Land Water Linkages in Rural Areas

ISSN 1024-6703
Landwater linkages
in rural watersheds
FAO
LAND
AND WATER
BULLETIN
Cover photographs:
Top-left: Smallholder farm couple incorporating crop residues in the soil to improve soil fertility in India. FAO/17751/A. Conti.
Bottom-left: A woman drawing drinking water from a village pump in northern India. FAO/13652/J. Isaac.
Top-right and bottom-right: Upper watershed of the Ro Jequetepeque, Northern Peru. Felipe Carhuallanqui.
Landwater linkages
in rural watersheds
FAO
LAND
AND WATER
BULLETIN
Proceedings of the electronic workshop

organized by the
FAO Land and Water Development Division
18 September-27 October 2000
IRRIGATION
AND DRAINAGE
PAPER
Rome, 2002
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in

this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
ISBN 92-5-104765-0
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FAO
2002
Landwater linkages in rural watersheds
iii
Foreword
Deforestation in the Himalayas blamed for killer flood headlines such as this one from
August 2000 suggest that upstream land use practices have important impacts on water resources
and affect the people downstream at a watershed scale. Payments by downstream people to
upstream people for environmental services such as good water quality, less sediments or
more regular water flow are widely discussed. However, much controversy exists about the
direction and magnitude of such impacts, how they influence the relation was between upstream
and downstream people, and if cooperation mechanisms are feasible which allow for a sharing
of the resulting benefits and costs by all resource users in rural watersheds.
To address these issues, the FAO Land and Water Development Division organized the electronic
workshop LandWater Linkages in Rural Watersheds during September and October 2000.
About 470 people from all over the world subscribed to this electronic forum. Discussions
were grouped around three main questions:
1. What are the biophysical impacts of upstream land uses on downstream water resources in
rural watersheds?
2. How can these impacts be valued in terms of benefits and costs to downstream people?
3. Which mechanisms can be identified to share these benefits and costs among upstream and
downstream land and water users?
The present volume contains an analytic summary of the workshop discussions as well as two
discussion papers prepared for the workshop on the basis of a literature review. In keeping with
the electronic character of the workshop, the complete materials are included on the CD-ROM
that accompanies this document.
It is hoped that the wealth of information supplied here will shed some light on the issues
surrounding the provision of water-related environmental services by upstream land management
activities.
iv
Acknowledgements
The FAO Electronic Workshop LandWater Linkages in Rural Watersheds was organized by
Benjamin Kiersch with support by Jean-Marc Faurs of the Land and Water Development
Division. Valuable inputs were provided during the planning and preparation stages by Thomas
Hofer from the Forest Resources Division, and Sally Bunning, Tudor Botzan and Rod Gallacher
from the Land and Water Development Division. Constance Neely (University of Georgia)
helped greatly in organizing the conference by contributing the LandscapeLifescape concept.
Thorgeir Lawrence assisted with the moderation of the workshop and prepared the first draft of
the workshop proceedings. The synthesis report was prepared by Sylvia Tognetti, who also
finalized the abstracts of many case studies. Jippe Hoogeveen and Wolfgang Prante contributed
to the preparation of the CD-ROM and the workshop Web site.
The organizers would like to acknowledge the authors of the background papers: Ian Calder,
Norman Peters, Michel Meybeck, Bill Deutsch, Jim Orprecio, Allison Busby, Janeth BagoLabis, Estela Cequia, Marta Echavarra and Jan de Graaff, and all the active participants who
contributed their knowledge and experience in numerous interventions and case studies.
Finally, special thanks are due to Lynette Chalk for the efficient preparation of the text and
formatting.
Contents
Page
FOREWORD
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
LIST OF BACKGROUND PAPERS
vi
LIST OF CASE STUDIES
vii
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SYNTHESIS REPORT OF THE FAO ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP

Sylvia Tognetti
DISCUSSION PAPERS
1. LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES: A LITERATURE REVIEW
Benjamin Kiersch
2. INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS FOR UPSTREAM-DOWNSTREAM LINKAGES:
A LITERATURE REVIEW
33
35
45
Benjamin Kiersch
ANNEXES
1. ABSTRACTS OF BACKGROUND PAPERS
2. ABSTRACTS OF CASE STUDIES
3. LIST OF INTERVENTIONS
4. WORKSHOP PROGRAMME
DOCUMENTS AVAILABLE ON CD-ROM:

DISCUSSION ARCHIVE
Verbatim records
Summary of discussions
WORKSHOP EVALUATION
LIST OF REGISTERED PARTICIPANTS
53
55
59
75
77
vi
List of background papers

(available on CD-ROM)
Land use impacts on water resources

Ian Calder
Water quality degradation affects on freshwater availability: impacts of human activities
Norman E. Peters and Michel Meybeck
Community-based water quality monitoring: from data collection to sustainable management of
water resources
William G. Deutsch, Jim L. Orprecio, Allison L. Busby, Janeth P. Bago-Labis, Estela Y. Cequia
Valuation of water-related services to downstream users in rural watersheds: determining values
for the use and protection of water resources
Marta Echavarra
Downstream effects of land degradation and soil and water conservation
Jan de Graaff
System requirements to use the CD-ROM:
PC with Intel Pentium processor and Microsoft Windows 95 / 98 / 2000 / Me / NT / XP

or
Apple Macintosh with PowerPC processor and Mac OS 8.6 / 9.0.4 / 9.1 / X
64 MB of RAM
24 MB of available hard-disk space
Internet browser such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer
Adobe Acrobat Reader (included on CD-ROM)
vii
List of case studies

(available on CD-ROM)
Optimizing soil fertility and plant nutrition to prevent groundwater pollution. Austria.
Peter Cepuder, Volker aus der Schmitten
Inter-relationships between agriculture and hydrology in lowland areas. The case of the Angura
watershed. Burkina Faso.
C. Cudennec, Y. Sinar, Daurensan
Impact of upstream irrigation dams on surface hydrology. The case of the Yvel watershed. France.
C. Cudennec, M. Sarraza
Can participatory land use planning at community level in the highlands of northern Thailand use
GIS as a communication tool?
Oliver Puginier
Agricultural practices and water quality in Saskatchewan, Canada: a sociological perspective.
Randall Kehrig
Economic effects of changing water quality on an irrigation scheme: a case study from South Africa.
Jack Armour
Development of small watersheds. Cuba.
Miguel Hernndez Bauz, Nilo Alfonso Gonzlez
Integrating biophysical, ecological, and social research for catchment-scale management of water
resources: the Motueka river initiative. New Zealand
Breck Bowden
Tracing sediment transport with Cs-137 isotopes: The Chasovenko catchment case study, Central
Russian Federation.
Valentin Golosov, Vladimir Belyaev
Southern highlands irrigation infrastructure refurbishment project. Australia.
Stephen Arnold
Land-water linkages in the upper Niger watershed. Guinea.
Sny Soumah
Watershed development or should it be watershed management? The Kawad Project, Karnataka,
India.
C. Batchelor, M. Rama Mohan Rao, K. Mukherjee
Indo-German watershed development programme Gujarat: a baseline survey. India.
Andreas Groetschel, Ingrid Mller-Neuhof, Ines Rathmann, Hermann Rupp,
Ximena Santillana, Anja Sger, Jutta Werner
Combating drought in Rajasthan through the watershed approach. India.
B.K. Kakade
viii
Environmental impacts and vulnerability of water resources in the Berdawni rural watershed, Bekaa,
India.
T. Darwish, M. Khawlie, I. Jomaa, R. Chihny
Water quality and management in peri-urban Kumasi, Ghana.
D.F.M. McGregor, D. A. Thompson, D. Simon
Agriculture and nitrogen pollution of water in Brittany, France.
Sverine Gibet
Small hydraulic structures and their impact on farmers lives, streamflow, soil and water conservation
and downstream water resources: the cases of the Siliana and Kef watersheds. Tunisia.
Mohamed Mechergui
The Romwe catchment study the effects of land management on groundwater resources in semiarid Zimbabwe.
P.B. Moriarty, C.J. Lovell
The influence of a headwater wetland on downstream river flows in Sub-Saharan Africa. Zimbabwe.
Africa. Matthew McCartney
A quantitative treatment on the influence of catchment features, based on GIS, on fish production
in Sri Lankan reservoirs. Sri Lanka.
Sena S. De Silva, U.S. Amarsinghe, C. Nissanka
The Goulburn broken water quality strategy. Australia.
Pat Feehan
Integrated land and water management in the upper watersheds of the Aral Sea basin. Tajikistan.
S. Aslov
Collective action to fight soil erosion in Runion.
Denis Groene, Alain Hbert, G. Benoit
Micro-dams for rainfall water retention in central-west Brazil: pilot project on water and soil
conservation in the micro-basin of the Paiol.
Luciano Cordoval de Barros
The impact of drainage of agricultural soils on annual runoff: an example from the Brie region.
France.
Claude Cosandey, Marie-Jose Penven, Tatiana Muxart
Water quality and rural society: Potential health risks in the lower Ro Colorado watershed. The
case of the Mexicali Valley. Mexico.
Alfonso Cortez Lara
Estimation of basin sediment flux in the Pang Khum Experimental Watershed in northern Thailand:
The contributions of roads and agricultural lands.
Alan D. Ziegler, Thomas W. Giambelluca, Ross A. Sutherland
Influence of land use on the hydrological properties of volcanic soils: the case of catchments providing
water to Andean cities. Ecuador.
W. Buytaert, B. De Bivre, J. Deckers G. Dercon
The watershed protection fund (FONAG) as a mechanism for the conservation of the cayambecoca and antisana reserves in Ecuador.
M. Echavarra
Impacts of irrigation development on small-scale aquatic resources: a case study of southern Laos.
Sophie Nguyen Khoa, Kai Lorenzen, Caroline Garaway, Robert Arthur, Bounthanom Chamsingh,
Douangchith Litdamlong, Nick Innes-Taylor, Darrell Siebert
Summary of conclusions and

recommendations
This report synthesizes the proceedings of the electronic workshop Land Water Linkages in
Rural Watersheds hosted by the FAO Land and Water Development Division from
18 September to 27 October 2000. The workshop examined relationships between land use and
water resources in rural watersheds. It identified mechanisms and instruments for sharing benefits
and costs resulting from land use impacts on water resources between upstream and downstream
stakeholders in a watershed context, as well as priorities for further work.
CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES

Classifications of biophysical impacts have tended to reflect the concerns of better studied
areas, which are disproportionately in northern temperate zones, and have much higher average
rates of runoff than arid and semi-arid countries. Much less is known about processes that are
important in the arid and semi-arid countries, where water stored in soil may be more important
than surface water, and erosion and sedimentation rates are naturally much higher.
The most significant impacts of land use are often associated with infrequent and extreme
events. For example, the greatest transport of eroded sediment and pollutants will occur during
large rainstorms, during extreme storm events such as hurricanes or when heavy rains follow a
period of drought. Impacts also vary depending on the affected peoples location, and to the
extent that the people depend on affected resources for their livelihoods, or have other options.
Ranges of variability of natural processes are the most important parameter for identifying
actual and potential impacts of land use practices. Land use impacts are compounded by the
complexity of hillslope processes and, potentially, by climate change. The knowledge of natural
processes relative to the impact of anthropogenic land use change is critical for development of
effective and appropriate response strategies.
Given that impacts of land use on water resources are the result of complex interactions
between diverse site-specific factors and offsite conditions, standardized types of responses
will rarely be adequate. These relationships can be better understood through the use of process
models, which must be combined with site-specific assessment.
Watershed management is understood to include livelihood concerns, including both socioeconomic as well as biophysical components. Workshop discussions provided suggestions to
revise the classification to better reflect concerns more specific to developing countries in general,
where poverty alleviation is a more dominant consideration.
Recommendations:
1. A typology of biophysical impacts of land use on hydrological processes should be revised to
include recharge of soil moisture, which is more significant in arid semi-arid lands.
Summary of conclusions and recommendations
2. Ranges of variability in natural watershed processes need to be established as a basis for

identifying the range of actual and potential human-made land use impacts, including the
influence of climate change.
3. With regard to hydrological and sediment-related impacts, river dynamics and lowland
processes should be distinguished from hillslope processes to identify which process is dominant,
and to find adequate management responses.
CHANGE IN THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF LANDWATER INTERACTIONS WITH THE SIZE OF THE
WATERSHED: CONSIDERATIONS OF SCALE
As a general rule, impacts of land use activities on hydrological and sediment-related processes
can only be verified at smaller scales (up to some tens of square kilometres) where they can be
distinguished from natural processes and other sources of degradation. This suggests that the
use of economic instruments and mechanisms will also be most effective at this scale. Assumptions
that relationships observed at smaller scales hold at the largest scales, and that processes observed
in one particular region can be applied to another, have often led to inappropriate and ineffective
responses, because different processes are dominant at different scales. Certain impacts of
land use on water quality, such as salinity, have an impact at larger scales as well. At the largest
scales, impacts are difficult or impossible to verify because of a long time lag between cause
and effect, and many overlapping factors. This makes it difficult to arrive at agreements between
users about rights and responsibilities needed to implement mechanisms for sharing costs and
benefits at large river-basin scales.
Recommendations:
1. Impacts and responses to them need to be considered at the appropriate scale efforts to
change land use practices and to implement mechanisms for sharing of benefits and costs
will be most successful in response to measurable problems in small basins.
2. At larger scales, long-term monitoring is needed because of the long time lag between cause
and effect. Mechanisms of sharing costs and benefits at these scales will most likely deal
with water quality concerns.
ADEQUACY OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF BIOPHYSICAL IMPACTS OF LAND

USE CHANGE
Although much is known about watershed processes, such knowledge is often used to make
generalizations that are not always appropriate. Site-specific information is often inadequate to
determine which management actions will be most effective, which makes stakeholder
negotiations difficult. Community involvement is needed to identify and agree on causes of and
responsibilities for land use changes, and to develop institutions and functions to reduce risk and
manage disasters associated with land use practices. There is a need to build greater capacity
for site-specific research, which could be supported through the development of long-term
hydrological monitoring and forecasting systems. In all regions, a better understanding of large
scale and cumulative effects is needed.
Recommendations:
1. More emphasis should be placed on participatory research, as well as long-term monitoring
and assessments, which should clarify uncertainty for stakeholders.
2. Biophysical processes singled out as research priorities are: soil water retention capacity,
groundwater processes, and variability of land use impacts across spatial and temporal scales.
TOOLS AND METHODS FOR ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATION BETWEEN LAND AND WATER RESOURCES
Tools and methods of assessment range from particular methods applied to the understanding of
individual processes, to more integrated and participatory approaches. Though slow and expensive
to initiate, participatory approaches increase the potential for research to have impacts on policy.
Other advantages include simplicity, cost-effectiveness and local relevance, that may outweigh
potential bias and lack of precision, which can be calibrated through comparisons of results with
researchers.
Among the parameters selected for ease of monitoring are: eroded soils and sediment
contamination of streams, altered stream flows and soil export, bacterial contamination,
demographics and land use, and community perceptions, memories and experience. It will be
easier to find agreement among stakeholders on narrower, more technical indicators. However,
conflicts among different interest groups may be inherent in deciding which impacts matter and
in selecting appropriate indicators.
Recommendations:
1. Site-specific process models should be developed that allow local conditions to be considered
in the design of interventions.
2. Project budgets and timelines should allow for stakeholder participation in research and in
monitoring efforts.
3. Researchers should work with stakeholders to develop and apply acceptable measures of
quality in participatory research and monitoring efforts.
4. Indicators need to be scientifically validated, of relevance to the affected community, be
practical to measure, and relatively inexpensive.
5. The need for negotiation and conflict resolution should be anticipated in the selection of
indicators.
TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS TO ASSESSMENT OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER

RESOURCES
By definition, a watershed approach implies addressing complex issues in large areas over long
periods of time. This is difficult to achieve in a narrow technical framework and with budget
limitations. Since financial and technical means are usually limited, uncertainty and the need for
value judgements become inherent in decision-making. These constraints can be partly overcome
by providing technical and financial support for community-based efforts, and by explicitly
considering issues of governance and institutional arrangements that determine which benefits
and costs are considered in the assessment, and how these are distributed among stakeholders.
Recommendations:
1. Researchers and donor organizations should work in partnership with and provide technical
and financial support for community-based efforts in the assessment process.
2. Assessment of land use impacts on water resources should include examination of governance
and institutional arrangements that determine the distribution of benefits and costs among
stakeholders, including those associated with uncertainty.
VARIABILITY, UNCERTAINTY AND MYTHS ABOUT LANDWATER LINKAGES

In the absence of complete information, overgeneralizations or myths about links between land
use activities and hydrological processes have emerged, such as deforestation causes flooding
regardless of basin size, or deforestation causes erosion even where natural erosion rates are
high. These generalizations, which cannot be verified, and in some cases have been disproved,
by scientific analysis, are still frequently used as justifications for policy and programmes. Such
myths may selectively single out particular causes from multiple ones in order to support institutional
and political agendas, and may be a convenient basis for advice because their assumptions are
unverifiable. This leads to misguided policies and remedial approaches that do not work, and
often results in poor and minority populations in upland areas being made scapegoats, despite
their contributions to a problem often being minor relative to other factors. Due to the complexity
of landscape processes and the long time lag between cause and effect, uncertainty is inherent
in any scientific findings and assumptions about landwater interactions. This uncertainty needs
to be made very explicit to avoid the emergence of new myths.
Recommendations:
1. General statements about landwater interactions need to be continuously questioned to
determine whether they represent the best available information and whose interests they
support in decision-making processes.
2. The uncertainty inherent in findings about landwater interactions needs to be made explicit
to avoid the emergence of new myths.
VALUATION OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON DOWNSTREAM WATER RESOURCES

Impacts of land use practices can be distinguished in impacts on use values and non-use values.
Use values can be further distinguished into consumptive, for example irrigation and domestic
use, and non-consumptive values, for example transportation. Water bodies and riparian areas
may also have significant non-use values, for example as reservoirs of biodiversity. It is equally
important to consider the distribution of costs and benefits between upstream and downstream
users, as well as within communities. The analysis of affected values is an important basis for
selecting the most appropriate benefit-sharing mechanism.
Uncertainty regarding links between upstream land use activities and impacts on downstream
resource users also creates uncertainty regarding economic values. However, even partial values
may be sufficient to justify investments in watershed protection. When differences with and
without a project do not show significant benefits within the time frame of the analysis, less
tangible and less certain costs and benefits can be considered. The decision will then primarily
be based on consideration of societal benefits or equity concerns, in addition to the immediate
monetary benefits.
Recommendations:
1. To value costs and benefits of changes in specific land use practices, the ideal is to be able to
identify how those changes will affect the availability of specific resources of concern, and
their value to users. This can be made more manageable by dividing the watershed into
hydrological sub-units based on uniform agro-climatic conditions.
2. The results of valuation should be communicated to stakeholders and used to identify existing
land use incentives. Since complete information will rarely be obtainable, it is important to
clarify limitations of the valuation, which factors have been included, and the degree of
uncertainty.
3. When the more tangible and monetary costs and benefits are not sufficient to justify investments
in watershed management, the decision should be presented as a matter of policy, including
societal and long-term benefits.
BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS FOR LINKING UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM USERS

Mechanisms and instruments consist of a broad range of approaches ranging from regulatory
and market instruments, education and awareness building activities, to development of new
institutional arrangements and participatory approaches. These mechanisms are not mutually
exclusive. Rather, they seem to work best when different instruments are used in combination,
and applied simultaneously at different scales.
In the process of scaling up resource management from site level to watershed level, it is
important to ensure that all stakeholder groups people are represented in watershed associations
that transcend individual villages and in negotiations over large-scale problems. Appropriate
mechanisms need to take into account the distribution of benefits and costs within the communities
themselves, both upstream and downstream, and incentives of different stakeholders, based on
economic valuation and existing property rights.
Stakeholder cooperation is more likely if benefits are demonstrable, the distribution of benefits
as well as costs is considered fair and acceptable, and agreements are enforceable. It may also
be motivated by the threat of regulation.
Successful initiatives have evolved over time, from management of a water body to
management of its whole catchment, or from narrow and ad hoc to broad intersectoral initiatives,
often with the assistance of Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). At the largest scales,
given the difficulties of linking cause and effect, river basin negotiations tend to emphasize
water allocation issues and provide a basis for sharing benefits and reducing costs through more
general economic cooperation.
Recommendations:
1. Economic instruments are likely to be more effective if they are combined with education
and awareness building activities, and participation by affected people, for example through
watershed organizations. Successful mechanisms have evolved from a narrow to a broad
focus or from management of a water body to the whole catchment area.
2. The development of stakeholder associations with decision-making autonomy should be
promoted starting at the smallest scales, to ensure that local interests are represented in
negotiations over larger-scale problems, and to reduce transaction costs. NGOs can play an
important role in this institution-building process.
CONSTRAINTS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS

Implementation of mechanisms and instruments may be constrained by conflicts between the
objectives of sustaining livelihoods and natural resources, and between different stakeholder
groups. Other constraints maybe posed by equity considerations and the acceptability of the
instruments distribution function. For example, transfer payments for watershed protection
may not be seen as fair as they may violate the polluter pays principle and create perverse
incentives. Such payments, when these are necessary and appropriate, may be complemented
by taxes on pollutants. On the other hand, such payments may be equitable considering the
income situation of the rural poor in marginal upper watershed areas. Lack of property rights
and capacity for collective action may constrain the adoption of management practices if expected
benefits are long-term. Finally, if significantly affected stakeholders are excluded from the process,
they may have an incentive to sabotage any initiatives taken.
Recommendations:
1. Stakeholders should be involved in the initial phase of management interventions, and be
provided with information about the distribution of costs and benefits and equity implications.
2. Establishment or recognition of property rights should not overlook customary tenure
arrangements that may otherwise be put at a disadvantage in formal land titling programmes.
3. One should be realistic as to what participatory approaches can achieve in terms of priority
concerns: for example, small-scale erosion control measures typically implemented through
such approaches may not have a big impact on downstream sedimentation when structural
measures are needed to prevent landslides or streambank erosion.
CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS

