalent, earthquake
head
427
Poisson's ratio
p
a
density, mass per unit
unit stress in tension or compression
inside, initial, intermittent, height level
unit shear stress
longitudinal, larger, linear, tangent to the meridian and parallel with the
angle
volume
axis of rotation
angle
normal, perpendicular to the midsurface of the shell
angular velocity
outside
varies as
due to pressure, permanent, polar
approximately equal to
radial
equal to
steel, shear, smaller, stiffener
identical
co
much
00
>
<
<
larger than
infinity
with respect to the x-coordinate, height
greater than
yield
less
than
weld, weight
less
than or equal to
zero
normal strain
ex ey
normal strains
o
normal stress
o x o y o z direct normal
e
in
x y
,
z directions
angle, angle
mx,
y, z directions
between the global and local systems
local coordinates
change of curvature in
X
n
[
stresses
shear stress
shell
potential energy
indicates a matrix, reference
{ }
transpose of column vector,
T
[
number
column vector
one row matrix
indicates a one-dimension array,
{ }
transpose of matrix
-1
inverse of matrix
[T]
transformation matrix
'
vector of nodal external forces for the overall system, load vector
[k]
element
[K ]
system stiffness matrix

nodal force vector for an individual element
coefficient matrix, associated with displacement functions
matrix relating the element strains to element nodal displacements
{/}
[A]
[B]
[D]
{6}
tangential, tangent to the parallel circle in the direction of the parallel

circle
stiffness matrix
elasticity matrix, relating element stresses to element strains

vector of nodal displacements of finite element
level, in
the direction of thex axis.
Index
Abbreviations, 424
flexible vessels, 15
Aluminum
maps, 388
alloys,
309
rigid vessels, 14
designation, 310
design considerations, 309
Anchor
bolts, 91
Fatigue design, 34
allowable stresses, 101
96
torque,
initial
Flame
material, 101
minimum
cutting,
282
Flanges, design of, 406
Forced cross-wind vibration, 117
spacing, 102
proof load, 97
size
Glossary, 395
computations, 92
stress concentration factors,
95
Hydrogen
types, 102
Attenuation length, 39, 223
attack,
306

embrittlement, 307
Bauschinger
395
effect,
galling,
307
selection of steels,
Bolts, pressure connections,
293
308
vessel failure,
294
structural attachments,
296
Line loads, 210

Load, shakedown, 25
Concrete, allowable stresses, 89
Cone angle computations, 79

Conical heads and reducers, 66
two-cone frustums reducer, 69
Corrosion, 395
Lugs
vessel lifting,
263
Magnification factor, 114
Division
1,
Material, construction,
26
corrosive service,
Division 2, 29
284
290
integrally applied cladding,
design remarks, 38
Design loads,
24
46
criteria
Code
Code
types, 22,
Logarithmic decrement, 114
vessel support, 153
Cylindrical shells,
Design
Load
noncorrosive service, 285

1
combination
of,
strip or sheet lining, 291
22
Matrix algebra, 410
dead,
Membrane
earthquake, 13
stresses,
conditions
piping, 21
due
pressure, 2
for,
39
43
to internal pressure,
wind, 5
Nozzle reinforcement
Earthquakes, design
considerations, 21
example,
18,
20
for,
13
for external loads,
209
for pressure, 186

off-hill nozzles,
209
44
290
INDEX
INDEX
430
Numerical methods, 312
categories
displacement method, 314
applied to shells,
344
Code
applied to continuous structure, 323

in,
327
external loads in,
362
general description
illustrative
24,
29
26
legs, 143
Division 2, 29
lugs, 153
1,
nonpressure parts, 27
at structural discontinuity,
problems, 317, 324, 366
cylinder-to-cone juncture,
limitations,
375
cylinder-to-cylinder,
376
origin of, 218
description, 376
230
224
spherical head-to-cylinder,
flexibility coefficients,
method of stepwise
371
integration,
finite differences,
226
local st attachments, 186
380
381
Nuts, material, 295
allowable, 28,
Ovaling, 119
Pressure, design, 2
allowable working, 2
Reinforcing pads, 187
internal constraints,
and thickness, 209
plate bar,
Shells of revolution,
77
membrane
primary, 275
secondary, 275
Torispherical heads, 62
stress concentration factors,
collapsing pressure, 65
symbols, 283
42
26
secondary, 31
Strouhal number, 111
297
Subscripts,
for,
304
427
Supports
306
horizontal vessels, 161
301
example, 180
intergranular corrosion of,
298
introductory considerations,
martensitic,
24
primary, 29
304
design procedure
fabrication,
of,
247
range, 25
296
296
303

hot vessels, 394
material, 179
305
multiple support reactions, 161
Standard material specifications, 286