For benefit-sharing arrangements to be successful, stakeholders must at least have a common
understanding and agreement about the nature of expected impacts, the approximate magnitude
of costs and benefits, and also about areas of uncertainty. This is best achieved at smaller
scales, where anthropogenic impacts can be verified and distinguished from natural processes.
At such scales, people will be more likely to be willing to make the necessary commitments for
resolving interest conflicts and reaching agreements.
When there are numerous stakeholders, establishment of watershed organizations is an

important way to make negotiations manageable and reduce transaction costs, provided that the
organizations are representative of all of the relevant interest groups, that they have a transparent
and autonomous decision-making process, and are appropriate to the scale of the watershed.
Perhaps the most important incentive for stakeholders to participate and invest resources in
benefit sharing arrangements is the assurance that they will in fact have access to the benefits,
which often take time to materialize. Security of tenure is an important factor in the adoption of
watershed management practices, as well as recognition of traditional resource use rights.
Regardless of whether the above criteria have been met, initiatives to establish mechanisms
for sharing benefits and reducing costs are still unlikely to succeed unless stakeholders accept
them as fair. The process of assessment and valuation of landwater interactions can provide
an important input to such deliberations because it clarifies costs and benefits, and also how they
are distributed among different stakeholders. It provides an opportunity for mutual learning
among stakeholders, whose local knowledge can provide insight into the context of the situation
and feasible options. Finally, the assessment process can improve feedback between science,
local knowledge and policy.
The criteria for successful implementation of benefit-sharing instruments in a watershed
context, as modified by recommendations made throughout the discussions, are as follows:
1. There is some common understanding and agreement among stakeholders regarding the
impacts of upstream land use on downstream water use, as well as awareness of uncertainty.
2. The groups of upstream and downstream stakeholders are generally few and well organized.
3. The economic impact of land use on downstream stakeholders can be approximately
quantified.
4. There is a political commitment to establish upstream-downstream linkages whether it is
through contractual agreements or through policy frameworks, and some underlying technical
basis for it.
5. There is a strong institutional and legal framework, including land tenure structure, which
allows for the implementation of benefit-sharing instruments.
6. There should be decision-making autonomy for those who pay and who benefit, and a
transparent mechanism for deciding how the money is spent.
7. Management interventions and also watershed associations should be appropriate to the
scale of the river basin.
8. Basin treaties should be acceptable to all riparians, for equitable use, protection and
management of water resources in basins.
9. Information about impacts, and their potential costs and benefits, needs to be communicated
using common methods of expression.
Synthesis report of the FAO electronic

workshop
INTRODUCTION
An electronic workshop on LandWater Linkages in Rural Watersheds was held from 18
September to 27 October 2000. Its goals were to:
examine relationships between land use and water resources in a watershed framework,
and how these affect upstream and downstream stakeholders;
identify focal areas and recommendations for further work with regard to land and water
management, in particular with regard to the distribution of costs and benefits between
upstream and downstream resource users;
provide a forum for exchange of knowledge and information regarding mechanisms and
instruments to link land and water management through the re-distribution of costs and benefits
between upstream and downstream resource users.
Key questions addressed in the workshop were outlined in an introductory note. Supporting
documents included two discussion papers, five background papers, and 31 case studies. There
were 471 participants, 38 of whom made contributions, comments and suggestions for future
activities. The interventions were summarized on four occasions as the workshop proceeded. A
full documentation of the workshop materials is included in the CD-ROM, which accompanies
the present document.
This report draws on relevant material from the interventions, case studies and background
documents. Although the key questions from the introductory note provide the general outline
for this report, some of them have been grouped together to reflect better areas of emphasis in
the discussions. They are grouped into two main categories: the Landscape Perspective, which
contains questions regarding biophysical impacts, and the Lifescape Perspective, which contains
questions that pertain to the benefits and costs to upstream and downstream resource users, and
economic and policy instruments that can be used to redistribute them more equitably as well as
create incentives to reduce impacts.
PART I: LANDWATER LINKAGES THE LANDSCAPE PERSPECTIVE

Relationships between land and water are complex, as they consist of numerous and simultaneous
processes that vary across spatial and temporal scales, are non-linear, and occur in watersheds
Sylvia Tognetti, Consultant, Takoma Park, MD, USA,

with inputs from Thorgeir Lawrence, Consultant, Rome, Italy
10
Synthesis report of the FAO electronic workshop
with heterogeneous characteristics.1 Moreover, impacts of land use practices depend heavily on
interactions among site-specific biophysical characteristics, as well as on socio-economic factors.
Assessment of these impacts, and development of appropriate response strategies, therefore
requires a good understanding of this context. In addition to the identification of impacts themselves,
development of appropriate response strategies requires an understanding of causes, ranging
from management strategies to socio-economic incentives that influence them. The following
two sub-sections review biophysical aspects of land use impacts on water resources and
management strategies, with a focus on unresolved issues, following the typology proposed in
Discussion Paper 1, as well as issues related to their assessment.
Session 1: Understanding and categorizing landwater linkages
Classification of impacts
Discussion Paper 1 proposes a typology of land use impacts on water resources that can be
used to assess biophysical impacts of land use practices on water resources. Based on discussions
and observations, a category has been added for soil moisture recharge, and also for impacts on
ecosystems and aquatic resources:
1. Impacts of land use on the hydrological and sediment-related processes
a. Mean surface runoff
b. Peak flow/floods
c. Base flow/dry season flow
d. Groundwater recharge
e. Soil moisture recharge
f. Erosion and sediment load
2. Impacts of land use on water quality
g. Nutrients and organic matter
h. Pathogens
i. Pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants
j. Salinity
k. Heavy metals
l. Changes in thermal regime
3. Impacts on ecosystems and living aquatic resources.
In addition to distinguishing surface from groundwater supply, it is important to distinguish
soil moisture, which is generally more important than surface water in semi-arid environments,
though impacts on it have lower off-site consequences. In semi-arid countries such as in Africa,
runoff coefficients are generally much lower than in the United States and European countries
(10 percent compared to 40-50 percent), which also suggests the difficulty of making
generalizations based on parameters found to be important in one or the other.2
Discussion paper 1 and background papers 2 and 3 provide a more thorough overview of
impacts of land use and management practices on hydrology and on water quality. Examples of
actual impacts and problems encountered in their assessment, can be found throughout the case
1
2
Cudennec, Intervention 7
Moriarty, Intervention 39
11
studies. Since what is considered an impact depends on the relative significance to various
stakeholders, these are addressed more extensively in the sections on assessment and on valuation
of landwater linkages.
Identification of land use impacts on water resources
The single most important parameter for determining impacts may be the ranges of variability of
rainfall, runoff and water flows, particularly in arid areas.3 This is because many hydrological
impacts are dominated by extreme though infrequent events. Transport of sediment and other
pollutants disproportionately occur during these events because they are linked to increases in
water volume and velocity. Given their high variability, average yearly rates are irrelevant for
predicting actual rates of sedimentation.4
Climate change is also an important consideration, as it may increase the frequency of extreme
events including local droughts, intense rainfall with increased soil erosion and runoff, flooding,
sea level rise and coastal inundation.5
In the identification of hydrological impacts, another important distinction is between hillslope
elements and the hydrographic networks that drain hillslope flows. Hillslope processes play a
more important role in smaller watersheds, and where structural management changes, such as
dams, have altered their temporal scale. Because of their more diversified topography, they also
interact with rainfall in more complex ways. Case study 2 presents a methodology for distinguishing
these hillslope from lowland processes, and case study 3 provides an example of the relationship
between hydrological impacts and geographical patterns in an upstream watershed.6
Participants provided examples of structural measures upstream that are constructed with a
view to improving downstream hydrology, including:
small hydro projects upstream to prolong life of dams downstream;7
development of low-cost microdams to contain surface runoff damages, retain pollution, and
favour recharge of water tables;8
construction of reservoirs to enhance downstream flows;9 and
revival of traditional water harvesting systems such as the Paals in India9a.
There was also speculation that the siting of rice terraces could be optimized relative to
watershed lag-time to reduce flooding.10
Variation of land use impacts under different agro-ecological conditions and management
practices
The significance of land use impacts also depends on management practices, and on agroecological and socio-economic conditions that determine vulnerability and response capacity
the latter will be further discussed below in the section on valuing landwater linkages. With
respect to management and agro-ecological conditions, background paper 1 provides an extensive
discussion of the role of management practices and other parameters that need to be considered
in determining whether or not forests control erosion, reduce flooding, regulate flows, increase
Peters and Meybeck, Background Paper 2
Faurs, Intervention 4
5
Fairchild, Intervention 34
6
7
Mechergui, Case Study 18
Cordoval de Barros, Case Study 25

Davidson, Intervention 16
9a
van Etten, Intervention 18
10
12
runoff and improve water quality, all of which

depend on interdependent or competing and
site-specific processes.11 An example is
provided in Box 1.
BOX 1: FORESTS AND DRY SEASON FLOWS IN A SEMI-ARID

ENVIRONMENT
Whether or not the presence of forest increases

dry season flows will depend on infiltration
properties of the soil and on climatic conditions.
Planting of exotic tree species of pine and
eucalyptus in a semi-arid climate such as South
Africa not only reduced dry season flows but also
dried streams completely and generated very
deep soil moisture deficits that prevented their
return and the recharge of aquifers for five years
after the trees were felled.12
Whether or not forests increase or

decrease overall annual runoff may depend
also on the age of the forest, and hence the
extent of the canopy and rooting systems,
light and re-growth, and effect on soil organic
matter and leaf litter: they generally reduce
runoff volume compared with crops that
have less biomass, with the exception of
cloud forests. Older forests may also generate more runoff due to less re-growth. Some of the
factors that affect whether planting of trees controls erosion include: existence of an understorey,
grazing (which can lead to soil compaction and removal of understorey plants), road construction,
logging techniques, pre-planting drainage activities, weight of trees and also the size of their
leaves, because they modify drop size, which determines the extent of splash-induced erosion.
Cultivation, drainage, road construction and soil compaction during logging are thought to have
more influence on flood response than just the presence or absence of forest. Site-specific
assessment is therefore necessary to develop appropriate responses to impacts.
Relative importance of anthropogenic and natural causes
Understanding the consequences of land use decisions, and the development of appropriate
responses implies the ability to distinguish these impacts from natural processes and their variability.
This is particularly evident for issues associated with erosion and sedimentation rates, for which
several case studies were discussed that also illustrate management implications. For example,
if the amount of erosion generated by farming practices in a dam catchment is insignificant
compared to natural erosion, changing those practices will not change the impact of sedimentation
on the dam. The design and siting of the dam itself may simply be inappropriate in an arid and
semi-arid area where high erosion is an inherent element of landscape processes as is suggested
in a case from Zimbabwe (see Box 6).13 Other factors that make it difficult to distinguish
anthropogenic from natural causes include: climatic variation and rainfall patterns; the long time
lag between cause and effect, particularly at larger scales; and the reluctance to invest on
already degraded lands. These are also illustrated in experiences from Morocco (see Box 2),
and the Russian Federation (see Box 3).
Change in the relative importance of impacts with the size of the watershed: considerations
of scale
As can be seen in the examples of Morocco and Zimbabwe, scale is a key parameter in the
problem of detecting impacts of land use. Many myths about land use impacts are based on the
extrapolation of effects observed at smaller scales to large ones, for which the most well-known
case is the attribution of severe floods in Eastern India and Bangladesh to deforestation in the
Himalayas (see Box 4).
Calder, Background Paper 1
13
11
12
13
BOX 2: MOROCCO NATURAL VERSUS MAN-MADE CAUSES OF SEDIMENTATION14

In the preparation phase for a large-scale watershed management project in Morocco, hydrologists
were requested to assess the possible impact of the project for reducing sedimentation of reservoirs.
Sedimentation is a critical problem for Moroccos large dams, as they are the main source of water
for the countrys large irrigation systems and cities. In 1994, 8 percent of their total capacity had
already been lost. The watershed areas range from 1 000 to 50 000 km2, with a variation in sediment
yield between 300 and 3 000 t/km2/yr, depending on the geology of the watershed.
There was an expectation that hydrologists could quantify the extent to which proposed land
conservation practices would reduce sedimentation of reservoirs, and that these impacts could
then be valued and accounted for in the overall financial analysis of the project. It became clear to
the hydrologists, however, that the impact on sedimentation of reservoirs would be negligible,
regardless of the extent of land included in the programme. The main reasons were:
The areal extent of land that could benefit economically from erosion control measures
represents only a small percentage of the total area of each watershed and could therefore
contribute only marginally to the reduction of sedimentation.
Using the participatory approach, efforts concentrate on the improvement and reduction of
erosion of farmers land, whereas the badlands, which are the areas contributing the most to
sedimentation would not be treated by the project, as they were not of interest for farmers in the
uplands. The high rate of natural erosion compared to human-induced erosion was regarded
as a serious constraint.
The alarming rate at which dams are filling implies the need for an action that can have immediate
effects. Any significant action in upland areas would only be expected to show benefit after
several decades due to the size of the watersheds. This was not an option that could be
considered by the Water Resources Department, which then had to find other remedial actions.
The extremely high variability of the erosion and sediment transport processes made any
assessment of the average yearly rate irrelevant: most of the erosion and sediment transport
occur on the occasion of extreme events, (such as storms that lead to landslides) on which soil
and water conservation actions would show little impact.
In conclusion, it was not possible for the hydrologists to significantly quantify the impact of
watershed management activities on sedimentation in reservoirs. Different results might apply to
other areas, with smaller watersheds and different geological conditions, but, in this specific case,
each of the reasons given above was sufficient to discard any clear linkage between land
management and water resources.
BOX 3: RUSSIAN FEDERATION, DEGRADATION OF SMALL RIVERS IN AGRICULTURAL ZONES15

A team at Moscow State University studied the problem of degradation of small rivers within different
landscape zones of Russia, where the area under tillage has increased by up to 50 percent or
more of the total area over the last 300 years. The existence of high quality old maps enabled them
to compare changes in river lengths at different times during the period of intensive agriculture. It
was found that the total length of the small river net decreased by 30-50 percent during this period
because of changed surface water runoff and increased sediment input from cultivated slopes to
the river valleys. Natural fluctuations in precipitation were probably the main cause of river-net
degradation, as these fluctuations correlated with the level of the Caspian Sea. However, increased
volume of sediment from cultivated slopes, which filled up the small river channels, also contributed
significantly.
In this example, a combination of anthropogenic and natural causes influenced the degradation of
water resources. A quantitative assessment of the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors
requires a detailed spatial and temporal analysis. A recommendation for research arising from
this experience is to define sediment delivery coefficients for small watersheds, considering the
different pathways from agricultural land to river channels.
14
15
Faurs, Intervention 4
Golosov, Intervention 19
14
BOX 4: DOES FOREST REMOVAL IN THE UPLANDS CAUSE FLOODING IN THE LOWLANDS?
THE CASE OF THE GANGES-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN16
An example of media headlines for this region states that: the severe floods in Eastern India and
Bangladesh are not the result of a natural disaster, but of a ruthless exploitation of wood which
has been practised over centuries in the forests of the Himalayas. Headlines such as these are
based on assumptions that the forest cover in the Himalaya is rapidly decreasing, which only
holds true for certain areas, e.g., the Western Himalayas of Pakistan. Also, that there is a direct link
between forest removal in the Himalayas and flooding in the lowlands of the Ganga and
Brahmaputra river systems, and that the mountain people with their forest management practices
are responsible for the inundations in the plains a highly sensitive statement.
The newspaper statement reflects the still widespread wrong assumption that landwater linkages
observed in small and medium sized watersheds can be extrapolated to large watersheds. In
many studies, it can be documented that in small watersheds the human impact on landwater
influences is dominant. In medium sized watersheds it is already difficult to distinguish between
man made and natural impacts on the landwater linkages. In large watersheds, natural factors
(e.g., heavy rainfall events and deep landslides) clearly are the dominant links between land and
water.
There is, of course, a significant contribution of base flow from the highland catchments of the
Brahmaputra and the Ganga to the floods, but this input is just one element of many others and is
not a flood triggering one. The natural rates of weathering and erosion in this tectonically active
steep land zone are high, and sediment transport is a dominant process irrespective of vegetation
cover. Inappropriate land use practices may still have disastrous consequences within a highland
watershed, but conservation practices should not be undertaken with the expectation that they will
prevent floods in the lowlands.
The consequences of such myths are further discussed in the following section on assessment
and dealing with uncertainty.
As a general rule, as suggested by
Table 1, impacts of land use on
hydrological and landscape processes
can only be verified within small basins,
and most of the case studies in fact
pertain to small-scale watersheds. At
larger scales, natural processes are
dominant, which make it difficult to
detect any change as a result of
conservation practices, particularly on
a short time scale. Impacts on water
quality can be observed at much larger
scales and, in some cases, have been
well documented and quantified even in
larger basins. However, when dealing
with multiple sources of multiple
pollutants, one-to-one linkage of causes
and effects may remain elusive.
TABLE 1
Measurability of land use effects by basin size
Basin size [km2]
Impact Type
0.1
10
102
103
104
105
Average flow
Peak flow
Base flow
Groundwater recharge
Sediment load
Nutrients
Organic matter
Pathogens
Salinity
Pesticides
Heavy metals
Thermal regime
Legend: x = Measurable impact; = No measurable impact

Source: Discussion Paper 1
Information on the scale at which land use practices have a verifiable impact on water
resources availability and quality is crucial for discussing the feasibility of benefit-sharing
16
Hofer, Intervention 5
15
instruments between upstream and downstream resource users. Obviously, when land use impacts
do not extend beyond the plot level, it does not make sense to talk about benefit-sharing
arrangements on a watershed scale. When they do extend beyond the plot level, the extent to
which upstream causes can be linked with downstream effects, and the degree of uncertainty,
will determine the agreements that can be made between stakeholders toward a more equitable
sharing of costs and benefits.
As a result, there are differing opinions as to whether further work on landwater interaction
should be limited to small and medium scale watersheds of up to a few hundred square kilometres.
Landwater interactions are only easily measurable at the small scale. While working on
minimizing sedimentation in a micro-dam in a catchment of five square kilometres may be
worthwhile, trying to improve land management at a larger scale, for instance, in Ethiopia in the
hopes of seeing a result at the Aswan dam, is not.17 Similarly, improving tank maintenance in
India will lead to measurable improvements in local groundwater, but will not affect flooding in
Bangladesh. Rehabilitation also takes less time in smaller watersheds.18 However, it also is
important to consider that natural resource managers often have to make decisions about complex
cases at larger scales. The relevant scale will clearly depend on the type of impact addressed.
Adequacy of existing knowledge and understanding of biophysical processes

Much is known about environmental processes involved in landwater linkages. According to
one contributor, this knowledge is sufficient to take care of probably 90 percent of land use
problems in the worlds watersheds, and the remaining ten percent is simply a matter of refining
techniques.19 Methods to inventory soils, geology, vegetation, climate, demographics are well
known. Geographic Information Systems and computer programs help to develop model variations
for different contexts. The real issue is getting people to understand that after years, and probably
centuries, of manipulating a watershed without either understanding the big picture, not caring,
or being a victim of historic, difficult-to-break practices, it may take years of efforts and improved
practices to prevent or mitigate degradation.
Others contend that the existing knowledge base is based more on perceived wisdom or
myth than on science, which can lead to considerable misallocation of resources. This often
occurs when inappropriate generalizations are made, for example by extrapolating from small to
large scales, or by making assumptions about processes in arid and semi-arid regions based on
observations originating in wet temperate ones.20 In addition to the need for more basic research
in arid and semi-arid regions, this underscores the need for more site-specific information, which
may require more emphasis on participatory research and monitoring. This is an approach
emphasized in many of the case studies.
Knowledge is not always sufficient to determine which management actions will affect
downstream water availability. This makes negotiation difficult. An example is seen in the case
study regarding the Rio Paute catchment in the southern Andes of Ecuador,21 analyzing effects
of land use on water retention capacity (see Box 5). Other areas singled out as needing more
research include groundwater processes, and changing landwater linkages at spatial and temporal
scales.
Stevens, Intervention 32
19
17
20
18
21

Buytaert et al., Case Study 29
16
Scientists are not immune from the

vested interests of their institutions. One
contributor suggested that obfuscation
benefits these interests, as well as those
of consultants and scientists whose
existence and livelihoods are dependent
on the fostering of crisis scenarios and
the design and implementation of what
may be economically indefensible
amelioration schemes.22 For example,
the wisdom and economic benefits of soil
conservation programmes, which have
been widely promoted in Africa and Asia,
are now under question.
Box 5: Impacts of land use on soil water retention

capacity in the southern Andes
In the catchment of the Rio Paute in the southern
Andes of Ecuador, soils have a high water retention
and regulation capacity because of the presence of
allophane clay, in which hollow spheres are formed
that store water. Although cultivation is known to affect
hydrophysical properties, it is not clear which
phenomena control the retention and release of water
(i.e., whether it is retained in soil, in vegetation, in
organic matter layers, in swamps, in lakes, or in
forests, etc.). Traditional analytical methods do not
seem to apply as they are based on concepts of
equilibrium between gravitational, capillary and
hygroscopic forces other forces are active in the
andosols. Therefore, it is not clear which actions of
stakeholders will affect downstream water availability.
Given the inherent complexity and

uncertainty of land and water
relationships, it will not always be
possible to have complete information, or to wait for further information before making critical
decisions. Inadequacy of knowledge may only become apparent when things go wrong and new
problems arise that go beyond the realm of past experience. This reinforces the need for an
adaptive approach to management, which is more flexible than a narrow technical framework
that assumes complete information can be obtained, at least in principle. Much progress can be
made through a process of assessment that identifies existing information of relevance for
decision-making and makes it accessible to stakeholders. Greater emphasis is also needed on
long-term monitoring because not enough is known to make reliable predictions over long
periods of time.23
Session 2: Assessing and perceiving landwater linkages
Assessment refers to the process which links knowledge to decision-making. It involves selecting
relevant information as well as conducting relevant research. What is regarded as relevant
depends on policy objectives. It may focus on narrow technical questions from the perspective
of a single discipline or, through a more integrated and participatory approach, synthesize
information from both biophysical and socio-economic disciplines and engage stakeholders in
defining the problems, providing information about the local context and identifying the range of
management options.
Tools and methods for assessment of the relation between land use and water resources
Many assessment tools have been found to be inadequate for understanding the complex
interactions between land and water, although triangulation between results of measurements
taken at different times, scales and places, and using different methodologies, can reveal
inconsistencies and shortcomings. For example, many estimates of erosion are based on plot
experiments that only measure the amount of soil moved. However, much of this soil remains
within a watershed. One study in eastern Zimbabwe found that the amount of sediment leaving
22
23
Calder, Intervention 11
de Graaff, Intervention 44
17
a small headwater catchment never exceeded 5 t/ha, though plot based experiments reported
70-100 t/ha.24 The Andean case study (Box 5) raised questions about the ability to make
generalizations based on the use of standard methodologies for identifying key factors that
control the retention and release of water in soils, because of differences between the actual
hydrophysical properties of the Andean soils examined in the study, and assumptions. The authors
speculate that the problem may be pertinent to other soils as well.25
The complexity of processes involved in land and water interactions suggests the need for
detailed, site-specific models. Better understanding of land use effects on dry season flows, for
example, could be achieved through models that consider vegetation, soil physical properties
including hydraulic conductivity and water content properties of the soil, and their spatial
distribution. A better process for understanding erosion could be achieved by considering the
effect of vegetation type, such as size of leaves, which influences drop size, and by relating
vegetation type, soils and slope characteristics to specific soil conservation techniques.26
Methods of assessment provided in case studies range from describing the application of
particular methods to understanding specific watershed processes, to more integrated and
participatory approaches. These include:
comparisons between measurements and model results, and use of models to compare
outcomes under different management scenarios;27
surface flow measurements taken in locations selected to be able to isolate hillslope from
lowland processes;28
use of caesium isotope deposits as a tracer to examine sediment distribution throughout a

catchment;29
chemical analysis of water upstream and downstream from contamination sources and
engagement of the community in monitoring, by providing monitoring tools that can be easily
understood;30
statistical analysis of correlations between fish catch data in reservoirs and land use maps of
the reservoir catchments;31
comparison of basin sediment yield with yield from individual sources, to identify those that
contribute to it disproportionately, e.g., unpaved roads;32
comparisons of the results of household surveys regarding perceptions of nitrate pollution,

with well samples and nitrogen budgets;33
a participatory process of land use classification and mapping to reveal traditional and existing
land use practices, and engage local people to take their own resource management initiatives;34
an Integrated Catchment Management framework to integrate technical knowledge with

social learning, to develop knowledge and tools that can provide common ground for decisionmaking;35
Buytaert, Intervention 29
26
27
Cepuder et al., Case Study 1; and Armour, Case Study 6
28
Cudennec et al., Case Study 2
29
Golosov and Belyaev, Case Study 9
McGregor et al., Case Study 16

de Silva, Case Study 21
32
Ziegler et al., Case Study 28
33
Cortez Lara, Case Study 27
34
Puginier, Case Study 4
35
Bowden, Case Study 8
24
30
25
31
18
a Water Resource Audit to consolidate existing data from a wide range of sources, and to
highlight discrepancies between scientific knowledge and local perceptions of problems;36
a Participatory Landscape/Lifescape Appraisal (PLLA) to understand community perceptions

and water quality concerns, and to foster community involvement in the development of
relevant indicators and monitoring.37
Some observations from the latter study were that community involvement increases problem
awareness and, subsequently, the probability that the research will have a policy impact. Although
slow and expensive to initiate, it has the potential for longer lasting benefits. In this case, the
indicators were incorporated into the local governments Natural Resource Management Plan
and became part of an ongoing citizen water quality monitoring programme. The lack of precision
and possible bias inherent in community monitoring needs to be weighed against the advantages
of simplicity, mobility, cost-effectiveness and local relevance through comparisons with results
of researchers. Other practicalities are that it may also be useful for identifying hotspots for
restoration activities, and is faster than waiting for complete scientific understanding.38
Parameters and indicators that are easy to monitor
Development of meaningful indicators of water quality that could be easily monitored by
community volunteers and by a local government was the explicit objective of the study reported
in Background Paper 3. The criteria used to select the indicators were that they were based on
scientifically valid methods, relevant to the community, and practical and relatively inexpensive.
The parameters selected were:
Community perceptions, memories and experience obtained through PLLA;

Eroded soils and sediment concentration in streams obtained from measurement of total
suspended solids (TSS) during base flow conditions and just before and during selected
rainfall events;
Altered stream flows and soil export low-tech approaches were developed for estimating
stream depth, area and current velocity to indicate alteration of stream flows; this stream
flow data was then combined with TSS data to estimate soil export;
Bacterial sontamination of water a new and relatively low cost method was used to take
measurements in four major tributaries and at community drinking water faucets throughout
the municipality; and
Demographics and land use this was derived from government census and remote sensing
data, and used for comparison with other data collected and to identify patterns; for example,
a correlation was found between the decrease in forest cover and water quality degradation.
Other indicators of biophysical changes mentioned that could be easily measured were:39
soil accumulation in a flood plain, which is visually indicated by the burial of root crowns of
small trees and shrubs;
visual evidence for decreasing runoff and flood peaks are smaller channels, more stable
tributary channels (with smaller deposits and more vegetation) and less frequent and less
severe flooding;
36
37
Batchelor et al., Case Study 12

Deutsch et al., Background Paper 3
38
39
Deutsch et al., Background Paper 3

Bunning, Intervention 40
19
change in habitat and populations of fish and aquatic organisms, to indicate change in water
quality, increased sediment load, stream channel instability, and more frequent and violent
floods;
estimate of sediment yield from small hill slope catchments by measuring the volumes of
sediment accumulated in excavated farm dams of known ages.40
Two case studies examined land use impacts on fisheries, focusing on effects with livelihood
importance to local populations, and impacts that can be integrated in benefit-cost analysis.
Because of the complexity of ecosystems, they may represent a greater challenge, even in longstanding and well-funded programmes.
Technical and financial constraints to assessment
By definition, a watershed approach implies dealing with large areas and complex issues that
are intractable in a narrow and strictly technical framework, for financial as well as technical
reasons. A watershed programme in the Fouta Djallon highlands in Guinea was mentioned
which first included reference watersheds for purposes of evaluating initiatives in pilot watersheds.
The reference watersheds were soon dropped, and impact monitoring was found difficult for
lack of baseline data. In many cases, measurable downstream impacts cannot realistically be
expected given the small area covered by project interventions relative to the total watershed
area. Nevertheless, such downstream impacts are often mentioned as a justification for upstream
rural development.41
Such limitations are, at least in part, a problem of governance and institutional arrangements,
related to the distribution of benefits and costs among stakeholders. Increasing emphasis on
participatory approaches in monitoring, assessment, and decision-making reflects not only financial
constraints, but also the limits of technical knowledge for solving complex problems, and the
need to make value judgements. It demonstrates the value of local knowledge that stakeholders
bring to the process. An important role of researchers and organizations is in working in partnership
with and providing technical and financial support for community-based efforts. As pointed out
in background paper 3, this approach can have high up-front costs but is likely to have longer
lasting benefits and may be more cost-effective.
Variability, uncertainty and myths about landwater linkages
Due to the complexity of landscape processes and the long time lag between cause and effect,
uncertainty is inherent in any scientific findings and assumptions about landwater interactions.
This uncertainty has given rise to a number of overgeneralizations, or myths, regarding land
water interactions (see discussion paper 1 and background paper 1). Such overgeneralizations
may lead to negative impacts, when they are used to justify policies and actions and to allocate
funds. This can be illustrated in a number of the case studies. For example, the general statement
that all sediment is a pollutant that underlies attempts to reduce sediment in Colorado, USA,
has resulted instead in the incision of stream banks.42 Another common generalization is that
upstream deforestation causes downstream flooding and sedimentation in large-scale basins
(see Box 4 regarding assumed links between deforestation in the Himalayas and flooding, in the
lower part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin).
Conacher, Intervention 43
Facon, Intervention 14
42
Kimsey, Intervention 9
40
41
20
The singling out of a particular factor, from complex ranges of multiple causes, may be used
to support institutional interests and to blame or scapegoat poor and minority populations often
found in marginal upland areas. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh, for example, shifting
cultivators have been regarded as the main initiators of erosion. However, shifting cultivation,
which is only practised on four to six percent of the area, is in decline because it is no longer
regarded as sustainable as a result of diminished productivity. Other factors contributing to
erosion include the monsoon climate, steep slopes, extensive deforestation, and increasing land
pressure from in-migration.43 This kind of biased selection of key impacts may also be used to
justify more popular structural projects that do not work, and to avoid less popular measures,
such as licensing and user fees. Examples of ineffective structural projects include the
construction of siltation dams for addressing problems of groundwater depletion, and improving
the efficiency of water use in irrigation, which often simply leads to the increase of irrigated
areas and accelerates water depletion.44
In addition to generalizations about biophysical causes, there are those held about stakeholders,
for instance whether millions of small farmers should be regarded as bottlenecks in watershed
management which need to be educated in management.45 Though seemingly harmless, such
BOX 6: ZIMBABWE: THE CAUSES OF SEDIMENTATION46
An experience from south-eastern Zimbabwe was described regarding the myth that poor
agricultural practices in the headwaters are leading to increased siltation in reservoirs. The
large sugar estates of the lowlands are major agribusiness users of water in Zimbabwe, and rely
on an extensive series of mid-catchment storage dams that all face problems of sedimentation.
Often, the increased sediment is blamed on poor local farming practices, including deforestation
and overgrazing by the indigenous, subsistence farmers of land in the headwaters.
Following the devastating drought of the early 1990s, some of the sugar estates started outreach
programmes to work with the farmers in the headwaters to improve their land management. By
the late 1990s, those involved in the outreach programme were reporting positive results: the
suspended solids entering their dams were decreasing dramatically. Yet, to a disinterested
observer it seemed highly unlikely that changes in how the headwaters were managed could
have been responsible for these dramatic falls in sediment load. The outreach programme was
tiny, and the catchment area large. Research also revealed a 10-year cyclical pattern of above and
below average rainfall, possibly related to the El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The 1980s,
which were capped by a drought, had been the driest on record.
The combination of research and local farmers perspectives allows development of an alternative
narrative to that of the sugar cane farmers. This suggests that during the long dry years, water
levels drop, shrubs and grass die, and livestock (before dying) exacerbates the situation by
eating everything available, turning the area into a desert. During this period, sediment levels
generally increase and can erode easily, as what rain does come is unmitigated by vegetation. In
particular, large storm events at the end of the dry period can move huge quantities of stored soil.
However, once a wetter period is entered, browse and crop cover quickly returns, aided by low
livestock numbers, and erosion more or less ceases until the next dry cycle.
Just as the account of sugar cane farmers, the above is a narrative rather than a scientifically
proven account. Proof, in this case, would require monitoring sediment loads and other key
parameters for a full 20-year cycle. However, it corresponds with what is known of erosion from
other arid and semi-arid regions. Photographs of the study site in the 1990s show a bare expanse
of red earth, in no way comparable to the lush humid vegetation seen since 1994. Sediment
measured leaving a small headwater catchment, where there had been no outreach programme
and where subsistence agriculture was being practised, never exceeded 5 t/ha far below the
70-100 t/ha reported from so many plot-based experiments.
43
44
Hopkins, Intervention 45
45
46
21
metaphors play powerful roles in shaping policy and programmes. It may also be convenient for
experts to base their advice on unverifiable assumptions.
The uncertainty inherent in findings and assumptions about landwater interactions needs to
be made very explicit to avoid the emergence of new myths. For example, in the Zimbabwe
case (Box 6), the explanation that links sediment reduction to 20-year climatic cycles cannot be
proven without conducting a long-term study and therefore includes a degree of uncertainty, but
it is consistent with available information.
One conclusion that can be drawn from the Zimbabwe case study is that both climatic
fluctuation and landuse changes influence erosion rate and sediment delivery, though little is
known about relationships between the natural and anthropogenic factors responsible for sediment
redistribution within river basins.
Another conclusion that can be drawn from it is that assumptions about landwater interactions
need be continuously questioned and revised in light of new information. Given that watershed
problems are often tied to cycles much longer than 20 years and to less frequent extreme
events, myths help to form perception of long-term relationships that are otherwise difficult to
perceive. Myths can be an impediment to the formulation of sound policies with regard to land
water relationships when decisions and institutional commitments are based on them, as this
reduces flexibility and the capacity for adaptive responses.
One participant expressed concern about the danger that the concept of forest myths
could be interpreted to imply that conservation and reforestation are not significant to the
stabilization of watersheds.47 Decisionmakers expect to be given explicit advice as to policy
options and actions that can be taken. The message that it depends may instead lead to
confusion and open the door to greater arbitrariness.
It was suggested that it is the role of scientists to seek out and expose pseudo-science myths
upon which much of current land and water management policy is based, and which continue to
lead to misallocation of development funds on projects with unachievable objectives.48 They
also have a responsibility not to oversell explanations when informing policymakers, though their
message may be used in unintended ways.49
PART II: THE LIFESCAPE PERSPECTIVE

A defining characteristic of watershed management is that resulting costs and benefits are
divided between upstream and downstream people, and in time, between the present and the
future. This makes it difficult to assess the benefits and costs, which is necessary to achieve an
equitable sharing among upstream and downstream stakeholders, creating incentives to expand
beneficial land uses and discourage negative ones at a watershed scale. It implies the need to
explore and develop new economic and regulatory instruments as well as social and institutional
arrangements for watershed management.
With respect to typology, there was some discussion of the term watershed management
itself, and whether or not it is useful to distinguish it from watershed development. However,
following clarification, there was no disagreement that the term watershed management pertains
47
48
Echavarra, Intervention 50
49
Hafner, Intervention 56
22
to socio-economic as well as biophysical concerns and is therefore inclusive of livelihood

concerns,50 at least in theory if not always in practice.
Session 3: Valuing landwater linkages: assessment of benefits and costs
Direct and indirect water use values affected by land use
The most significant use values of water that may be affected by upstream land uses are those
associated with agriculture, production of hydroelectricity, and domestic uses in urban areas.
Other use values may include forestry, aquaculture and recreation. In addition, indirect uses
include flood control, sediment retention, water quality, transport, flow regulation, fishing, and
climate stabilization. Consumptive uses, which are primarily associated with agricultural, domestic
and some industrial uses, are those that affect water quantity and quality because they make it
unavailable to others.51 For example, irrigation, which consumes water, may be of greater concern
to downstream stakeholders than hydroelectric production, which uses the flow of water without
consuming it. Consumption does not always have negative economic impacts. In one case, use
of water for rice paddies in Japan was found to have significant downstream benefits of flood
control as well as groundwater recharge, soil erosion control, and preservation of the landscape
and biodiversity (see Box 7). Aquatic resources and riparian areas may also have significant
non-use values, as reservoirs of biodiversity.
BOX 7: THE BENEFITS OF RICE PRODUCTION IN JAPAN52

Economic benefits of rice production in Japan include:
Flood prevention: total water storage capacity of paddy fields in Japan is estimated at around
4.4 billion m3, which is much higher than the total storage capacity of dams constructed for
flood control. Peak runoff from paddy field areas is 3 times less than peak runoff from 75 percent
urbanized areas. Several municipalities therefore subsidize paddy production. This subsidy
amounts to between 20 and 80 percent of the gross income from rice production. Total
benefit from paddy fields for flood prevention is equivalent to constructing flood control dams
worth 1.95 trillion yen per year.
Groundwater recharge: Groundwater recharge is estimated at 160 million m3 per day in

whole Japan. This supports pumping for domestic and industrial use. The benefit of
groundwater recharge based on the construction of the equivalent reservoirs is estimated at
800 billion yen per year.
Soil erosion control: 40 percent of paddy fields are terraced sloped land. Total benefit assessed
by the construction cost of soil sedimentation dams is estimated to be about 40 billion yen
per year.
Preservation of landscape and biodiversity: willingness to pay in Nara Prefecture for the
preservation of paddy fields is estimated at about twice the value of gross production of paddy
rice (at Japanese prices). Willingness to pay of the paddy fields in mountainous areas was
74 percent and 91 percent higher than those in flat areas and suburbs, respectively.
de Graaff, Intervention 33; Stevens, Intervention 53

Echavarra, Background Paper 4
52
50
51
23
Valuation of benefits and costs for downstream users

Assessment of costs and benefits of a particular land use is more straightforward when links
between causes and effects are well understood, which, in a watershed context, is often not the
case. Given this uncertainty, it is important to recognize that results represent best judgement,
based on what information is obtainable, and that they only represent a limited period of time.
Also, that they only represent factors considered as costs and benefits in the analysis. Although
non-monetary costs and benefits, as well at those that only become evident over long periods of
time are usually not considered in this type of analysis because of methodological difficulties, it
is not always necessary to include these to justify watershed protection. In the Loukkos project
(see Box 8) for example, streambank erosion and landslides that may be influenced by land use
were not considered, which suggests that the estimated high rate of return is a conservative
one. Policy and social ethics may make it necessary to include less tangible and less certain
costs and benefits.53
The assessment requires estimation and comparison of net downstream benefits, with and
without a particular intervention, for which two examples are provided in background paper 5
(see Boxes 8 and 9).54 The key factors considered will depend on the particular costs and
benefits of concern, and the environmental changes they are associated with. For example, if
the concern is water supply, the key factor will be changes in dry-season flow. Estimation of this
change can then be used to estimate changes in yield of irrigated crops or potential reduction of
reservoir levels and hydroelectric generating capacity. If the concern is flood control, the key
factor will be changes in peak flow. Changes in the flow regime then need to be linked to
changes in land use. For example, disturbances from fires, cyclones, and selective logging will
affect flow regimes differently from conversion to agriculture.55
Changes in sedimentation rates can have positive or negative economic impacts, depending
on where the sediment is deposited. For example, sediment deposited in agricultural areas may
be beneficial. When it is deposited behind dams, it may decrease the life of the dam, which may
be irreplaceable because of limited availability of new sites, and reduced hydroelectric generating
capacity.56
A methodology suggested for estimating land use related changes in biomass production,
stream flow and downstream sedimentation, and also as a way to make monitoring more
manageable, is to subdivide the watershed in hydrological subunits, based on agro-climatic
conditions. It can then be further divided into upper, lower and middle parts based on altitude and
physical characteristics. This information can then be combined with land use and technology
data to calculate water balances for different scenarios and time periods, and assess erosion,
sedimentation and production changes.57 Another methodology suggested, now being tested on
the Zambezi river, was to develop a process model emphasizing rates of reproduction of renewable
resources, that describes changes in the system. Economic analysis can then be applied to a
given state in the system.58
One case study described an economic valuation of impacts of irrigation on aquatic resources
was based on a household survey regarding use of aquatic resources, the value of the catches,
and how these values were affected.59
Appelgren, Intervention 54
de Graaff, Background Paper 5
55
56
53
57
54
58

van Wesenbeeck and Albersen, Intervention 46
59
Lorenzen, Intervention 20
24
BOX 8: ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE LOUKKOS WATERSHED PROJECT IN NORTHERN MOROCCO60

The Loukkos river basin (1 820 km2) provides stream flow for the Oued El Makhazine reservoir,
which provides irrigation water for 25 200 ha, hydroelectric power, water supply and flood control.
About half of the watershed area shows signs of severe erosion. Conservation measures
implemented by the Loukkos Watershed Project included: reforestation, pasture management,
olive and fruit tree plantations, channel stabilization, gully control and road construction. Based
on the level of sedimentation in the reservoir, and estimated annual soil loss, the sediment
delivery ratio was estimated to be 39 percent. Assumptions were made about the extent to which
vegetation would reduce sedimentation, which provided a basis for estimating the extent to
which irrigated crop losses would be reduced. Also included in the analysis were benefits from
olive and fruit production. Based on these benefits, it was found that the project would have an
internal rate of return of 15.9 percent and would have a net present value of US$ 18.8 million. Not
included were the benefits of reduced soil nutrient losses, and increased productivity of animals
and wood.
BOX 9: ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF KONTO RIVER WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN EAST JAVA, INDONEDIA61
The Upper Konto River watershed area (232 km2) drains into the Selorejo reservoir, which
provides hydroelectricity and irrigation water benefits for 5 700 ha downstream. Conservation
measures implemented by a watershed development project to counteract land degradation
included: reforestation, coffee rejuvenation, terracing, gully control, and grass planting. An
evaluation of the costs and benefits of project activities was based on an assessment of the
effects of increased vegetation cover and higher water infiltration which could potentially increase
minimum dry season flows as well as reduce wet season flows. A method similar to the above
(see Box 8) was used to estimate soil conservation related benefits. To estimate benefits of
stream flow changes, it was necessary to also estimate evapotranspiration, infiltration, and
direct runoff for each type of land use, which included: natural forest, open forest, shrub, coffee,
poorly and well terraced rainfed land, irrigated land and built-up areas. This runoff was apportioned
to dry and wet season, and estimates were made of how this would be affected by land use
changes. Estimates suggested that dry season flows would have a minimal increase but that
the decrease in wet season flows, though small, would reduce annual flood damage by 510 percent. This last estimate was based on levels of damage associated with past flood
patterns. Together, the flood control and sedimentation related benefits were comparable to onsite benefits of wood and coffee production.
Session 4: Sharing benefits and costs from landwater linkages

The results of economic valuation can be used to identify existing financial incentives that various
stakeholders have for implementing conservation measures. This information can improve the
learning and negotiation among stakeholders with a view to developing more effective and
equitable ways of reducing the costs and sharing the benefits of land use impacts on water
resources. Development of new incentives requires consideration of institutional, regulatory and
economic issues. Watersheds provide a frame of reference for considering all of these issues in
a broader context, and for building awareness of upstream-downstream relationships among
stakeholders. The following sub-sections identify various types of mechanisms and instruments,
ways that they have been applied, and associated constraints, that need to be considered when
selecting an approach that is appropriate for a particular context.
60
61