Stress
ring stiffeners for, 175
saddle design, 177
allowable design, 28,

bolts, 101
30
life,
284
failure origines,
types
vertical,
259
260
Welding methods, 259
processes, 281
Welding symbols, 283
89
anchor bolt analysis
of,
for,
91
Wind
critical velocities. 111
nominal, 3
Spherical shells, 55
260
first
membrane, 34
under internal pressure, 44
joints,
residual stresses in,
design
tall
279
thick
intensity, 31
theory,
plug,
basic velocity pressure, 5
250
cylinder, 249
failure,
stress resultants, 41
alloy selection,
244
bending, 34
40
Stainless steels,
244
276
intermittent,
knuckle radius, 75
deflection, 107
type
46
bending theory, 42
definitions,
anchor
flare radius,
internally insulated, 3
254
thick plate,
39
asymetrically loaded,
price ratio,
groove, 260
support skirt,
Reynolds number, 108
ferritic,
fillet,
Toriconical reducers, 73
cross-wind vibration, 107
rachet,
Semiellipsoidal heads, 59
242
248
264
Thickness, design shell, 2
minimum
minimum
278
279
efficiency,
Welded
external constraints,
Residual stresses, 259
austenitic,
allowable stresses,
map, 389
Vessel
hot spot,
size
Weld design, 289

Temperature, design, 3
thermal, 241
basic equations, 241
maximum
nondestructive examinations, 280
Toroidal shells, 71
spherical shells, 188
stresses in shell at, 178

typical construction, 180, 185
85
overlay cladding, 293
under external loads, 78
30
cylindrical shells, 193
for,
Weld, defects, 280
85
217
computation procedure, 220
314
support skirt design
Symbols, 424
force method,
method of
skirt,
weld, 279
of,
stress analysis for, 81
vertical vessels, 143
hot vessels, 393
Code Division
advantages, 373
elements used
of,
range, 25
natural frequency, 121
illustrative
example, 129
ovalling, 119
design example,
11
load, 7, 8
velocity
map, 387
279
431

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BEDNAR

Henry H. Bednar, P.E

TECHNIP ITALY s.P .A.

KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

Preface to Second Edition

the intent has been to improve the

book by enlarging its scope. The stress

Printed and Published by

KRBEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

available to a stress analyst.

numerical methods with

All rights reserved.

analysis of pressure vessels has

No part of this book may be reproduced in any

means, electronic or mechanical, including information storage and retrieval systems

which the theory

use to a practicing designer engineer. Also

should be kept in mind that practical engineering

not an absolute exact

and unknown quantities so that

and usually they require a comparison of

Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data

Reprint. Originally published: 2nd. ed.

New York Van Nostrand

Pressure vessels Design and construction Handbooks, manuals,

scientific trainis based on many factors, including

of the technical information currently used in the

available in the standard textbooks

practical vessel design.

compromises have to be made.

known at the present time and

techniques, will conprovide the designer with alternative economical design

for permission to use their published material.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION /v

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION /vii

Combinations of the Design Loads/ 22

STRESS CATEGORIES AND DESIGN LIMIT STRESSES/ 24

2.2. Allowable Stress

General Design Criteria of

Pressure Vessel Code, Section

Pressure Vessel Code, Section

General Design Criteria of

MEMBRANE STRESS ANALYSIS OF VESSEL SHELL

Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads/ 55

Stress Analysis of Thin-Shell Elements /43

Design of Concentric Toriconical Reducers under Internal

DESIGN OF TALL CYLINDRICAL SELF-SUPPORTING

External Constraints/ 242

Internal Constraints/ 244

Thickness Required for a Combination of Design Loads/ 81

Thermal Stress Ratchet under Steady Mechanical Load/ 254

First Natural Period of Vibration/ 121

Groove Welds/ 260

SUPPORTS FOR SHORT VERTICAL VESSELS/ 143

Support Legs/ 143

Support Lugs/ 153

DESIGN OF SADDLE SUPPORTS FOR LARGE HORIZONTAL

General Considerations / 161

Horn of the Saddle / 169

Design of Ring Stiffeners/ 175

Design of Saddles / 177

over the Saddle / 173

SHELLS DUE TO LOADS ON

General Considerations/ 284