25
Benefit-sharing mechanisms for linking upstream and downstream users

Mechanisms and instruments for linking upstream and downstream users to share the benefits
and reduce the costs of watershed management include a broad range of approaches: regulatory
instruments, economic instruments, mechanisms to increase market access, educational and
awareness-building measures, the development of organizational arrangements, and participatory
approaches. Also mentioned were approaches rooted in local knowledge and customs. These
measures rely on the existence of effective and appropriate biophysical and structural responses
for mitigating problems of watershed degradation. Most often, different instruments are used in
combination.
Economic instruments generally involve various forms of transfer of payments between
downstream and upstream stakeholders, but may also include transfers between land users and
society at large, such as government subsidies that influence the magnitude of land use or that
are aimed at economic development of marginal upper basin areas.62 Examples of specific
economic instruments presented and discussed in the workshop include: water pricing and
allocation reform through the establishment of user fees and tradable water entitlements or
pollution permits; removal or correction of subsidies; cost sharing arrangements to cover costs
of works and ongoing operations and maintenance, in which the contributions of downstream
beneficiaries are made through state and federal governments;63 and improvement of market
access for upstream farmers. One way to do this is through negotiating agreements with
businesses to purchase from farmers who participate in development and implementation of
management plans, another way is through labelling of products from these farms.
Many initiatives have not been in place long enough to evaluate their effectiveness for actual
conservation but a number of initiatives appear promising at least from the standpoint of engaging
stakeholders and gaining support and cooperation. Some examples that have had promising
results are:
A water tax-scheme in Baden Wrttemberg Germany, in which proceeds of a water use tax
finance compensation payments for restrictions on fertilizer use in water protection zones;64
A property tax rebate of up to 80 percent for preparation and implementation of a forest

management plan in the New York City watershed;
Purchase of development rights or conservation easements on particular tracts of land, also

in the New York City watershed;
Sale of downstream fish products to upstream farmers at a discount (see Box 10);
Establishment of a fund for upstream conservation activities financed through downstream
user fees, as is seen in the Cauca Valley in Colombia65 and in Quito, Ecuador (Box 11);66
Use of environmental criteria for the allocation of a portion of sales tax revenue in the state
of Paran, Brazil, part of revenue from a sales tax is allocated to municipalities in watersheds
upstream of water sources for public drinking water systems, to increase the resources available
for environmental protection and improve water quality.67
Other instruments that could be categorized as economic, even if non-monetary, are traditional
incentive systems within communities. For example, in Konso, a semi-arid area in southwestern
Echavarra, Case Study 30
67
62
65
63
66
Kiersch, Discussion Paper 2

Feehan, Case Study 22
64
26
Ethiopia, a man has to build a terrace

before he is allowed to marry, which
seems to provide the required incentive.
This area has a high population density
and intense land pressure but less visible
erosion than a nearby area to the
north.70
Regulatory instruments consist of a
wide range of restrictions that may be
applied to the use of land and water
resources, from limitations on pesticide
and fertilizer use to the establishment
of zones in which some land use
practices are allowed and others
forbidden. Regulations are often difficult
to implement because of the potential
economic losses to resource users, who
may have to be compensated, depending
on the individual circumstances.
However, economic incentives are not
necessarily a substitute for regulations
but are sometimes a complement. For
example, for tradable permits to work,
a regulatory cap on pollutant emissions
or resource extraction is required.
Participation in market measures may
also be motivated by the threat of
regulation, and capacity to enforce
agreements is also necessary for them
to work effectively.
BOX 10: ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFER PAYMENTS IN ZAMBOANGA

PROVINCE, MINDANAO, PHILIPPINES68
In a region where upstream farmers had been applying
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) and other
soil and water conservation methods for approximately
8 years, the quality and quantity of fish stocks
downstream, which had been nearly depleted, rose
significantly. The fishermen observed increased
growth of plants in the water and lower siltation levels.
A forester from the upstream site brought the farmers
association and the fishermens association together
and they worked out an agreement: in recognition of
the beneficial impact of upstream land management
regimes which had reduced erosion, fishermen sell
their fish to members of the upstream organization at
a discount (75-80 percent of market price
approximately). This agreement has been in operation
since 1997 and the two associations have held
quarterly meetings since, always supported by the
project staff.
BOX 11: WATERSHED PROTECTION FUND TO PRESERVE DRINKING

WATER IN QUITO, ECUADOR69
A case study on the Water and Watershed Protection
Fund (FONAG) as a mechanism for the conservation
of the Cayambe-Coca and Antisana nature reserves
in Ecuador describes a proposed financing
mechanism for water and watershed protection
activities in the upper watersheds of the city of Quito,
Ecuador. Local (e.g. the water supply company) and
international sources will be contributing to the fund. A
board that consists of representatives of the local water
and electricity companies, water users, regional and
local government, communities, and nongovernmental organizations will govern the fund. It will
finance conservation activities with the aim of ensuring
a clean, dependable water supply.
Implementation of economic and

regulatory measures tends to be more
effective when they are part of broader
approaches that include education and
awareness building activities. Strong
community interest and participation
makes it feasible for measures to be implemented over large upper-watershed areas, which
may not be possible under a centralized command and control approach. This in turn depends on
the existence of appropriate organizational arrangements that provide opportunities to participate.
An example of education and awareness building approaches is found in case of the New
York City watershed where farm audits are conducted and pollution sources are identified with
farmer participation, in conjunction with offering economic incentives to reduce pollution.71 A
68
69
Agostini, Intervention 52
Echavarra, Case Study 30
70
71
27
participatory approach, involving farmers in central western Brazil, made it possible to extend
the development of micro-dams, built to contain polluted runoff and promote recharge of water
tables, to cover an entire micro-basin.72
Participation often takes place through watershed associations, developed to reduce transaction
costs in stakeholder negotiations. An important consideration is that there are different interests
at different scales reflecting these differences in organizational arrangements can provide
greater opportunities for public participation. At larger scales, participation is a challenge because
it is more difficult to engage all concerned people in all of the affected communities. At these
scales, there is a greater role of regional and national governments. Development of self-help
groups below the village level can provide a foundation for watershed associations that encompass
multiple villages73 and also ensure that these local interests are represented in negotiations over
large-scale problems.
Further important elements of organizational arrangements are the decision-making autonomy
of watershed associations and transparency in how money is managed and spent. This is seen
in the example of the Cauca Valley of Colombia, where large-scale downstream agricultural
users pay a user fee to water user associations that work as private foundations in implementing
watershed conservation projects. The local authority oversees the technical aspects, works
with these organizations and even helps in the payment process, but the resources are managed
independently by each organization.74
Ultimately, the different types of instruments are best seen as elements of integrated
approaches, including crop management, agricultural and crop pricing policy, macro-policy
measures, and structural change,75 with the objectives of poverty alleviation and improvement
of upstream living conditions in ways that are consistent with watershed protection.
Integrated regional and basin-wide approaches often evolve from a narrow to a broad focus,
as is seen in the examples of Laguna Lake and the Agno Basin (see Box 12), which illustrate the
evolution of a mandate from management of a water body to its whole catchment area with the
involvement of upstream and downstream users. These examples also demonstrate that
stakeholders can be brought together around a shared vision and strategic plan, that basin-wide
planning can foster development that is more equitable between upstream and downstream
users, and that coordination among government agencies is important.
An example from India (see Box 13) illustrates the process of scaling up, from local ad hoc
to national and intersectoral initiatives with broad-based collaboration, and suggests that NGOs
can play an important role in this process.
At the largest scales, in international river basins, it becomes necessary for agreements to be
reached among all riparian states. Because of the difficulties of linking causes and effects at
these scales, conflicts and concerns are generally over water allocation issues. For example, in
the Niger basin, there is concern with water diversion for irrigation as development proceeds in
the upstream riparian states. Basin-wide planning may include joint responses to drought and
climate change. Lacking a centralized authority, river basin negotiations tend to become the
basis for general economic cooperation that transcends water resources development. Basin-
72
73
Cordoval de Barros, Case Study 25

Lorenzen, Intervention 20
74
75
28
BOX 12: THE EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED BASIN-WIDE APPROACHES IN THE PHILIPPINES LAGUNA LAKE AND THE AGNO BASIN76
After several initiatives to create regional and basin-wide planning agencies had failed, the
Philippine government took a renewed interest in building the capacity of the Laguna Lake
Development Authority (LLDA), and the Agno Basin Development Commission (ARBDC).
Laguna Lake is the major water source for Metro Manila. LLDA was given regulatory powers
related to use of the lake and regional development activities, developed a master plan containing
a vision and strategies for achieving it, and adopted a multi-use policy, shifting from a focus on
fisheries promotion to environmental protection and pollution control at the watershed level. It
also implemented a user fee system, encourages multi-sector involvement to stop degradation
of 21 river systems draining into Laguna lake, and commissions relevant studies and projects.
The ARBDC is not an authority but relies instead on the commitment and participation of related
agencies, and provides leadership for a programme of basin-wide strategic planning and
management. In the course of its activities, it developed a comprehensive master plan that was
integrated into local and regional plans and investment programmes. Related activities include
coordination of the implementation of a development programme and projects, review and
recommendation of project proposals, identifying and proposing policy improvements,
coordination of monitoring, soil erosion prevention and siltation mitigation activities, flood control,
and establishment of an information system.
wide hydrologic monitoring and

forecasting systems could provide better
support for integrated management of
resources.77
Constraints to the implementation of
benefit-sharing mechanisms
BOX 13: INDIA: THE ROLE OF NGOS IN THE PROCESS OF

SCALING-UP
Watershed management efforts in India began as
ad hoc soil and water conservation measures over
two decades ago but have evolved into a national
level integrated inter-sectoral participatory approach
with substantial budgetary provisions for the
rehabilitation and development of micro-watersheds.
A key factor that influenced the change was the
success of a few local initiatives taken by NGOs.
Scaling up has taken place formally as a result of
government funding to communities through NGOs
for programme implementation, and informally,
through cross-learning between NGOs and village
communities. NGOs have therefore played a
significant role in the process through programme
implementation and institutional capacity building.
A number of constraints to the

mechanisms discussed above are often
encountered in the implementation phase.
These range from the need to find a
compromise among conflicting interests
over the distribution of their costs and
benefits, to the institutional challenges and
up-front costs of engaging stakeholders
in the initial planning phases; weak or nonexistent property rights that can provide some assurance to people that they will reap future
benefits; poverty; and lack of perception that there is a problem to begin with.
Conflicting interests are often found between objectives, which may also be related to
jurisdictional boundaries. At the most general level, there is often a conflict between the objectives
of sustaining livelihoods in the short term, and protection of resources. The Working for Water
programme in South Africa, which provides training and employment as part of efforts to eradicate
the introduction of exotic vegetation that consumes large amounts of water, represents one
attempt to reconcile these objectives.78 An ideal mechanism is one that harmonizes conflicting
El-Khodari, Intervention 10
78
76
77
29
objectives and provides ample clean water to all users, in which the role of the government is to
provide regulatory frameworks in which private enterprise profits from improving delivery and
quality of water, to protect human and environmental health, and to harmonize interests. In the
real world, governments often fail to fulfil these basic obligations, even in disaster situations, and
mechanisms are often manipulated to the advantage of the more powerful interests.79
Inherent in various mechanisms, are different ways of distributing costs and benefits, not
only between upstream and downstream users, but also within communities, where burdens
may fall disproportionately on parts of the population, such as women or minority groups. For
example, closing of common forest and grazing areas to allow for regeneration may
disproportionately affect landless and pastoralist households, or may reduce womens access to
firewood and fodder.80 Acceptance of a particular arrangement of costs and benefits depends
on whether they are regarded as fair. Equally important is the designation of an acceptable body
to implement and to oversee implementation.81 It is therefore important to make clear who will
benefit by and who will pay for potential interventions.
A particular equity concern related to
the use of economic instruments is that
transfer payments to upstream land users
to implement conservation practices may
reverse the polluter pays principle. This
may make upstream farming more
attractive rather than encourage
alternative livelihood strategies. 82 In
principle, upstream users should accept
cost sharing for pollution they are
responsible for, and it was recommended
that subsidies for adopting infrastructure
and management practices be
accompanied by a tax on pollutants in the
future.83 However, it was also recognized
that incomes are lower in rural areas,
which may be related to other kinds of
equity problems. French agricultural
policies illustrate one way this problem has
been addressed (see Box 14).
BOX 14: MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS IN FRENCH AGRICULTURE84

In France, agriculture is considered to have multiple
functions and is supported and regulated by policies
and regulations found across several political and
administrative levels. In return for providing food
security and for maintaining landscapes and
environmental quality, farmers expect a decent
income. Consumers are increasingly willing to pay
for this directly or as taxpayers. A recently created
instrument in France provides financial incentives
for adoption of best practices and for producing the
public good of maintaining the landscape, and is
also supplemented by water fees and eco-taxes.
Direct benefit sharing takes place through quality or
provenance labelling, tourism, and use of water fees
to assist upstream users in implementing
environmental regulations. In contrast, previous
policies to reduce nitrate pollution by the livestock
industry were found to be ineffective because
incentives had not been accompanied by a sanction
on pollution.
Additional constraints to the implementation of benefit-sharing mechanisms are weak or

non-existent property rights, and lack of institutional capacity for collective action, which are
both necessary for watershed management because management practices are above the
individual farm level, and benefits tend to be only in the long-term. Thus they can help to address
issues of spatial and temporal scale. However, the relationships are not always simple because
landtitling programmes may decrease the security of those who lack the education and
connections needed to gain a formal title. There is also evidence that customary tenure
arrangements can provide enough security for people to invest, although they are often not
recognized by government. In Southern Mindanao, land tenure was found to be a key factor in
Kehrig, Intervention 55
Meinzen-Dick, Intervention 37
81
Davidson, Intervention 16
84
79
82
80
83
30
the adoption of soil conservation technologies

(see Box 15). Collective action has been
found to emerge for various reasons. For
example, people may participate as a way
to establish good relations or because it is
the right thing to do.85
BOX 15: PHILIPPINES: THE ROLE OF TENURE IN THE

ADOPTION OF SOIL CONSERVATION PRACTICES86
In Southern Mindanao in the Philippines, farmer

adoption of soil conservation technologies
(Sloping Agricultural Land Technology SALT)
was low, but there was a higher rate of adoption
among landowners than among tenants.
Constraints to the adoption of SALT were that
farmers were required to give a significant
amount of land to tree crops or hedgerows, which
also required an increase in labour. Even when
grants were provided, agroforestry farmers failed
to maintain the hedgerows. It is also unlikely
that loss in area cultivated would be
compensated by higher yields though there
might be financial benefit after 3-5 years.
Subsidies are therefore needed if this is to be
used as a strategy for reversing land degradation.
The process of engaging stakeholders is

ultimately a problem of governance.
Ensuring that local interests are represented
and considered at the larger scales is a way
to build capacity for collective action.
Constraints to the scaling-up process,
revealed in evaluations and consultations
between government agencies, NGOs and
donors, include: inadequate and ineffective
participation of the watershed community;
insufficient integration of gender and equity
concerns; lack of inter-departmental coordination; inadequate emphasis on building the capacity
of staff and community members; and lack of monitoring mechanisms. Also, needs of women
and resource-poor groups are easily overlooked in implementation unless they are involved in
the planning process. A phased implementation was recommended, with more emphasis on
community organization in the first phase, and implementation of physical works in the second.87
The most obvious constraint is funding, which in some cases is restricted to particular uses
that fail to address the most urgent problems. For example, if sedimentation problems due to
unstable slopes in danger of landslides and riverbank erosion call for structural measures, restriction
of funding for small-scale participatory approaches will leave the most urgent problems
unaddressed.88 At the household level, poverty often constrains the adoption of options that
require investment for long-term benefits. This implies the need to focus on measures which
have quick and direct benefit to the local population.
Criteria for success in implementation of benefit-sharing mechanisms
A number of comments addressed the set of criteria for success in implementation proposed in
discussion paper 2.
1. The impact of upstream land use on downstream water use is well understood.
This is not necessarily so at the beginning of a programme, because groups tend to organize
around priority issues and opportunities. However, to reach agreement, there needs to be a
way to determine costs and benefits as they are initially perceived by stakeholders, which
may change as understanding is increased. Costs and benefits may also change depending
on the portfolio of activities chosen and on external conditions,89 as was seen in the example
from Zamboanga Province in Mindanao, Philippines, where fish stocks rose approximately
eight years after upstream farmers began to adopt soil conservation methods. The upstream
farmers association and the fishermens association were then able to work out an agreement
Meinzen-Dick, Intervention 76
87
Pangare, Intervention 66
85
88
86
89
Dixon, Intervention 48
31
in which fish were sold at a discount to members of the upstream farmers organization (Box
10).90 This criterion might be modified then to state that There is some common understanding
and agreement among stakeholders regarding the impacts of upstream land use on downstream
water use, as well as awareness of uncertainty.
2. The impact of land use on water resources clearly dominate over natural impacts or other
anthropogenic impacts
This criteria could be considered a part of criterion 1.91
3. The groups of upstream and downstream stakeholders are few and well-organized.
This criterion was considered important. Based on overall discussions regarding the formation
of watershed associations that can be composed of numerous stakeholders, it should be
modified to state The groups of upstream and downstream stakeholders are generally few
and/or well-organized.
4. The economic impact of land use on downstream stakeholders can be quantified.
Margins of error do not necessarily impede a satisfactory outcome, because payments just
need to cover the extra effort not otherwise compensated for through on-site benefits, and
those downstream will only be willing to pay for additional benefits received. Therefore it is
not always necessary to know exact impacts.92 The criterion should be modified to say that
impacts can be approximately quantified.
5. The incentives to upstream and downstream resource users offered by the benefit-sharing
instruments are high enough so that the users give preference to the instruments over
alternative solutions to their problems.
This appears superfluous because it is a standard criterion for any choice and does not seem
to add to criteria for benefit-sharing.93
6. There is political commitment to establish upstream-downstream linkages.
This may be necessary at larger scales. At smaller scales, at which there is a realistic
chance of determining impacts, stakeholders can act and negotiate independently of policy
frameworks. Outside assistance may still be important for providing information and training
regarding physiographic and hydrological linkages, and support for negotiations. Even at this
scale, changes in the legal and institutional environment may be necessary if there are
obstacles to the implementation of transfer payments. This criterion might be modified to say
There is a commitment to establish upstream-downstream linkages, whether it is through
contractual agreements or through policy frameworks, and some underlying technical basis
for it.
7. There is a strong institutional and legal framework, including land tenure structure, which
may allow for or hinder the implementation of benefit-sharing instruments.
This is ambiguous. It was pointed out that, in Zamboanga, Philippines, (see Box 10) farmers
had been granted tenure in exchange for land use conditions, and that it is therefore not clear
why the fishermen compensated them. One possible explanation is problems in enforcement
of tenure regulations, which would suggest that such benefits may compensate for lack of a
strong institutional and legal framework. Further examples are needed to clarify this issue.
90
91
92
93
32
Suggestions for additional criteria included:

There should be decision-making autonomy for those who pay and who benefit, and a
transparent mechanism for deciding how the money is spent.
This criterion was suggested based on experience in the Cauca Valley in Colombia, where
large-scale downstream agricultural users pay a fee to water user associations that then
implement watershed conservation projects. Resources are managed independently by each
organization, although a local authority may oversee technical aspects.94
Management interventions and also watershed associations should be appropriate to the
scale of the river basin.
The scale of the river basin is critical to the effectiveness and the penetration of management
interventions. Meso-basins of 100-500 km2 within well-defined jurisdictions at the state or
national level seem to be optimal.95
Basin treaties should be acceptable to all riparians, for equitable use, protection and
management of water resources in basins.96
This criterion appears to be fundamental to translate conservation and development
programmes into negotiated, voluntary and self-enforcing agreements as well as for
cooperation in inter-jurisdictional and transboundary watersheds.97
Information about impacts, and their potential costs and benefits, needs to be communicated
using common methods of expression.
For example, the concept of agro-climatological zones is easily and widely understood, and
would also allow for assessment and extrapolation of actual and potential land use and
production, management capacity and environmental hazards.98
94
97
95
98
96
El-Khodari, Intervention 10
33
Discussion papers
34
Discussion papers
35
Discussion paper 1
Land use impacts on water resources:
a literature review
INTRODUCTION
Land use practices are assumed to have important impacts on both the availability and quality of
water resources. These impacts can be both positive and negative. It is intuitively appealing that
the benefits of improved land management, or the costs associated with negative impacts of
inadequate land use on the water resources, might not only be felt by water users who cause
them, but also by others who live downstream or in the case of groundwater make use of the
affected groundwater resources. In order to assess these costs and benefits, it is important to
get a clear picture, from a landscape perspective, of the extent that different land use practices
affect hydrologic regime and water quality and at which watershed scale the impacts are of
importance.
The present paper proposes a typology of land use impacts on water resources, and attempts
to evaluate the importance of each impact type in relation to spatial scale on the basis of a
literature review.
IMPACTS OF LAND USE ON WATER RESOURCES

In order to establish linkages between upstream land and downstream water users, it is important
to have a clear picture of the possible impacts of land uses on both hydrologic regime (water
availability) and water quality, and the scales at which these impacts are relevant. In the following
sections, an attempt is made to categorise land use impacts on water resources, to analyse the
main determining factors behind the impact, and to provide some examples from the literature.
The review focuses on impacts from agricultural land use, as well as from grazing, forestry
and fisheries, as these all fall under FAOs mandate. Other land uses, like mining and quarrying,
urbanization and industrialization, which also have important impacts on the hydrologic regime,
are not included in this review. Furthermore, the review focuses on the physical impacts on
water resources. Impacts on living aquatic resources, e.g. on fish and other aquatic organisms,
aquatic ecosystems and wetlands, are not discussed explicitly. It is an open question, however,
whether and how these should be included in this typology.
Benjamin Kiersch, Land and Water Development Division

Food and Agriculture Organization
Rome, Italy
36
Discussion paper 1 Land use impacts on water resources: a literature review
It is difficult to arrive at universally valid statements about land use impacts on water resources
for several reasons. The impacts of land use on water resources depend on a host of natural and
socio-economic factors. Natural factors include climate, topography and soil structure. Socioeconomic factors include economic ability and awareness of the farmers, management practices,
and the development of infrastructure, e.g. roads. Furthermore, the impacts of agricultural land
use may be difficult to distinguish from natural or other human impacts, such as the impact of
agricultural runoff versus rural sewage systems on degradation of surface water and groundwater.
LAND USE IMPACTS ON HYDROLOGIC REGIME

With regard to the hydrologic regime, impacts on surface water resources and groundwater
resources can be distinguished. Impacts of land use practices on surface water can be divided
into (i) impacts on the overall water availability or the mean annual runoff, and (ii) impacts on
the seasonal distribution of water availability. With regard to the latter, impacts on peak flows
and impacts on dry season flows are of importance. With regard to groundwater, the effect of
the land use on groundwater recharge has to be examined.
Mean surface runoff
The impact of land use on the mean runoff is a function of many variables, the most important
being the water regime of the plant cover in terms of evapotranspiration (ET), the ability of the
soil to hold water (infiltration capacity), and the ability of the plant cover to intercept moisture.
A change of land cover from lower to higher ET will lead to a decrease in annual stream
flow. From a review of 94 catchment experiments, Bosch and Hewlett (1982) concluded that
the establishment of forest cover on sparsely vegetated land decreases water yield. Coniferous
forest, deciduous hardwood, brush and grass cover have (in that order) a decreasing influence
on water yield of the source areas in which the covers are manipulated.
Conversely, a change from higher-ET plants to lower-ET plants will increase the mean
surface runoff: reduction in forest cover increases water yield (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982; Calder,
1992). The impact, however, depends very much of the management practices and the alternative
land uses. Careful, selective harvesting of timber has no or little effect on stream flow. Stream
flow after maturation of the new plant cover may be higher, the same or lower than original
value, depending on vegetation (Bruijnzeel, 1990).
An exception to this rule are cloud forests, which can intercept more moisture (fog drip) than
consumption by ET (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982), and very old forests, which, depending on the
species, may consume less water than the vegetation that establishes itself after clear-cutting
(Calder, 1998).
Stream flow gains decline over time with establishment of new plant cover, but time scales
can vary greatly. In humid warm areas, the effect of clear-cutting is shorter lived than in less
humid areas, due to rapid regrowth of vegetation (Falkenmark and Chapman, 1989).
Increasing water yield from changing plant cover does not necessarily increase water
availability downstream. Stream flow might decrease because of other factors, e.g. water
consumption by riparian vegetation or through transmission losses (channel infiltration) (Brooks
et al., 1991).
37
Peak flow/floods
Peak flows can increase as a result of a change in land use if the infiltration capacity of the soil
is reduced, for example through soil compaction or erosion, or if drainage capacity is increased.
Peak flow may increase after trees are cut down (Bruijnzeel, 1990). Relative increases in storm
flow after tree removal are smallest for large events and largest for small events. As the amount
of precipitation increases, influence on storm flow of soil and plant cover diminishes (Bruijnzeel,
1990; Brooks et al., 1989).
An increase of peak flows may also result from the building of roads and infrastructure.
Studies in the north-western USA have shown that the construction of forest roads can intensify
peak runoff from forested areas significantly (La Marche and Lettenmaier, 1998; Bowling and
Lettenmaier, 1997). Consolidation of smaller plots to large fields can lead to higher runoff rates,
due to drainage systems and asphalt access roads (Falkenmark and Chapin, 1989). Conversely,
peak flows may decrease as a result of an increased soil infiltration capacity.
In larger basins, effects of land use practices on peak flow are offset due to time lag between
different tributaries, different land use and variations in rainfall (Bruijnzeel, 1990) In larger
watersheds, this de-synchronisation effect can lead to a reduction in peak discharge, although
overall storm flow increases due to land use changes in individual subwatersheds (Brooks et al.,
1991).
Base flow/dry season flow
The effect of land use change on dry-season flow depends on competing processes, most
notably changes in ET and infiltration capacity. The net impact is likely to be highly site specific
(Calder, 1998).
In tropical areas, afforestation can lead to decreased dry-season flows due to increased
evapotranspiration. In the Mae Thang watershed (Thailand), afforestation programmes led to
water shortages downstream, which resulted in a seasonal closure of a water treatment plant
and lower availability for irrigation (Chomitz and Kumari, 1996). Similarly, in the Fiji Islands,
large-scale pine afforestation (60 000 ha) in watersheds previously covered by grassland led to
reductions in dry-season flow of 50-60 percent, putting the operation of a hydro-electric plant
and drinking water supply at risk (FAO, 1987).
Most experimental evidence in rainfall-dominated regimes suggests that forest removal (or
change from high-water-use plants to low-water-use plants) increases dry season flows (Brooks
et al., 1991). In contrast, dry-season flows from deforested land may decrease if the soil infiltration
capacity is reduced, e.g. through use of heavy machinery (Bruijnzeel, 1990). Low flow resulting
from extended dry periods or droughts may not be substantially altered by changes in vegetative
cover (Brooks et al., 1991).
The groundwater recharge may be increased or decreased as a result of changing land use
practices. The major driving forces are the ET of the vegetative cover and the infiltration capacity
of the soil. Groundwater recharge is often linked with dry-season flows, as groundwater
contributes much of the river discharge during the dry season.
38
The water table may rise as a result of decreased evapotranspiration, e.g. following logging
or conversion of forest to grassland for grazing. Recharge may also increase due to an increased
infiltration rate, e.g. through afforestation of degraded areas (Tejwani, 1993).
In contrast, the water table may fall as a result of decreased soil infiltration, e.g. through nonconservation farming techniques and compaction (Tejwani, 1993). Also, heavy grazing may lead
to reduced infiltration and groundwater recharge (Chomitz and Kumari, 1996). If the infiltration
capacity is substantially reduced, this can lead to water shortages in dry seasons, even in regions
where water is usually abundant, like in the case of shifting cultivation in Cherapunji province,
India (FAO, 1999). Likewise, groundwater recharge can be reduced as a result of planting of
deep rooting tree species, e.g. eucalyptus (Calder, 1998).
IMPACTS OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY

Land use practices can have important impacts on water quality, which in turn may have negative
or, in some cases, positive effects on downstream uses of water. Impacts include changes in
sediment load and concentrations of nutrients, salts, metals and agrochemicals, the influx of
pathogens, and a change in the temperature regime.
Erosion and sediment load
Forests are checkers of soil erosion. Protection is largely because of understorey vegetation
and litter, and the stabilising effect of the root network. On steep slopes, the net stabilising effect
of trees is usually positive. Vegetation cover can prevent the occurrence of shallow landslides
(Bruijnzeel, 1990). However, large landslides on steep terrain are not influenced appreciably by
vegetation cover. These large slides may contribute the bulk of the sediment, as for example in
the middle hills of the Himalayas (Bruijnzeel and Bremmer, 1989).
Afforestation does not necessarily decrease soil erosion. Splash erosion may increase
substantially when litter is cleared from the forest floor (Bruijnzeel, 1990). The spectrum for the
size of the drops that are formed by the canopy varies widely among different species, resulting
in large differences in the potential of splash erosion (Calder, 1998).
Deforestation may increase erosion. In Malaysia, streams from logged areas carry 8-17
times more sediment load than before logging (Falkenmark and Chapman, 1989). The actual soil
loss, however, depends largely on the use to which the land is put after the trees have been
cleared. Surface erosion from well-kept grassland, moderately grazed forests and soil-conserving
agriculture are low to moderate (Bruijnzeel, 1990).
Road construction may be a major cause for erosion during timber harvesting operations. In
the USA, forest roads are estimated to account for 90 percent of the erosion caused by logging
activities (Brooks et al., 1991; Bruijnzeel, 1990).
Effects of erosion control measures on sediment yield will be most readily felt on-site. There
is an inverse relation between basin size and sediment delivery ratio. In basins of several
hundred km2, improvements may only be noticeable after a considerable time lag (decades),
due to storage effects (Bruijnzeel, 1990).
Downstream sediment yields cannot always be ascribed to the changing of upstream land
use practices. Human impacts on sediment yield may be substantial in regions with stable geological
39
conditions and low natural erosion rates. In regions with high rainfall rates, steep terrain, and
high natural erosion rates, however, the impact of land use may be negligible. In the Phewa Tal
watershed in Nepal, for example, only six percent of the total sediment yield has been calculated
to stem from surface erosion (Bruijnzeel, 1990).
Sediment can act both as a physical and a chemical pollutant. Physical pollution
characteristics of sediment include turbidity (limited penetration of sunlight) and sedimentation
(loss of downstream reservoir capacity, destruction of coral reefs, loss of spawning grounds for
certain fish). Chemical pollution of sediment includes adsorbed metals and phosphorous, as
well as hydrophobic organic chemicals (FAO, 1996).
Nutrients and organic matter
A change in land use can alter the nutrient content of surface and groundwater, most notably
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) levels. Deforestation can lead to high nitrate (NO3)
concentrations in water due to decomposition of plant material and a reduced nutrient uptake by
the vegetation. Nitrate concentration in runoff in deforested catchments can be 50 times higher
than in a forested control catchment over several years (Falkenmark and Chapman, 1989;
Brooks et al., 1991).
Agricultural activities can lead to an increased influx of nitrogen into waterbodies as a result
of many factors, including fertiliser application, manure from livestock production, sludge from
municipal sewage treatment plants, and aeration of the soil. In Europe, agriculture accounts for
substantial nitrogen emissions into surface and groundwater. With regard to inorganic N, agriculture
accounts for 50 percent in Denmark and 71 percent in the Netherlands (FAO, 1996). High
nutrient leaching losses can occur when fertiliser is applied to short-term crops on permeable
soils. In Sri Lanka, NO3 -N concentration in groundwater under intensive chilli and onion cultivation
reaches 20-50 mg/L (BGS et al., 1996). Continuous soil cover reduces N leaching; fallow
periods and soil disturbance increases leaching (BGS et al., 1996). Ploughing can increase NO3
concentrations in surface and groundwater, as oxygenation of the soil causes nitrification
(Falkenmark and Chapman, 1989). In rice paddies, leaching losses are likely to be small, due to
denitrification in the soil and volatile losses (BGS et al., 1996). Application of manure from
livestock production and direct runoff can lead to acidification of soils due to the volatilisation of
ammonia, which in turn may increase the solubility of metals in the soil (FAO, 1996).
Phosphate (PO4) leaching into water is inhibited by sorption processes to clay particles
(BGS et al., 1996). Livestock production, however, can be a major source of P in waters. Direct
runoff from intensive livestock farms can lead to serious degradation of surface and groundwater.
In the EU, livestock wastes account for 30 percent of P load in surface waters, other agricultural
uses account for 16 percent (FAO, 1996).
Phosphate-laden sediment can form a nutrient pool on the bottom of eutrophic lakes, which
can be released into the water under anoxic conditions. This makes it difficult to control
eutrophication in the short term through limitation of P inflow. Eutrophication can be mitigated
by dredging sediment or oxidising the hypolimnion, but these options are quite costly (FAO, 1996).
The precise role of agriculture in the contamination of ground and surface water is difficult
to quantify. In most countries, monitoring is not sufficient to establish the extent of nutrient
pollution from agricultural land use. In rural areas, it may be difficult to distinguish between
agricultural pollution and pollution by untreated sewage (BGS et al., 1996).
40
Freshwater aquaculture can add substantial nutrient loading to surface water through waste
feed that is not consumed by the fish, and the fishs faecal production (FAO, 1996).
Pathogens
Land use activities may affect the bacteriological quality of water, which can create health
concerns for downstream water users. The concentration of pathogenic bacteria in surface
waters may increase as a consequence of riparian grazing activities or waste influx from livestock
production.
A reduction of stream flow, for example, as a consequence of upstream diversion for irrigation,
may lead to ponding in riverbeds, which in turn may provide breeding grounds for vectors of
waterborne diseases, such as malaria. Where low flow leads to saltwater intrusion in estuaries,
vectors breeding in brackish water may spread (FAO, 1995).
Pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants
Generally, the application of pesticides poses a danger to surface and groundwater resources,
since pesticide compounds are designed to be toxic and persistent. Pesticide leaching into
groundwater depends on the chemicals persistence and mobility, as well as the soil structure.
Pesticide metabolites might be as toxic and as mobile as the parent compound (BGS et al.,
1996). In humans and animals, pesticides can have both acute and chronic toxic effects. Lipophilic
compounds can accumulate in fatty tissue (bio-concentration) and in the food chain (biomagnification) (FAO, 1996).
Pesticide residues can find their way into water resources through their use in agriculture,
forestry and aquaculture. Furthermore, unsafe stockpiling and dumping of old and obsolete
pesticides can cause severe ground and surface water contamination (FAO, 1996). Aquaculture
can lead to the introduction of biocides, disinfectants and medicines into surface water
(FAO, 1996).
The actual impact of pesticide contamination of downstream water resources is often difficult
to quantify. Pesticide monitoring is difficult because concentrations are very low, large samples
and careful sampling, as well as sophisticated analytical instruments, are required (BGS et al.,
1996). Since many pesticides are transported in association with suspended matter, water analyses
may yield incomplete results. For some pesticides, the analytical capability may not be accurate
enough to determine presence or absence for the protection of human health. Newer pesticides
which are soluble and degrade more quickly can only be detected shortly after application;
therefore, typical monitoring programmes operated on a monthly or quarterly basis are unlikely
to be able to quantify the presence and determine the significance of pesticides in surface
waters (FAO, 1996).
Salinity
An increase in salinity of surface and groundwater can have detrimental effects on downstream
water uses, for example for irrigation or domestic water supply. The impact of land uses on
salinity depends on climatic as well as geological factors.
Irrigation and drainage activities may lead to increased salinity of surface and groundwater
as a consequence of evaporation and the leaching of salts from soils. This is of special concern
41
in arid areas, where subsurface drainage water always has higher salt concentrations, an increased
hardness and a higher sodium absorption ratio than the supply water (FAO, 1997a). Drainage
from irrigated agriculture may also lead to an increased concentration of selenium in ground and
surface water (Postel, 1997).
A high application rate of potassium chloride fertiliser can lead to an increased leaching of
chloride into groundwater. In Sri Lanka, for example, it has been estimated that in some areas of
intensive agriculture, groundwater chloride levels may rise to 400 mg/L by 2010 at current rates
of fertiliser application, which by far exceeds the acceptable concentration for drinking water as
determined by WHO (250 mg/L) (BGS et al., 1996).
In coastal areas, water abstraction for land use activities may indirectly contribute to the
salinization of water resources. Groundwater extraction for irrigation, domestic and industrial
purposes can result in the intrusion of seawater into the aquifer, and consequently a salinization
of the groundwater resources (FAO, 1997). A decrease in river flow due to upstream abstraction
or the building of reservoirs can lead to an inland intrusion of brackish water in the estuarine
zone (FAO, 1995).
Heavy metals
Land use practices may directly and indirectly contribute to an increased concentration of heavy
metals in water resources. A direct pathway is the application of livestock manure and sludge
from sewage treatment plants, which may contain high concentrations of heavy metals. For
example, pig manure often contains high concentrations of copper (FAO, 1996).
Indirectly, land use may affect heavy metal concentration in surface and groundwater by
increasing the mobility of metals in the soil from anthropic or geological origin. Heavy metals in
the soil may be transferred into waterbodies by erosive processes. The acidification of soil,
caused by ammonia volatilization from manure application or in animal feedlots, may increase
the solubility of heavy metals stored in the soil, and thus the influx into surface and groundwater.
High abstraction rates of groundwater for irrigation can alter the chemical environment in the
soil, leading to an increased mobility of heavy metals of geological origin. This may be the
reason for increased arsenic concentration in Bangladesh (Ahmed and Amin, n.d.).
Changes in thermal regime
The thermal regime of surface water can be affected by land use practices. In small streams,
removal of riparian vegetation can cause temperature increase in the water (thermal pollution)
(Brooks et al., 1991). Also, tail water discharge from irrigated areas may cause a rise in
temperature of the receiving stream (FAO, 1997a). A temperature rise leads to reduced oxygen
solubility, which can negatively affect the biological activity in the water as well as the selfcleaning capacity of the river.
SCALE CONSIDERATIONS
The above review of land use impacts on water resources does not take into account spatial and
temporal distribution aspects. Scale considerations, however, are of fundamental importance
when assessing these impacts as they indicate whether a land use upstream may affect a water
use downstream.
42
Spatial scale
With regard to the spatial scale, i.e. the size of river basin, the land use impact can become less
important because of offset effects, such as de-synchronisation (e.g. in the case of floods),
storage capacity of the river bed (sedimentation) or the self-cleaning capacity of the river (organic
pollution). At the same time, the impact can become more important with increasing scale due to
accumulative effects, e.g. in the case of salinity.
Land use induced changes of the hydrologic regime and sediment load decrease with the
size of the river basin. The effects will be most readily felt in smaller watersheds of up to
several hundred km2. One well-documented case is the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin.
Studies show that in small-scale catchments (<50 km2) in the basin, erosion and stream flow
may be strongly influenced by changing land use patterns (Ives and Messerli, 1989). However,
the lowland flooding in Bangladesh is not related to the increased peak flow and erosion resulting
from deforestation in the Himalayan uplands in Nepal. The main driving forces behind the flood
events in the plains are naturally occurring rainfall events in the lowlands, which may be augmented
by human interventions in the floodplains, such as road and river embankments (Hofer, 1998a;
Ives and Messerli, 1989). Similarly, the bulk of the sediment load in the Ganges-Brahmaputra
river system does not stem from human-induced erosion, but rather from large landslides not
influenced by human activity (Bruijnzeel and Bremmer, 1989).
With regard to water quality impacts, the picture is much less clear. Observations show that
some land use impacts on water quality, like salinity or pesticide load, can also have downstream
effects in medium to large watersheds, like the Murray-Darling basin (Australia) and the Colorado
basin (USA/Mexico). Other downstream impacts, like organic matter and pathogens, are relevant
only at smaller scales.
The spatial dimensions of land use effects can be summarized as follows:
2
Impact
Basin size [km ]

0.1
10
100
1 000
10 000
100 000
Average flow
Peak flow
Base flow
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Sediment load
Nutrients
Organic matter
Pathogens
Salinity
Pesticides
Heavy metals
Thermal regime
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
x
x
x
-
Legend: x = Obervable impact; - = no observable impact
Temporal scale
Temporal scale is another important aspect of land use impacts, as it determines the perception
of the impact as well as the economic cost associated with it. Two aspects are important with
regard to temporal scale of land use impacts. First, the time it takes for a land use to have an
impact on downstream uses, and, second, in the case of negative impacts, the time it takes for
remedial measures to take effect, if the impact is reversible.
43
The temporal scales of land use impacts vary widely. Depending on the impact, they may
range from less than one year, as in the case of bacterial contamination, to hundreds of years, as
in the case of salinity. Similarly, time scales of recovery from adverse impacts are very diverse,
depending on the impact. However, in most cases, the time it takes to restore an aquatic system
after an adverse impact is much longer than the time it takes for an impact to appear (Peters
and Meybeck, 2000).
CONCLUSION
With regard to land use impacts on hydrologic regimes and sediment transport, there is an
inverse relationship between the spatial scale in which the impacts can be observed and the
scale in which the redistribution of benefits might be important. These impacts can be most
readily felt in small spatial scales. At the same time, the number of water users who might
benefit or suffer from this land use change, increases with the size of the watershed. Due to the
decreasing magnitude of impact, the respective costs and benefits will be small. Impacts of land
use practices on water quality, like salinity, pesticide pollution and eutrophication due to nutrient
influx, however, may be relevant in medium- to large-scale river basins as well. These impacts
may affect many downstream uses, including providers of drinking water, industries, fisheries
and other agricultural uses.
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FAO. 1997a. Quality control of wastewater for irrigated crop production. Written by D.W. Westcot
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FAO/Netherlands. 1999. Water. Background Paper 6 of the Conference on the Multifunctional Character
of Agriculture and Land. Maastricht.
Forsyth, T. 1999. Questioning the impacts of shifting cultivation. Watershed, 5(1): 23-29.
Graaff, J.de. n.d. The price of soil erosion. An economic evaluation of soil conservation and watershed
development. Mansholt Study 3. Wageningen, Netherlands: Agricultural University.
Harden, C.P. 1993. Land use, soil erosion, and reservoir sedimentation in an Andean drainage basin in
Ecuador. Mountain Research and Development, 13(2): 177-184.
Hofer, T. 1998a. Floods in Bangladesh. A highland-lowland interaction? Geographica Bernensia G 48.
Hofer, T. 1998b. Do land use changes in the Himalayas affect downstream flooding? Traditional
understanding and new evidences. Memoir Geological Society of India, 19: 119-141.
Ives, J.D., & Messerli, B. 1989. The Himalayan dilemma. Reconciling development and conservation.
London: United Nations University Press.
La Marche, J., & Lettenmaier, D.P. 1998. Forest road effects on flood flows in the Deschutes river basin,
Washington. University of Washington, Seattle. Water Resources Series Technical Report, No.158.
Liniger, H., & Weingartner, R. 1992. Water and Soil resource conservation and utilization on the northwest
side of Mount Kenya. Mountain Research Development, 12(4): 363-373.
Liniger, H., & Weingartner, R. 1997. Mountains and freshwater supply. Unasylva, 49(195): 39-46.
NCSAI [National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement]. 1999. Scale
considerations and the detectability of sedimentary cumulative watershed effects. NCSAI Technical
Bulletin, No. 776. Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
Peters, N.E. & Meybeck, M. 2000. Water quality degradation effects on freshwater availability: Impacts of
human activities. Water International, 25(2): 185-193.
Postel, S. 1997. Last oasis: Facing water scarcity. 2nd edition. New York: W.W. Norton.
Tejwani, K.G. 1993. Water management issues: Population, Agriculture and Forests a focus on
watershed management. In: Bonell, M., Hufschmidt, M.M. and Gladwell, J.S. Hydrology and water
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UK: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
45
Discussion paper 2
Instruments and mechanisms for
upstreamdownstream linkages:
a literature review
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the results of a survey of mechanisms and instruments which may be
applied to develop social, economic and institutional linkages between upstream land users and
downstream water users, based on a desk study on land-water linkages in rural watersheds.
The survey focuses on mechanisms and instruments that are explicitly designed to link land
users and water users in a watershed context. It proposes a typology of mechanisms and
instruments and identifies examples in which these instruments have been applied.
Some of the instruments discussed below are not designed to provide linkages between
specific upstream and downstream stakeholders, but rather between farmers or land users and
the society at large, as in the case of some subsidy schemes. They have been included because
they might also be applied in more specific upstream-downstream contexts. Furthermore, such
instruments may substantively influence the magnitude of land use impacts on water resources.
In some developing countries, for instance, fertilizer subsidies are as high as 50 to 60 percent,
leading to low application efficiency and thus resulting in environmental pollution, with negative
consequences for the water quality (Lankoski, 1996).
In practice, these measures usually do not stand alone, but a mix of instruments is employed.
For example, economic incentives may be linked to awareness-building measures.
An essential prerequisite for the implementation of any mechanism or instrument linking
upstream land users and downstream water users is the assessment of the downstream costs
and benefits that arise from upstream land use. In practice, this assessment is a demanding task
(see also discussion paper 1). There are many reasons for this, among others:
Land use impacts may be difficult to distinguish from natural or other anthropogenic effects,
e.g. from mining and urbanisation. In comparison with other anthropogenic or natural effects,
the land use impacts may be small.
Some land use impacts, e.g. sedimentation, may occur over long time scales, making the
present net value of the impact very small.
Benjamin Kiersch, Land and Water Development Division

Food and Agriculture Organization
Rome, Italy
46
Discussion paper 2 Instruments and mechanisms for upstream-downstream linkages
With regard to some land use impacts, i.e. on the hydrologic regime and sediment transport,
there seems to be an inverse relationship between the scale at which the impacts can be
observed and the scale at which the redistribution of benefits might be important. These
impacts can be most readily be felt in small spatial scales, while the number of water users
increases with the size of the watershed. Due to the decreasing magnitude of impact at
larger scales, the respective costs and benefits to the individual water user may be small.
INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS FOR UPSTREAM-DOWNSTREAM LINKAGES

Instruments can be structured into: regulatory instruments; economic instruments; educational
and awareness-building measures; mechanisms to increase market access; the building of
organisational structures; and participatory approaches.
Regulatory instruments
Regulatory instruments (command and control measures) are widely used in developed countries
to protect water resources from agricultural land use practices, including pollution. In Germany,
the Federal Water Act provides for the establishment of water protection zones to protect public
water supply sources, groundwater and watercourses from sediment, fertilizer and pesticide
runoff. In these zones, practices that have a negative impact on water resources may be restricted
or forbidden, such as the use of certain pesticides. Farmers suffering economic loss because of
these restrictions are eligible for compensation by the state (Kraemer and Buck, 1997).
In Thailand, there have been attempts to protect watersheds by imposing land use restrictions
according to the vulnerability of the area. The total land area has been divided in five watershed
classes, from forested upland watersheds with steep slopes (class 1a) to gentle slopes and flat
areas with intensive agriculture (class 5). The most vulnerable watersheds, comprising 16 percent
of the total land area in Thailand, have been designated for protection from any use except
forest and ecological rehabilitation, including an evacuation of any residents of these areas. This
approach, however, has not proven feasible. There is strong political pressure from rural populations
demanding compensation for relocation and the restrictions imposed on their lands, as well as
limited enforcement capacities on the part of the authorities. As a consequence, the government
has granted an amnesty to illegal forest squatters (Krairapond and Atkinson, 1998).
Economic instruments
Economic instruments to distribute benefits and costs resulting from land use impacts on water
resources between upstream and downstream stakeholders include subsidies, taxes, and
transferable property or use rights for land, water and emissions.
Subsidies
Subsidies include direct and indirect payments, such as tax exemptions, price regulations and
protective measures, by the state to achieve certain objectives. With regard to land use impacts
on water resources, there are direct and indirect subsidy schemes in place aimed at compensating
farmers for the costs arising from water protection.
47
The water tax scheme in the province of Baden-Wrttemberg, Germany, for example,
illustrates the use of both direct and indirect subsidies. A tax is levied on all surface and
groundwater abstractions. The proceeds are used to finance compensation payments to farmers
for restrictions on fertilizer use in water protection zones (direct payment). Farmers can get a
rebate of up to 90 percent on the tax payments for agricultural water use (indirect payment).
However, this subsidy is conditional on taking all available measures to save water, and on using
surface water instead of groundwater (Kraemer and Buck, 1997). The latter condition is imposed
because groundwater is the primary source of drinking water in Germany.
Under the New York City Watershed Agreement, owners of forests are eligible for a rebate
of up to 80 percent on their property taxes if they prepare a forest management plan and commit
themselves to implementing it over a period of 10 years. The management plan includes measures
for the maintenance of water quantity and quality (New York Watershed Agricultural Council
homepage; Tobias, 1999).
In the UK, there is a subsidy scheme in place which compensates farmers for the adoption
of farming practices that reduce nutrient leaching, such as reduced fertilizer use or the conversion
of arable land to grassland (Kraemer and Buck, 1997).
Taxes
Taxes are another instrument employed to curb negative impacts on water resources of land
use practices. The economic incentive for the farmer is the same as in the case of the subsidy.
There is an important difference, however: in the case of subsidies, the government pays the
farmer for avoiding pollution, while with taxes, the farmer has to pay for activities which are
increasing pollution, or the pollution itself. From a property rights viewpoint, the subsidy approach
implicitly gives the environmental property rights to the farmer, while in the case of taxes, the
rights are allocated to society at large, and the farmer has to pay to use them.
Possible approaches include taxes on agricultural inputs (fertilizer, pesticides), taxes based
on the nutrient balance, and taxes based on effluent concentration. Taxes on inputs are easy to
implement, but their environmental impact may be low for several reasons (see discussion in
Lankoski, 1996). Thus, their principal effect may be the reduction of farmers income. Alternative
approaches like a tax based on nutrient balance or effluent concentration may be more efficient
in controlling pollution. Their implementation, however, poses immense difficulties, because of
problems related to the assessment of non-point source pollution.
Flexible property or use rights
One way of protecting water resources from land use impacts is through the acquisition of land
or land use titles. The New York City Watershed Agreement provides an example of this
approach. Under the agreement, the City of New York can purchase land in sensitive areas
(e.g. near watercourses, wetlands and reservoirs) in upland watersheds to protect its water
supply. These lands are set aside from use or can only be used for certain recreational activities,
like hiking or fishing with a special permit. Alternatively, the city can purchase the right to
develop a property through a so-called conservation easement. Under this arrangement, the
land remains the property of the original owner. However, the owner forfeits the right to develop
the land, e.g. to construct buildings or roads. The conservation easement is granted for an
indefinite time (Tobias, 1999).
48
Another possibility to account for land use impact is to introduce a system of permits for
river pollution. An example of such an instrument is the salinity mitigation programme within the
Murray-Darling river basin in Australia. In view of the increasing cost of salinity for downstream
users (cities, industry and agriculture) the three riparian states jointly financed a programme to
divert saline groundwater seepage in the lower part of the basin, which decreased downstream
salinity. In return, the upstream states receive entitlements to dispose of saline drainage water
from irrigation within defined limits. A state can increase its salinity credit by contributing to
the costs of further downstream groundwater diversion projects. The limited number of available
salt disposal entitlements has led to major improvements in irrigation practices and water use
efficiency in upstream states. The costs for improvements are shared by the community and the
state government. The state government has an incentive to contribute to the improvements to
avoid having to invest in projects to increase the salt disposal entitlements (Murray-Darling
Commission home page).
Education and awareness building
Educational programs are used to encourage farmers to switch to less polluting farming practices.
In the New York City Watershed Agricultural Program, farmers can participate in environmental
audits of their business, which include the identification of potential pollution sources, pollution
barriers and hydrologically sensitive areas. (New York Watershed Agricultural Council home
page; Walter and Walter, 1999) Similarly, in the UK, a programme of the Ministry of Agriculture
offers free farm visits to prepare pollution-risk assessments and waste management plans for
farmers (Kraemer and Buck, 1997).
These programmes are usually coupled with an incentive programme to reduce pollution
risks and to improve the economic performance of the farm. In the New York case, for example,
farmers receive financial assistance for pollution-preventing structures, such as cement pipes.
Market support
The improved access of upstream farmers to downstream markets is another mechanism to
improve cooperation between stakeholders: one that may increase farmers income and, in the
framework of a watershed agreement, can be used as an incentive to conserve the resources.
(Preston, 1997) For example, under the New York City Watershed Agricultural Program,
restaurants, markets and purveyors have committed themselves to purchasing produce from
participating farmers (New York Watershed Agricultural Council homepage).
Organizations
Organizational development is a prerequisite for the successful implementation of instruments
establishing linkages between upstream land users and downstream water users.
Organizations have two important functions:
First, they provide a forum of exchange between upstream and downstream stakeholders.
The institutional framework in the Murray-Darling river basin is a good example of such an
entity. It consists of three bodies: the Murray-Darling Ministerial Council and the Murray-Darling
Basin Commission, comprising ministers of the riparian states and the Australian Federal
49
Government, and the Community Advisory Committee, which is made up of representatives of

the watersheds that make up the basin, together with special interest groups. Within this
framework, decisions are made regarding the sharing of water resources and management
costs, as well as long-term management planning for the basin. Decisions in the Ministerial
Council and the Basin Commission are taken unanimously, i.e. with the consent of all riparian
states (Murray-Daring Basin Commission home page).
Second, organizations are vital as a forum to consolidate the interests and opinions of scattered
groups of users, e.g. upstream farmers. An example is the Watershed Agricultural Council in
New York. This entity was formed by farmers and agri-business leaders upstream of New York
City in order to negotiate the Watershed Agreement with the City of New York. The Council
now administers the Watershed Agricultural Program aimed at securing the citys drinking water
supply (Walter and Walter, 1999).
Participatory approaches
Participatory approaches to curb negative impacts of land use practices on water resources are
frequently applied to improve the management of natural resources, for example through soil
and water conservation, and to increase sustainability by including the local population in the
planning and implementation process. In addition to the environmental benefits, the aim of the
participatory approaches includes economic benefits such as improved farmer income and better
livelihood security, as well as social benefits such as the establishment of organizations and
decreased out-migration.
Usually, the participatory watershed planning and management projects focus on the
community level and encompass only very small land units. Reviews suggests that participatory
watershed management projects on this level have been very successful and yield better results
than soil and water conservation projects focusing on individual farm plots (Hinchcliffe et al.,
1995; Farrington and Lobo, 1997).
There are some problems with employing participatory approaches to address problems
between upstream and downstream communities.
First, due to the small scale of this approach, the benefits accrue mostly to the participating
farmers themselves. Second, sometimes the hydrological watershed is not socially meaningful
as a planning unit for local people, for example, if a community extends over several watersheds.
In order for the participatory approach to work, the planning area might have to be adjusted,
which might make it more difficult to establish upstream-downstream links (FAO, 1996; FAO,
1998). Third, the scaling-up of participatory approaches to larger watershed units is difficult as
it involves the cooperation of government agencies and the establishment of organizations at the
watershed level. In particular, this applies to project implementation. In a case study of tank
irrigation systems in Sri Lanka, it was found that while in theory water availability could be
greatly enhanced through participatory planning at the level of sub-watersheds, implementation
of these plans proved to be impossible because of a lack of organizations at the watershed level
and reluctance of the local government to support the plans (Jinapala et al., 1996).
50
CONCLUSION: CRITERIA FOR SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF INSTRUMENTS FOR UPSTREAM

DOWNSTREAM LINKAGES
As a first result of the survey, the following criteria of success for the implementation instruments
can be formulated:
The impact of upstream land use on downstream water use is well understood.
A clear understanding of the land use impact is an essential prerequisite for the implementation
of upstream-downstream links. As the impacts of land use vary greatly because of sitespecific conditions, they must be carefully evaluated in each case (see discussion paper 1).
The impact of land use on water resources clearly dominates over natural impacts or other
anthropogenic impacts.
In many instances, natural or anthropogenic impacts are present that overlap with land use
impacts. In these cases, upstream-downstream links focusing on land uses will only be
successful if it can be established that the upstream land use is the dominating factor determining
water availability and quality downstream. This may become more difficult as the size of the
river basin increases (see discussion paper 1). For Andean watersheds, for example, it has
been estimated that landslides occurring during high rainfall years, stream bank erosion,
roads and urban development cause more erosion than agricultural activities (Estrada and
Posner, 1999).
The groups of upstream and downstream stakeholders are few and well organized.
The fewer the groups of stakeholders living in a watershed, the easier it will be to implement
upstream-downstream links. Similarly, if upstream land users and downstream water users
are well organized (e.g. in production associations, water user groups, or through a municipal
water utility), the establishment of linkages will be more effective than if there is no connection
between individual stakeholders within a group e.g. upstream farmers.
The economic impact on up- and downstream stakeholders can be quantified.

In the case of New York, for example, the cost of installing filtration equipment to provide
safe drinking water was US$6 000 to 8 000 million (Hofmann, 1999), while upper watershed
protection measures cost US$600 million, providing a powerful incentive to invest in watershed
protection. (Watershed Protection Update).
The difference in costs between alternatives must be high enough to provide an incentive for
the participation in the linkage programme.
If costs for downstream users are small or occur in the distant future, downstream users are
not likely to invest in upper watershed protection. For example, in Columbia, managers of a
hydro-electric dam in the Rio San Antonio watershed may be reluctant to finance the conversion
of erosion-intensive coffee plantations upstream of the dam because, at current erosion
rates, the hydro-electric capacity will only be affected after 80 years (Estrada and Posner,
1999).
The absence of a sufficient economic value for downstream users of upstream land use
impacts, however, does not imply that upstream watershed protection is not necessary. In
some cases, downstream users might be dependent on the resources, but engage in activities
that do not generate enough revenue (e.g. subsistence farming) to fund upstream conservation
measures (Estrada and Posner, 1999). In other cases, there might be impacts which affect
51
environmental goods which do not have an economic value (e.g. aquatic ecosystems which
rely on a minimum instream flow).
There is political commitment to establish upstream-downstream linkages.

If linkages between upstream and downstream users are developed, there has to be a
commitment from the government having jurisdiction over the watershed. National and local
governments can act as important facilitators and provide institutional support for upstreamdownstream linkage programmes. Conversely, if upstream-downstream linkages are not
supported by governments, it may be difficult to implement programmes that go beyond the
community scale.
There is a strong institutional and legal framework that facilitates the implementation of
linkage instruments.
Many linkage instruments require a stable institutional and legal framework for implementation.
For example, for the transfer of property rights over land and water, it is imperative that
these rights are defined and allocated to land and water users in the first place. Similarly, if
regulatory instruments are implemented, institutions are necessary to enforce the regulations.
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53
Annexes
54
Annexes
55
Annex 1
Abstracts of background papers1
LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES

Author: Ian Calder
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to provoke discussion on land use and water resource impacts, particularly in
relation to rural watersheds in developing countries, with a view towards surfacing key issues,
identifying research needs and, ultimately, towards developing guidelines on instruments to
distribute costs and benefits arising from land-use impacts on water resources amongst upstream
and downstream stakeholders in a watershed. The paper is in three parts which address and
question: (i) The adequacy of our scientific knowledge in relation to the environmental processes
(biophysical/climate) which determine land use impacts on water resources. (ii) The (often
poor) connection between scientific knowledge and policy; the adequacy of the decision-making
and policy-making processes of national and international organisations in relation to land use
and water resources management; the self sustaining nature of pseudo science myths in relation
to land use and water resources and the interdependence and interrelationships of stakeholders
in relation to land use and water resources. (iii) The adequacy of current management approaches
and the need for consistent policies towards land-use and water resources management,
development and poverty alleviation, which are applicable from the local to the global scale.
WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION EFFECTS ON FRESHWATER AVAILABILITY: IMPACTS OF HUMAN

ACTIVITIES
Authors: Norman E. Peters, Michel Meybeck
ABSTRACT
The quality of freshwater at any point on the landscape reflects the combined effects of many
processes along water pathways. Human activities on all spatial scales affect both water quality
and quantity. Alteration of the landscape and associated vegetation has not only changed the
water balance, but typically has altered processes that control water quality. Effects of human
activities on a small scale are relevant to an entire drainage basin. Furthermore, local, regional,
and global differences in climate and water flow are considerable, causing varying effects of
human activities on land and water quality and quantity, depending on location within a watershed,
geology, biology, physiographic characteristics, and climate. These natural characteristics also
greatly control human activities, which will, in turn, modify (or affect) the natural composition of
The full text of the background papers may be found on the CD-ROM accompanying this document.
56
Annex 1 Abstracts of background papers
water. One of the most important issues for effective resource management is recognition of
cyclical and cascading effects of human activities on the water quality and quantity along
hydrologic pathways. The degradation of water quality in one part of a watershed can have
negative effects on users downstream. Everyone lives downstream of the effects of some
human activity. An extremely important factor is that substances added to the atmosphere, land,
and water generally have relatively long time scales for removal or clean up. The nature of the
substance, including its affinity for adhering to soil and its ability to be transformed, affects the
mobility and the time scale for removal of the substance. Policy alone will not solve many of the
degradation issues, but a combination of policy, education, scientific knowledge, planning, and
enforcement of applicable laws can provide mechanisms for slowing the rate of degradation
and provide human and environmental protection. Such an integrated approach is needed to
effectively manage land and water resources.
COMMUNITY-BASED WATER QUALITY MONITORING: FROM DATA COLLECTION TO SUSTAINABLE

MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
Authors: William G. Deutsch, Jim L. Orprecio, Allison L. Busby, Janeth P. BagoLabis, Estela Y. Cequia
ABSTRACT
The paper is an account of how a rural community in the Philippines worked side by side with
researchers, non governmental and governmental workers over a five-year period to develop
science-based indicators of water quality that proved relevant for developing environmental
policy. The case focuses primarily on the early stages of implementing a municipal-level, natural
resource management plan in Lantapan, Bukidnon Province, Mindanao. The setting and
background of the project are briefly described, followed by the nature of specific indicators and
how they were chosen and refined. The paper presents the process by which these indicators
influenced policy and concludes with lessons learned throughout the process. The paper
emphasizes the methods, results and applications of the biophysical data collected by the citizen
monitors.
VALUATION OF WATER-RELATED SERVICES TO DOWNSTREAM USERS IN RURAL WATERSHEDS:

DETERMINING VALUES FOR THE USE AND PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES
Author: Marta Echavarra
ABSTRACT
Although water is critical to life and to most resource management activities by humankind,
water has a very low price world-wide and, surprisingly, even in areas facing serious water
constraints. The costs that a mismanaged upstream landholding can generate for users
downstream are rarely accounted for. Or, vice-versa, water quality and flow benefits that a
well-preserved watershed area can generate are generally not recognized. This is a definite
market failure. Attempts to internalize watershed protection benefits and costs are few. In
general, there is a gap between economic theory and actual practice in regard to water resource
appraisal, planning, conservation, management and use. Therefore, there is a need to innovate
57
and promote policy and institutional changes in water resources management at local and national
levels. This paper aims to give insights into economic instruments that can effectively support
the wise use and management of watersheds and the protection of hydrological services. It
briefly reviews the economic valuation methods commonly used focusing on water related goods
and services. It highlights actual cases in Latin America where efforts have been made to link
water uses and watershed protection activities and therefore conserve water resources.
DOWNSTREAM EFFECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

Author: Jan de Graaff
ABSTRACT
This paper gives an overview of the downstream effects of soil conservation and watershed
development (SCWD) activities, and an outline for the assessment and valuation of the downstream
impact of these activities in situations with multiple function reservoirs. For many watersheds
insufficient attention is given to erosion control. Thus, reservoirs are fast losing their functions
through siltation and changes in streamflow. This may eventually lead to much lower irrigation
and hydro-electricity capacities, or to very high costs of dredging and other correcting measures.
Since many SCWD projects are initiated to safeguard these reservoirs and other infrastructure,
more attention should be paid to the appraisal and valuation of their effects on downstream
users.
58
Annex 1 Abstracts of background papers
59
Annex 2
Abstracts of case studies1
OPTIMIZING SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION TO PREVENT GROUNDWATER POLLUTION

Country:
Austria
Authors:
Peter Cepuder, Volker aus der Schmitten
Language: English
ABSTRACT
The objectives of this case study were to quantify groundwater pollution through measurements
of percolation and nitrate leaching, to compare results with those obtained from a simulation
model of leaching and percolation, to determine the effects of crop cover on these variables, and
to consider possible recommendations for a sustainable combination of fertilizers and cover
crop. A good agreement was found between measurements and simulated results. The simulation
model, used to compare percolation and leaching with and without cover crops, found no direct
relationship between them. In a comparison of different soil groups, low water storage capacity
was found to be associated with significantly higher percolation, nitrogen leaching, and
concentration of nitrates in the percolation water. The minimum contamination of groundwater
was associated with the soil group that had higher water retention capacity and cover crops. An
extension of the results to the entire area suggests that percolation and nitrogen leaching is
higher with no cover crop but that lower nitrogen leaching and higher percolation can be obtained
by using cover crops only on the soil group with the highest water retention capacity, and not
using them on the other two soil groups. No definitive conclusions could be reached regarding
the best combinations of soil, crop rotation, cover crop and weather conditions.
INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND HYDROLOGY IN LOWLAND AREAS. THE CASE

OF THE KANGURA WATERSHED
[INTERRELATIONS ENTRE AGRICULTURE ET HYDROLOGIE EN ZONE DE BAS-FOND. EXEMPLE DU
BASSIN VERSANT DE KANGURA]
Country:
Burkina Faso
Authors:
C. Cudennec, Y. Sinar, Daurensan
Languages: English, French
ABSTRACT
Hydraulic projects have been used to manage hydrometeorological hazards in the lowland areas
in order to extend agriculture, which had traditionally only been practised on the hillslopes. This
paper describes a study in progress, designed to better understand the functional relationship
The full text of the case studies may be found on the CD-ROM accompanying this document.
60
Annex 2 Abstracts of case studies
between hillslopes and lowlands, and between stream, overland and groundwater within the
lowlands, by identifying the main processes for each geomorphologic entity. Surface flows are
measured where the stream enters the lowland area which would only reflect the influence of
hillslope processes, and in the lowland, where it would also reflect influences of groundwater
and submersion. This data is intended to be combined with piezometric transects, topographic
mapping, and geographic diagnosis. The data will be used in the development of a physicallybased model of lowland functioning, intended to provide results of relevance for hydraulic
engineering and agriculture at the event scale. This will in turn provide the basis for developing
a decision-support system based on simulated scenarios of hillslopes and lowland anthropic
modification, including series of hydraulic projects on a single stream.
IMPACT OF UPSTREAM IRRIGATION DAMS ON SURFACE HYDROLOGY. THE CASE OF THE YVEL
WATERSHED
[IMPACT DE RETENUES COLLINAIRES AGRICOLES SUR LHYDROLOGIE DE SURFACE. EXEMPLE DU

BASSIN VERSANT DE LYVEL]
Country:
France
Authors:
C. Cudennec, M. Sarraza
Languages: English, French
ABSTRACT
In this case study, dams have been located in the downstream area of an upstream watershed,
to store winter flows so that they can be available for irrigation during the period of low stream
flows, when water is most needed. A modelling tool is proposed for considering and quantifying
their hydrological impacts. Application of the model to this case study shows that downstream
modifications reduce upstream hydrographic peaks and also affect the shape of the whole
hydrograph. These effects are localized and have a relationship to geographical patterns.
CAN PARTICIPATORY LAND USE PLANNING AT COMMUNITY LEVEL IN THE HIGHLANDS OF NORTHERN
THAILAND USE GIS AS A COMMUNICATION TOOL?
Country:
Author:
Language:
Thailand
Oliver Puginier
English
ABSTRACT
This case study describes a village level participatory process of land use classification and
mapping used to inform mediation and conflict resolution between hill tribes and the government.
Hill tribes, whose populations have quadrupled over the past 40 years, are in transition from
shifting cultivation to permanent residence and long-term agroforestry, and seek land security to
insure they can meet their subsistence needs prior to changing traditional farming systems. The
government has conflicting interests of forest preservation and integration of ethnic minorities.
As a result of the participatory process, villagers changed and strictly follow rules and regulations
for natural resource management, organizations within the same watershed improved
61
management capabilities, and integration of natural resource conservation with traditions and
cultural practices increased community involvement. The mapping shows that forest cover goals
were met in this area and that the watershed classification needed to be revised to account for
permanent settlements. The maps are being used to petition for recognition of highland farming
systems. Although the new government has been hostile to this, participatory mapping has gained
greater acceptance in development agencies even if not in policy. A case in which government
and village representatives signed written land use agreements may serve as a model in that it
provided highland farmers confidence that their management system was endorsed by the
government.
A GRICULTURAL PRACTICES
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
AND WATER QUALITY IN
S ASKATCHEWAN , C ANADA : A
Country:
Canada
Author:
Randall Kehrig
Language: English
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this case study is to provide social insights into policy associated with rural water
quality. People who live in rural areas, be they farmers or indigenous populations, have unique
relationships with the natural environments around them. Although water is a basic requirement
of human, livestock and crop life, the quality of rural water is often overlooked until it raises
immediate human health concerns. The intensification of agriculture practices including livestock
in controlled environments and the use of commercial fertilizer and farm chemicals has the
potential to drastically alter rural water quality. However, water policies designed to ensure
water quality are often compromised by the structural conditions of the economy and of the
state. This case study examines agriculture practices and water quality in rural Saskatchewan,
Canada. It presents exploratory data with a social analysis and several suggestions for more
effective policy.
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF CHANGING WATER QUALITY ON AN IRRIGATION SCHEME: A CASE STUDY

FROM SOUTH AFRICA
Country:
South Africa
Author:
Jack Armour
Language: English
ABSTRACT
Irrigation agriculture contributes to non-point source water pollution through nutrients, salts and
chemicals in return flows, for which farmers are not held accountable. It is expected to expand
in South Africa, although irrigation water prices will also be forced up because of increased
competition with industrial and municipal uses as water becomes scarcer. The practice of leaching
salts out of the soil, is necessary to sustain irrigation agriculture, but has downstream impacts. A
model was constructed to allow farmers to consider the potential consequences of various
62
combinations of management options and crops under different water quality situations. Data
generated by the model that can be used in impact assessment include the volume of salt loaded
return-flows, each farmers contribution to non-point source pollution, economic effects of
constraining return flow, and effect of water pricing policy on volume of return flows. It is
suggested that different rates should be charged for irrigation waters of different qualities.
Greater incentive for efficiency could be achieved by allocating water on a volumetric rather
than a per hectare basis. Under the current water pricing system, returns from leaching more
than compensate for pumping costs. The trade-off between leaching and downstream effects
remains to be quantified.
DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL WATERSHEDS

[DESARROLLO DE PEQUEAS CUENCAS HIDROGRFICAS]
Country:
Authors:
Language:
Cuba
Miguel Hernndez Bauz, Nilo Alfonso Gonzlez
Spanish
ABSTRACT
This case study discusses the development of small water projects in Cuba. In this particular
case, the problem was to provide sufficient water for a new ranching development greater than
100 000 ha for which there are no secure sources or sufficient reserves. Management of the
catchment area was regarded as key to development, and allowed agriculture to be organized
within the geography of the basin.
INTEGRATING
BIOPHYSICAL, ECOLOGICAL, AND SOCIAL RESEARCH FOR CATCHMENT-SCALE
MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES: THE MOTUEKA RIVER INITIATIVE
Country:
Author:
Language:
New Zealand
Breck Bowden
English
ABSTRACT
This case study describes a research programme designed to integrate technical knowledge
with social learning, in a framework of integrated catchment management (ICM) for the Motueka
river. Main concerns in this catchment are consequences of land and water management on the
coastal fishing industries, impacts on trout habitat quality, and conflicts over water allocation.
These are associated with steep slopes, seasonal dryness, low-flow and sediment impacts, and
transport of nutrients and pathogens. Through a process of stakeholder consultations, involvement
of international experts in review and design, and input from research staff, a research plan was
agreed upon that is focused on helping to achieve specified national outcomes. Expected project
outcomes are to increase awareness of cumulative impacts, the need for catchment scale
management, and to provide new knowledge and tools that will provide common ground for
decision-making with reduced conflict.
63
TRACING SEDIMENT TRANSPORT WITH CS-137 ISOTOPES: THE CHASOVENKO CATCHMENT CASE
STUDY, CENTRAL RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Country:
Russian Federation
Authors:
Valentin Golosov, Vladimir Belyaev
Language: English
ABSTRACT
Chernobyl-derived 137Cs deposits were used to examine the distribution of sediment within the
Chasovenkov Verh catchment. Eroded sediments were found to be primarily deposited within
the catchment, in the dry creeks or balka in the valley, which serve as a sink. These contaminated
sediments are therefore not expected to enter the rivers unless there is a change in climate or
land use that leads to active incision. It is suggested that this approach can be used to better
understand environmental processes in areas of high contamination, and also to assess upstream
and downstream interactions.
SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE REFURBISHMENT PROJECT

Country:
Australia
Author:
Stephen Arnold
Language: English
ABSTRACT
This case study describes a cooperative approach to natural resource management, which
increased the incomes of farmers, enabled them to diversify, and led to more efficient water
usage. Downstream benefits were lowered water tables that otherwise dissolve salt and bring it
to the surface, and reduced salt accessions into the river system. Measures adopted were
reforms to water pricing and allocation which included user fees and tradable water entitlements,
provision of economic incentives for efficiency of use; legislative reforms regulating the water
industry, investment in public infrastructure to increase efficiency, retirement of agricultural land
unsuited to irrigation, and farmer training programs. On-farm water savings of up to 30 percent
have been reported and further efficiency gains are expected. Involvement of farmers in the
planning and design phase was critical.
LANDWATER LINKAGES IN THE UPPER NIGER WATERSHED

[RELATIONS TERRE-EAU DANS LE BASSIN VERSANT DU NIGER SUPRIEUR]
Country:
Guinea
Author:
Sny Soumah
Language: French
ABSTRACT
The case study describes the general situation of the upper Niger in Guinea in which there are
dry areas dependent on irrigation, and where wild fires are a common environmental calamity.
A management plan is needed to harmonize resource conflicts in the region.
64
WATERSHED
DEVELOPMENT
OR SHOULD IT BE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT?
THE KAWAD
PROJECT, KARNATAKA
Country:
Authors:
Language:
India
C. Batchelor, M. Rama Mohan Rao, K. Mukherjee
English
ABSTRACT
As part of the Karnataka Watershed Development Project (KAWAD) in northern India, a
water resources audit study was conducted to consolidate existing data from a wide range of
sources, assess the status of land and water resources, and provide a starting point for identifying
options. Among the key findings were that groundwater extraction is increasing and its levels
are falling. Although local perception attributes this to cutting down of trees, it is driven by higher
profitability of irrigated agriculture, grants or cheap loans for well construction, and policies of
free electricity for pumping. Although extraction is about equal to recharge, since wells are
pumped until they fail every year, some villages extract it at 2.5 times the average recharge rate.
Because of this situation, there is no groundwater buffer that can be relied on in a drought,
and shortages have disproportionate impact on the poor, particularly women and children. Among
the conclusions are that water resources are fully developed and emphasis is needed on
management, for which over 40 options were identified, that could increase productivity and/or
improve equitable access. This implies giving highest priority to drinking water supplies and then
allocating it to uses with the highest social and economic value. Village level planning needs to
take place within a wider planning framework to facilitate consideration of issues such as
upstream-downstream equity, flood protection, drought preparedness, pollution, and biodiversity
protection.
INDO-GERMAN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME GUJARAT: A BASELINE SURVEY

Country:
Authors:
India
Andreas Groetschel, Ingrid Mller-Neuhof, Ines Rathmann, Hermann Rupp, Ximena
Santillana, Anja Sger, Jutta Werner
Language: English
ABSTRACT
This case study describes a recently initiated programme for improving agricultural potential
and living conditions in the semi-arid drought-prone state of Gujarat, to be implemented by
villagers with guidance from a Project Implementing Agency that is preferably a local NGO.
Types and combinations of physical measures to be implemented in each watershed will be
decided through an intensive participatory resource and land use planning process. Another
objective is to develop and strengthen social coherence through the establishment of Village
Watershed Committees, and to open income generating opportunities for the weaker groups. A
baseline survey is to be conducted by a multidisciplinary team of junior experts, to identify
issues, stakeholders, potential capacity building institutions, existing government-funded rural
development programmes, and to analyze needs of target groups.
65
COMBATING DROUGHT IN RAJASTHAN THROUGH THE WATERSHED APPROACH

Country:
India
Author:
B.K. Kakade
Language: English
ABSTRACT
The paper describes impacts of a watershed development programme that enabled the particular
communities involved to maintain increased productivity even during a drought that was
devastating to the surrounding districts. The programme was carried out through village level
institutions, and the initial assessment blended indigenous with scientific knowledge, which led to
the development of innovative measures that were effective for water harvesting. A mid-term
survey, at the end of the third year of the project, which was also a drought year, reveals
significant increases in particular crops, less use of firewood because of improved cooking
devices, reduction in the amount of time needed for women to fetch drinking water, increases in
stream flow, and increases in the water tables.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITY OF WATER RESOURCES IN THE BERDAWNI RURAL

WATERSHED, BEKAA
Country:
Lebanon
Authors:
T. Darwish, M. Khawlie, I. Jomaa, R. Chihny
Language: English
ABSTRACT
This case study presents an assessment of downstream water impacts in the Berdawni watershed,
where pollution of surface water has led to increased exploitation of less polluted groundwater
for irrigation purposes, and to the uncontrolled development of private wells. The watershed is
significant both for industrialization and agriculture and is under increased demographic pressure.
Chemical analysis of the Litani river and its branches reveals pollution levels in excess of
international norms and levels of tolerance for nickel and chromium that accumulate with irrigation
water from the Litani, and also in well water. It concludes that regulatory measures are urgent
and that these should be developed and implemented through a participatory process involving
stakeholders. Priority should be given to establishing water and instream values and developing
strategies needed to assure quality of living, monitoring and updating of databases, and institutional
capacity building through a continuous Impact Assessment Program. Environmental impact
assessments should also be done for large scale projects, and there should be focus on quality,
and on total watershed management.
66
WATER QUALITY AND MANAGEMENT IN PERI-URBAN KUMASI

Country:
Ghana
Authors:
D.F.M. McGregor, D. A. Thompson, D. Simon
Language: English
ABSTRACT
In order to determine effects of urban and peri-urban pollution, measurements were taken at
two sites, upstream and downstream from Kumasi, and show significantly higher levels at the
downstream site. The main pressure on land use in this area is conversion of agricultural land to
housing development. Associated with this are problems with various forms of waste disposal.
To improve community awareness, water quality testing kits were provided to selected schools.
Ten months following the start of this aspect of the project, the junior high school participants
were disseminating knowledge of water quality issues to their communities, in some cases in the
form of plays. Following feedback from the schools, improved water quality test kits were
provided that enabled them to conduct a wider range of tests and provide a more systematic
description of watershed conditions. Their intent is to report any measurements of concern to
environmental authorities for verification and follow-up. A more thorough investigation of
stakeholder attitudes is planned.
AGRICULTURE AND NITROGEN POLLUTION OF WATER IN BRITTANY

[AGRICULTURE ET POLLUTION AZOTE DES EAUX EN BRETAGNE]
Country:
Author:
Language:
France
Sverine Gibet
French
ABSTRACT
In western France, Brittany has developed its economy mainly through agriculture. The agricultural
revolution has displaced all traditional cultivation but fodder crops have continued. Nowadays,
animal husbandry predominates. Over the last 30 years, plant production has increased by
25 percent, while animal production has been multiplied by five.
The input of nitrogen on fields to increase yields from the spread of manure originating from
animal husbandry accounted for 56 percent, and from fertilizers for 42 percent. During many
years, the input of nitrogen was exceeding the need of cultures. Among the consequences of
this over-fertilisation, an important nitrogenous pollution has appeared. Since 1972, nitrate
concentration in running water increased fivefold, reaching 40mg/L in 1998 and leading to problems
for the supply of drinking water.
67
SMALL HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES AND THEIR IMPACT ON FARMERS LIVES, STREAMFLOW, SOIL
AND WATER CONSERVATION AND DOWNSTREAM WATER RESOURCES: THE CASES OF THE SILIANA
AND KEF WATERSHEDS
[LA PETITE HYDRAULIQUE ET SON IMPACT SUR LA VIE DU PAYSAN, LES EAUX DE RUISSELLEMENT, LA
CONSERVATION DES EAUX ET DES SOLS ET LES RESSOURCES EN EAU VERS LAVAL DANS UN BASSIN
VERSANT: CAS DES DEUX BASSINS VERSANTS DE SILIANA ET DU KEF]
Country:
Tunisia
Author:
Mohamed Mechergui
Language: French
ABSTRACT
The objective of this case study is to present the results of research conducted in Tunisia in two
main semi-arid zones dealing with the implementation of small hydraulics for water catchment
in the upland and big dams downstream. It was shown that the relationship between upstream
and downstream land use is directly related to the rain intensity. When the rain intensity is low,
the upstream catchment hydraulic reservoirs makes profit from water and solid transports which
gives a bigger life for big dams and the farmers can improve their cereal production by supplement
irrigation. However, when the rain intensity is high, the upstream dams collect small quantities of
rain but big solid transports and let clear water going downstream to the big dams; the strategic
runoff water resource is improved and downstream irrigation is maintained. The mechanism
between upstream and downstream in the watershed increases profit for the big dams (clear
water downstream, smaller life for upstream reservoirs) and so for the downstream farmers
because the national strategy is based on collecting surface runoff in big dams to stabilize or
increase production on fertile soils downstream. The question that can be raised is what will be
the optimum number of small hydraulics reservoirs upstream and what will be the optimum
capacity of downstream reservoirs to minimize the runoff to the sea.
THE ROMWE CATCHMENT STUDY THE EFFECTS OF LAND MANAGEMENT ON GROUNDWATER

RESOURCES IN SEMI-ARID ZIMBABWE
Country:
Zimbabwe
Authors:
P.B. Moriarty, C.J. Lovell
Language: English
ABSTRACT
Two crucial parameters that control land management and groundwater interactions in the Romwe
catchment and that are external to the farming system, are climate and geology. Extreme variability
in rainfall follows a pattern, reflected in groundwater levels, of nine years above and nine years
below average, found in much of Southern Africa. The pattern is also found in the development
of herds during wet periods, and their collapse at the onset of dry periods. The relevant geological
characteristic is that groundwater is relatively close to the surface because shallow soils are
found on top of impervious rocks or crystalline basement areas, and is therefore always within
the root zone of vegetation and therefore constantly in use. Deforestation of the valley bottom
increased the water supply, which could be significantly reduced in the event of reforestation or
68
woodlot development. In-field structures that create ponding effects increase groundwater
recharge. The implications of these observations are that there is a trade-off between forestry
and other land uses, and between management for soil moisture to support rain-fed crops, and
groundwater recharge, to support irrigated crops. Groundwater is therefore highly localized and
is best managed locally. Downstream effects in this case will be minimal.
THE INFLUENCE OF A HEADWATER WETLAND ON DOWNSTREAM RIVER FLOWS IN SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA
Country:
Author:
Language:
Zimbabwe
Matthew McCartney
English
ABSTRACT
This paper reports on a study conducted to provide insight into the hydrology of dambos, a type
of seasonal wetland, common in the headwaters of many major river systems in southern and
central Africa. Although largely based on conjecture, dambos have been attributed an important
role in the regional hydrological cycle in the form of dry season flows, and their disturbance is
perceived to conflict with their function as a source of downstream flow. Results obtained in this
study suggest instead that, although they store significant amounts of water during the wet
season, its depletion is dominated by evaporation, with only a small portion contributing to stream
flow. Also, that they may reduce floods at the start of the wet season but once the soils are
saturated, they generate flood runoff. This suggests that shallow rooted crops could be grown in
dambos with little impact on dry season flows.
A QUANTITATIVE TREATMENT ON THE INFLUENCE OF CATCHMENT FEATURES, BASED ON GIS, ON

FISH PRODUCTION IN SRI LANKAN RESERVOIRS
Country:
Authors:
Language:
Sri Lanka
Sena S. De Silva, U.S. Amarsinghe, C. Nissanka
English
ABSTRACT
Sri Lankan reservoirs are the mainstay of an important inland fishery as it is the main source of
protein for the rural poor. Fisheries and limnology data were collected at nine perennial reservoirs,
and land use patterns were digitized from land use maps. Statistical analysis of catch statistics
and reservoir catchment land use features suggest that the extent of forest cover and shrub land
in relation to reservoir surface area, were the most determining factor on fish yield. In addition
to demonstrating the importance of land use pattern in fish production, the study suggests GIS
can be used to formulate yield predictive models in inland waters and can be an effective
management tool.
69
THE GOULBURN BROKEN WATER QUALITY STRATEGY

Country:
Australia
Author:
Pat Feehan
Language: English
ABSTRACT
This catchment is a priority catchment for developing a strategy to address algal and nutrient
problems. Water quality, as indicated by nitrogen and phosphorus, shows a progressive decline
upstream to downstream and algal blooms have been increasing, although total nutrient export
to the basin varies with stream flow. Irrigation water is particularly problematic because it is
high in nutrients and is released during the summer when most algal blooms occur. The strategy
is expected to reduce phosphorus loads by 65 percent over a 20 year period through specific
measures to reduce nutrient loads from irrigation drains, sewage treatment plants, fish farms
and new developments, by installing filter strips along streams, and through monitoring and
evaluation. Cost contributions from downstream beneficiaries are made through the state and
federal governments (17 percent each), while catchment stakeholders are expected to cover
the remaining 66 percent, specifically to cover works and the full cost of ongoing operations and
maintenance of these works. A number of uncertainties in the science made it necessary to
make some basic assumptions about whether and to what extent phosphorus reductions will
reduce risks of algal blooms, and about how it behaves in the ecosystem. The community
recognizes these uncertainties and accepts that the strategy may require modification as more
information becomes available.
INTEGRATED LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT IN THE UPPER WATERSHEDS OF THE ARAL SEA BASIN
Country:
Tajikistan
Author:
S. Aslov
Language: English
ABSTRACT
The five Central Asian states affected by the Aral Sea crisis have cooperated to develop a
system of interventions to promote efficient use of land and water resources and also improve
environmental and socio-economic conditions. Key aspects of the program are assessment of
the status of land and water resources as well as living standards, and to identify actions that
can be taken to restore degraded ecosystems. The main causes of deteriorating water quality
are excessive withdrawal for irrigation and drainage of saline irrigation water containing pesticides,
and pollution from domestic and industrial wastewater. Soil erosion is associated with both
irrigated and rainfed agriculture and with pasture, and has led to intensive gully formation. More
needs to be known about the dynamics of soil erosion and its spread, as a basis for identifying
urgently needed control measures. In a pilot project proposed for Tajikistan, where the main
problem is unavailability of drinking water, in addition to all of the above, expected benefits to the
local population include construction of a complete drinking water tap system, development of
sanitary systems, construction of structures to prevent damages from mudflows, erosion control
and reclamation of degraded lands, multipurpose land uses that include small enterprises, small
power plants based on renewable energy sources, and socio-economic studies to evaluate and
guide the project.
70
COLLECTIVE ACTION TO FIGHT SOIL EROSION IN RUNION

[ACTION CONCERTE DE LUTTE CONTRE LEROSION DES SOLS LA RUNION]
Country:
Authors:
Language:
Runion
Denis Groene, Alain Hbert, G. Benoit
French
ABSTRACT
Situated in the Indian Ocean, the island of La Runion is a part of France. It is inhabited since
the 16th century. Nine tenths of the total area (2512 km2) are covered by a volcanic mountain.
The population is 700 000 people (density 280 / km2). The climate is tropical with heavy rains
and annual cyclones. Landscapes are very impressive, with huge abysses. The social and
economic background is tense, with an unemployment rate about 37 percent.
The paper presents a programme of action in progress since 1988, to mitigate the soil erosion.
This action started with small land use improvements planned, implemented and monitored by
farmers. Now, in 2000, 18 projects involve 250 farmers working on a total area of 1 200 ha. The
programme is continuing by focusing on training and building a public awareness of soil as an
limited natural resource. The Environment Chart (1996) of La Runion has included the erosion
as one of its four main topics.
MICRO-DAMS FOR RAINFALL WATER RETENTION IN CENTRAL-WEST BRAZIL: PILOT PROJECT

ON WATER AND SOIL CONSERVATION IN THE MICRO-BASIN OF THE PAIOL
Country:
Brazil
Author:
Luciano Cordoval de Barros
Language: English
ABSTRACT
The accelerated and disorganized deforestation in Central Brazil and the transformation of
these natural ecosystems into crop land or pastures, without adequate technologies, resulted in
irrecoverable damages to the environment, especially with respect to water and soil conservation,
with particular mention to compaction. As a consequence, the soil intake rate decreased and
surface runoff increased, thus causing laminar erosion, low soil quality, silting up of rivers, floods
and decreased sustainability of family properties. With the objective of reverting this scenario, a
demonstrative unit was implemented in Sete Lagoas, MG (1 350 mm rainfall per year), in 1995.
On a property of 70 ha, 30 micro-dams (barraginhas) were built to contain surface runoff
damages. These micro-dams also retain pollution sources carried by the waters and favour the
recharge of good quality water tables, by means of improving soil intake rate, recovering water
sources and alleviating droughts. Due to the success of this demonstration unit, by means of
field visits by farmers, NGOs and publication of articles in journals and national/international
congresses, a decision was taken to extend the experience and build 960 low-cost micro-dams,
in 1998, in 60 small properties covering all the micro-basin of the Paiol stream, comprising a total
area of approximately 40 km2, in the village/community of Estiva, Sete Lagoas county. That was
only possible because of the active participation of small farmers in the indication of existing
degraded sites and the support provided in terms of food and lodging for the working teams. As
a result, it is now possible to hear the farmers testimonials on the effects observed in elevation
71
of water tables observed in their domestic reservoirs (cisternas), better utilization of the water
and drought alleviation, that have increased their yields.
THE IMPACT OF DRAINAGE OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS ON ANNUAL RUNOFF: AN EXAMPLE FROM

THE BRIE REGION
[RLE DU DRAINAGE AGRICOLE ENTERR SUR LES COULEMENTS ANNUELS: UN EXEMPLE EN RGION
DE GRANDE CULTURE (BRIE)]
Country:
France
Authors:
Claude Cosandey, Marie-Jose Penven, Tatiana Muxart
Language: French
ABSTRACT
On the Brie plateau, as in numerous places in France, agricultural soils are drained by pipes, in
relation to new agricultural practices. In order to study the role played by this drainage network
in the transfer of water from the soil surface to the stream, three small hydrological bodies
(6.4 ha, 4.6 and 30.6 km) with pipe drains, are monitored. Three hydrological winters are
considered here, under contrasting rainfall conditions. The answers of the three hydrological
bodies are similar in terms of rhythms, but quite different in terms of runoff coefficient. When
the soil water content is at field capacity, the total amount of effective rainfall is very quickly
transferred by the pipes to the stream in the drained parcel. In the two small watershed, only
about 60 percent of effective rainfall appear as surface runoff during winter. The results raise
the question about the role of drainage on flood magnitude.
WATER QUALITY AND RURAL SOCIETY: POTENTIAL HEALTH RISKS IN THE LOWER RO COLORADO
WATERSHED. THE CASE OF THE MEXICALI VALLEY
[CALIDAD DE AGUA Y SOCIEDAD RURAL, RIESGOS POTENCIALES DE SALUD EN LA CUENCA BAJA DEL
RO COLORADO: EL CASO DEL VALLE DE MEXICALI]
Country:
Mexico
Author:
Alfonso Cortez Lara
Language: Spanish
ABSTRACT
This study evaluated levels of nitrogen pollution in the eastern Mexicali Valley. 68 rural wells
were sampled, a survey of households interviews with key actors were conducted to identify
relationships between socio-economic conditions and health, and technical information was
reviewed. Based on a nitrogen budget, it was estimated that the amount reaching the aquifer is
22.9 mg/L, over twice the limit established by the United States Public Health Service, and
therefore represents a health risk to the local population. Nitrogen contamination was not found
in the regional aquifer during the first phase but a large portion of the population has been using
latrines for over 20 years, fertilize with nitrogen, and have shown some signs of water related
illness including cancer among children, although there has not been sufficient evidence to link
this to water consumption. 69 percent believe that water consumed is of good quality, based on
72
personal experience. The low level of awareness of causes of potential contamination of the
aquifer limits the capacity to implement preventative measures. The government has done little
to disseminate information about the problem and, according to consumers, there was insufficient
government action and little or no coordination among government agencies.
ESTIMATION OF BASIN SEDIMENT FLUX IN THE PANG KHUM EXPERIMENTAL WATERSHED IN

NORTHERN THAILAND: THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF ROADS AND AGRICULTURAL LANDS
Country:
Authors:
Language:
Thailand
Alan D. Ziegler, Thomas W. Giambelluca, Ross A. Sutherland
English
ABSTRACT
Stream sediment load and sediment contributions from roads, paths, and agricultural lands are
estimated for a one-year period in an upland watershed in northern Thailand. Total road
sediment input to the stream was only slightly higher than that from agricultural lands (30-41
versus 25-40 Mg), but corresponding erosion rates were substantially greater (65-88
versus 2-4 Mg ha-1 y-1). The results emphasize that basin sediment yield is not a reliable indicator
of the existence of severe erosion within a watershed. Rather, sediment budgeting approaches
are needed to uncover important sediment sources that occupy small percentages of the total
basin area (e.g., roads). Finally, the trend of focusing solely on impacts of agricultural practices
on erosion, ignoring impacts associated with unpaved roads, is not a sustainable conservation
strategy for managing upland watersheds in southeast Asia.
INFLUENCE OF LAND USE ON THE HYDROLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF VOLCANIC SOILS: THE CASE
OF CATCHMENTS PROVIDING WATER TO ANDEAN CITIES
Country:
Authors:
Language:
Ecuador
W. Buytaert, B. De Bivre, J. Deckers, G. Dercon
English
ABSTRACT
In the catchment of the Rio Paute in the southern Andes of Ecuador, soils have a high water
retention and regulation capacity because of the presence of allophane clay in which hollow
spheres are formed which show microscopic pores that store water. However, it is not clear
which phenomena control the retention and release of water (e.g. retention in soil, in vegetation,
in organic matter layers, in swamps, lakes, forests) The case study analyzes effects of land
use on retention capacity. Cultivation affects hydrophysical properties but traditional methods
do not seem to apply as they are based on concepts of equilibrium between gravity, capillary and
hygroscopic forces other forces are active in the andosols. So it is not clear what actions of
stakeholders will affect downstream water availability, which makes negotiation difficult.
73
THE WATERSHED PROTECTION FUND (FONAG) AS A MECHANISM FOR THE CONSERVATION OF

THE CAYAMBE-COCA AND ANTISANA RESERVES IN ECUADOR
[EL FONDO PARA LA PROTECCIN DEL AGUA Y LAS CUENCAS (FONAG) COMO MECANISMO PARA LA
CONSERVACIN DE LAS RESERVAS CAYAMBE- COCA Y ANTISANA EN ECUADOR]
Country:
Ecuador
Author:
M. Echavarra
Language: Spanish
ABSTRACT
The case study describes a proposed financing mechanism for water and watershed protection
activities in the upper watersheds of the city of Quito, Ecuador. Local (e.g., the water supply
company) and international sources will be contributing to the fund. The fund will be governed
by a board consisting of representatives from the local water and electricity companies, water
users, the regional and local government, communities, and non-governmental organizations. It
will finance conservation activities with the aim of ensuring a clean, dependable water supply.
IMPACTS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT ON SMALL-SCALE AQUATIC RESOURCES: A CASE STUDY

OF SOUTHERN LAOS
Country:
Authors:
Laos
Sophie Nguyen Khoa, Kai Lorenzen, Caroline Garaway, Robert Arthur, Bounthanom
Chamsingh, Douangchith Litdamlong, Nick Innes-Taylor, Darrell Siebert
Language: English
ABSTRACT
In southern Laos, where there is heavy livelihood dependence on aquatic resources, irrigation
was found to have moderate but significant impacts, which need to be considered in cost-benefit
analysis and environmental assessments of small and medium scale irrigation schemes.
Proliferation of these schemes may lead to even greater cumulative impacts. Although there
were no significant effects near new reservoirs, these are not accessible to those impacted
downstream and only provide partial compensation.
74
75
Annex 3
List of interventions
No.*
Contributor
Intervention Theme
Jean-Marc Faurs
Watershed Management in Morocco
Thomas Hofer
Landwater links in the Himalayan region, International Year of

Mountains
Bo Appelgren
Case study: The Nile basin
Christophe Cudennec
Watershed vs. hillslope management
Dwight Kimsey
Sediments as pollutants?
10
Nabil El-Khodary
Nile and Niger: A comparison
11
Ian Calder
Reflections on "land degradation"
12
Nilo Alfonso
Erosion, watershed conservation and rural poverty
13
Denis Groen
Land use impacts on groundwater
14
Thierry Facon
Watershed management in Fouta Djallon (Guinea); Downstream

benefits of paddy cultivation
15
Wenny Ho
Watershed management and poverty alleviation
16
Vaughan Davidson
Holistic approach to basin management
17
Jean-Marc Faurs
Watershed management and poverty alleviation
18
Jacobijn van Etten
Water management through rehabilitation of Paals in Rajasthan,

India
19
Valentin Golosov
Impact of intensive agriculture on river degradation in Russia
20
Kai Lorenzen
Impacts of irrigation structures on fisheries in Southern Laos
21
Wenny Ho
Watershed management through self-help groups
24
John Dixon
Negotiating platforms for stakeholders in watersheds
25
Getachew Belaineh
Watershed degradation in Ethiopia
26
Patrick Moriarty
Landwater linkages in Zimbabwe: Human vs. natural factors
27
Bo Appelgren
Upstream-downstream compensation
28
James Marple
Sandstone Creek Watershed Project, Oklahoma, USA
29
Ian Calder
Flooding and deforestation in the Mekong basin
30
Mohamed Mechergui
Impact of upstream hydraulic structures on downstream dams
31
Wenny Ho
Relations between on-farm and watershed-based water

management
32
Mervin Stevens
Research needs vs. implementation, impacts of forests, and

involvement of people in watershed management
33
Jan de Graaff
Watershed development vs. watershed management
34
Gordon Fairchild
Impacts of agriculture on water resources in New Brunswick,

Canada
35
Vladimir Golosov
Impacts of intensive agriculture on river degradation in Russia
37
Ruth Meinzen-Dick
Benefit and cost sharing in natural resource management on

household, community and watershed levels
38
Nabil El-Khodari
Cooperation strategies in the Nile Basin
39
Patrick Moriarty
On-site and downstream benefits in watershed management
* Administrative messages by the team are not included in this list, thus, the numbering is not consecutive.
76
Annex 3 List of interventions
No.*
Contributor
Intervention Theme
40
Sally Bunning
Simple, farm-based monitoring of erosion and nutrient flux
41
Mohamed Mechergui
Water distribution in national vs. international watersheds
42
Ian Calder
Resource focus and people focus in watershed management
43
Arthur Conacher
Estimating sediment yields in agricultural catchments, SW

Australia
44
Jan de Graaff
Monitoring of land use impacts; set-up of watershed organizations
45
Mark Hopkins
Land degradation and land tenure in Ethiopia; Impacts of shifting

cultivation in Bangladesh; impacts of agroforestry on soil erosion
(Philippines)
46
Lia van Wesenbeeck,

Peter Albersen
Valuation of land use impacts in complex natural systems
47
Moderating Team
Land use impacts at different scales; criteria for benefit-sharing

instruments
48
John Dixon
Dynamics in benefits and costs
49
Thierry Facon
Watershed management impacts on groundwater recharge;

upstream-downstream linkages and water quality in France
50
Marta Echavarra
Public perception of watershed management impacts; watershed

organizations in Colombia
51
Ruth Meinzen-Dick
Collective action and land tenure issues in watershed

management
52
Astrid Agostini
Case study: upstream/downstream benefit-sharing between

farmers and fishermen in the Philippines
53
Mervin Stevens
Forestry myths; watershed management in New Hampshire
54
Bo Appelgren
Scale issues; communication and ethics in watershed

management
55
Randall Kehrig
Impacts of agriculture on water quality in Canada; polluter pays

principle
56
James Hafner
Myths about landwater linkages and their impact on policy
57
Thierry Facon
River basin organizations in Asia
58
W. Buytaert, B. De
Bivre, J. Deckers,
G. Dercon
Influence of land use on hydrological properties of volcanic soils
59
Marta Echavarra
The Water and Watershed Protection Fund: a case study from

Ecuador
60
Denis Groen
Decision-making and uncertainty in watershed management
61
Bo Appelgren
Prioiritizing land use impacts
62
Mervin Stevens
Necessity for a holistic approach to watershed management
63
David Groenfeldt
Watershed consciousness
64
Nabil El-Khodari
Assessing basin-wide impacts of large scale land and water use

schemes
65
C.H.Batchelor
Need for a sound data base for decision making in watershed

management; impact of groundwater extraction; rural-urban
relationships
66
Vasudha Pangare
Participation, gender and equity issues in watershed

management
67
Trent Biggs
Urban areas in watersheds
68
Ian Calder
Integration of sound land and water management in development

policy
* Administrative messages by the team are not included in this list, thus, the numbering is not consecutive.
77
Annex 4
Workshop programme
Time
Topic
Questions for Discussion
Part I: LandWater Linkages: The Landscape Perspective

18 September - Session 1:
1. How can we classify landwater linkages in terms of land
use impacts on water resources?
Understanding
23 September
and categorizing 2. What are the impacts of land use on the water resources
landwater
and how do they vary in relation to agro-ecological and
linkages
socio-economic conditions?
3. What are the impacts of land use on living aquatic
resources and ecosystems?
4. What is the relative importance of anthropogenic and
natural causes in degradation of water resources?
5. How does the relative importance of the impact change
with the size of the watershed?
6. Is our scientific knowledge and understanding adequate in
relation to the environmental processes involved in landwater linkages?
25 September - Session 2:
7. Which tools and methods exist to assess the relation
between land use and water resources?
29 September Assessing and
perceiving land 8. Which parameters and indicators can be used to measure
water linkages
land-use impacts on water resources?
9. What are technical and financial constraints in assessing
landwater linkages?
10. What is the relation between perceived and real impacts?
11. How can we best deal with variability and uncertainty in
assessing landwater linkages?
12. What is the importance of time in the assessment and
perception of land use impacts?
Part II: LandWater Linkages The Lifescape Perspective
2 October 6 October
9 October 13 October
Session 3:
Valuing the
impact of land
water linkages
13. Which direct water uses (e.g. domestic use, irrigation) are
affected by impacts of land use on water resources, and
how?
14. Which indirect uses of water (e.g. fisheries, flood control,
self-cleaning capacity) are affected by land use impacts on
water resources, and how?
15. How can we value these effects in terms of benefits or
costs for downstream users?
16. What is the importance of time and spatial scale in valuing
land-use impacts on water resources?
Session 4:
17. What types of mechanisms can be used to link upstream
and downstream users in different socio-economic contexts
Sharing benefits
and at different watershed scales?
and costs
resulting from
18. What are examples of such mechanisms which have
landwater
yielded promising results?
linkages
19. What are the main constraints to implementation of these
mechanisms?
20. Can we identify criteria of success for the implementation
of such mechanisms?
78
Time
Annex 4 Workshop programme
Topic
Questions for Discussion
Part III: LandWater Linkages: The Way Forward

16 October 27 October
Session 5:
1. Can we prioritize land use impacts on water resources that
should be the focus of further work on the issue?
Conclusions and
recommenda2. Can we identify regions, climate zones, and sociotions
economic conditions, in which land-water linkages play an
especially important role and need to be addressed as a
matter of priority?
3. Can we identify successful or promising mechanisms and
instruments to share benefits and costs resulting from landwater linkages by upstream and downstream people which
should be focused on in further work on the issue?
4. Are current land and water management guidelines
adequately addressing land-water linkages?
5. How can the feedback between local know-how, scientific
knowledge and policy decisions with regard to landwater
linkages be improved?
6. Which recommendations can we formulate with respect to
hydrologists?
economists?
policy makers?
development agencies?
local resource managers?
FAO LAND AND WATER BULLETINS

1.
2.
Land and water integration and river basin management, 1995 (E)
Planning for sustainable use of land resources + Towards a new approach,
1995 (E)
Water sector policy review and strategy formulation + A general framework,
1995 (E)
Irrigation potential in Africa - A basin approach, 1997 (E)
Land quality indicators and their use in sustainable agriculture and rural
development, 1997 (E S)
Long-term scenarios of livestock-crop-land use interactions in developing
countries, 1997 (E)
Land and water resources information systems, 1998 (E)
Manual on integrated soil management and conservation practices, 2000 (E
S F)
Landwater linkages in rural watersheds, 2002 (E)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Availability: March 2002
Ar
C
E
F
P
S
+
+
+
+
+
+
Arabic
Chinese
English
French
Portuguese
Spanish
Multil + Multilingual
*
Out of print
**
In preparation
The FAO Technical Papers are available through the authorized FAO Sales Agents or directly
from Sales and Marketing Group, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
iii
It is often assumed that upstream land use practices have important impacts on water
resources and affect the downstream users at a watershed scale. Payments
by downstream users to upstream users for environmental services such as good
water quality, less sediments or more regular water flow are widely discussed. However,
much controversy exists about the direction and magnitude of such impacts, how they
influence the relationships between upstream and downstream users, and which
mechanisms allow for a sharing of resulting benefits and costs by all resource users in
a watershed context. To address these issues, the FAO Land and Water Development
Division organized the electronic workshop LandWater Linkages in Rural Watersheds
from 18 September to 27 October 2000.
The present publication contains the proceedings of the workshop and two papers that
set the stage for the workshop discussions. The complete workshop documentation,
including discussion archive, background papers and case studies, is included
on the CD-ROM that accompanies the document.
ISBN 92-5-104765-0
ISSN 1024-6703
7 8 9 2 5 1
0 4 7 6 5 1
TC/M/Y3618E/1/4.02/1400

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Proceedings of the electronic workshop

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in

All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

LIST OF BACKGROUND PAPERS

LIST OF CASE STUDIES

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

SYNTHESIS REPORT OF THE FAO ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP

DOCUMENTS AVAILABLE ON CD-ROM:

List of background papers

Land use impacts on water resources

System requirements to use the CD-ROM:

PC with Intel Pentium processor and Microsoft Windows 95 / 98 / 2000 / Me / NT / XP

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

List of case studies

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

Summary of conclusions and

CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES

Summary of conclusions and recommendations

2. Ranges of variability in natural watershed processes need to be established as a basis for

ADEQUACY OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF BIOPHYSICAL IMPACTS OF LAND

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS TO ASSESSMENT OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON WATER

Summary of conclusions and recommendations

VARIABILITY, UNCERTAINTY AND MYTHS ABOUT LANDWATER LINKAGES

VALUATION OF LAND USE IMPACTS ON DOWNSTREAM WATER RESOURCES

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS FOR LINKING UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM USERS

Summary of conclusions and recommendations

CONSTRAINTS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS

CRITERIA FOR SUCCESS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BENEFIT-SHARING MECHANISMS

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

When there are numerous stakeholders, establishment of watershed organizations is an

Summary of conclusions and recommendations

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

Synthesis report of the FAO electronic

PART I: LANDWATER LINKAGES THE LANDSCAPE PERSPECTIVE

Sylvia Tognetti, Consultant, Takoma Park, MD, USA,

Synthesis report of the FAO electronic workshop

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

Cordoval de Barros, Case Study 25

runoff and improve water quality, all of which

Synthesis report of the FAO electronic workshop

BOX 1: FORESTS AND DRY SEASON FLOWS IN A SEMI-ARID

Whether or not the presence of forest increases

Whether or not forests increase or

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

BOX 2: MOROCCO NATURAL VERSUS MAN-MADE CAUSES OF SEDIMENTATION14

BOX 3: RUSSIAN FEDERATION, DEGRADATION OF SMALL RIVERS IN AGRICULTURAL ZONES15

Synthesis report of the FAO electronic workshop

Legend: x = Measurable impact; = No measurable impact

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

Adequacy of existing knowledge and understanding of biophysical processes

Calder, Background Paper 1

Scientists are not immune from the

Synthesis report of the FAO electronic workshop

Box 5: Impacts of land use on soil water retention

Given the inherent complexity and

Landwater linkages in rural watersheds

use of caesium isotope deposits as a tracer to examine sediment distribution throughout a

comparisons of the results of household surveys regarding perceptions of nitrate pollution,