Review of Seismic Codes on LiquidContaining Tanks

O. R. Jaiswal,a Durgesh C. Rai,b M.EERI, and Sudhir K. Jain,c M.EERI

Liquid storage tanks generally possess lower energy-dissipating capacity

than conventional buildings. During lateral seismic excitation, tanks are
subjected to hydrodynamic forces. These two aspects are recognized by most
seismic codes on liquid storage tanks and, accordingly, provisions specify
higher seismic forces than buildings and require modeling of hydrodynamic
forces in analysis. In this paper, provisions of ten seismic codes on tanks are
reviewed and compared. This review has revealed that there are significant
differences among these codes on design seismic forces for various types of
tanks. Reasons for these differences are critically examined and the need for a
unified approach for seismic design of tanks is highlighted.
DOI: 10.1193/1.2428341
INTRODUCTION
Liquid-containing tanks are used in water distribution systems and in industries for
storing toxic and flammable liquids. These tanks are mainly of two types: groundsupported tanks and elevated tanks. Ground-supported tanks are generally of reinforced
concrete RC, prestressed concrete PSC, or steel. In elevated tanks, the container is
supported on a structural tower, which could be in the form of a RC shaft or RC/steel
frame. The large-scale damage to tanks during the 1960 Chilean earthquake initiated extensive research on seismic analysis of tanks. Since then, codes of practice have undergone significant changes. The performance of tanks during the 1964 Alaska earthquake
Hanson 1973, the 1979 Imperial County California earthquake Gates 1980, the
1983 Coalinga California earthquake Manos and Clough 1985, and the 1994
Northridge California earthquake Hall 1995 have also helped in identifying and improving deficiencies in codes of practices. Recently, Rai 2002 studied the performance
of elevated tanks during the 2002 Bhuj India earthquake and correlated it to the inadequacies in the prevailing practice.
Seismic analysis of liquid-containing tanks differs from buildings in two ways: first,
during seismic excitation, liquid inside the tank exerts hydrodynamic force on tank walls
and base. Second, liquid-containing tanks are generally less ductile and have low redundancy as compared to buildings. Traditionally, hydrodynamic forces in a tank-liquid system are evaluated using mechanical analog in the form of spring-mass system, which
a

Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Mechanics, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology,

Nagpur 440 011, India
b
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur
208 016, India
c
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208 016, India

239

Earthquake Spectra, Volume 23, No. 1, pages 239260, February 2007; 2007, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute

240

O. R. JAISWAL, D. C. RAI, AND S. K. JAIN

Table 1. Details of reviewed codes and standards

Code/Standard
2006 IBC & ASCE 7
Eurocode 8 1998
NZSEE
ACI 350.3 2001
ACI 371 1998
AWWA D-100 2005
AWWA D-110 1995
AWWA D-115 1995
API 650 2005

Type of tanks
considered1

Seismic
force level2

Provisions on
convective mode

1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4
1,2,3,4
1,3
3
2,3,4
1
1
2

SD
SD
SD
ASD
SD
ASD
ASD
ASD
ASD

Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes3
Yes
Yes
Yes

1=Ground-supported RC/PSC tanks; 2=ground-supported steel tanks; 3=elevated

tanks on shaft-type tower 4=elevated tanks on frame-type tower
2
SD=strength design level; ASD=allowable stress design level
3
Provisions on convective mode are given for ground-supported tanks only.

simulate the impulsive and convective mode of vibration of a tank-fluid system Housner
1963; Veletsos and Yang 1977. Due to low ductility and redundancy, lateral design seismic forces for tanks are usually higher than that for buildings with equivalent dynamic
characteristics, which is achieved by specifying lower values of response modification
factor or its equivalent factor. Since tanks have higher utility and damage consequences,
codes specify a higher importance factor for liquid-containing tanks, which further increases design seismic forces for tanks.
Though the aforementioned general features are retained by various codes of practices, their implementation strategy is rather varied leading to significantly different design forces in some cases. In this paper, ten such documents are reviewed and significant
differences in their provisions are brought out to help develop a unified seismic design
approach. The focus of the paper is primarily on the provisions related to design seismic
forces and modeling for the seismic analysis of the tank-liquid system.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF REVIEWED CODES AND STANDARDS
Table 1 lists various codes and standards reviewed in this paper. Among these, 2006
IBC, Eurocode 8, and NZSEE are national codes, and ACI 350.3, ACI 371, AWWA
D-100, AWWA D-110, AWWA D-115, and API 650 are standards from American industries, namely, American Concrete Institute ACI, American Water Works Association
AWWA, and American Petroleum Institute API. For the sake of brevity, standards
from AWWA will be denoted as D-100, D-110, and D-115. For such structures, the 2006
IBC refers to ASCE 7 2005, which has two sets of provisions: the first is its own provisions on design seismic forces and analysis, whereas the second consists of modified
expressions for design seismic forces given in other standards from American industries
AWWA, API, and ACI. This modification was necessary so that the seismic hazard parameters as contained in ASCE 7/ 2006 IBC are referred by all such standards, which

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241

originally referred to 1994 and 1997 UBC. However, API 650 and D-100 have already
adopted ASCE 7 parameters, hence in ASCE 7 there are no modifications for API 650
and D-100. Recommendations for the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering
NZSEE 1986 were originally developed by Priestley et al., and were modified by Whittaker and Jury 2000 to incorporate the changes in the primary New Zealand code for
design loading, NZS 4203 1992.
Various types of tanks considered in these codes and standards can be broadly put
into the following four categories:
1 ground-supported RC/PSC tanks
2 ground-supported steel tanks
3 elevated tanks on shaft-type tower
4 elevated tanks on frame-type tower
Details on the types of tanks considered in each of the documents are also given in Table
1. ASCE 7, Eurocode 8, and NZSEE deal with all four categories of tanks. Standards
from other American industries deal with only those tanks that are used in that particular
industry. Some of the documents specify design seismic force at strength design level,
and others specify at working stress design level Table 1. In strength design, factored
loads are used and they correspond to ultimate level. Provisions on the evaluation of
convective mode seismic forces are given in all the documents except ACI 371.
PROVISIONS ON DESIGN SEISMIC FORCE
Lateral design seismic forces for liquid-containing tanks include impulsive Vi and
convective Vc components. The impulsive component is expressed as Vi = CsiWi,
where Csi is the impulsive base shear coefficient and Wi is the seismic weight of the
impulsive component. Likewise, the convective component is given by Vc = CscWc. Expressions for the base shear coefficient of impulsive Csi and connective Csc components from ASCE 7, Eurocode 8, and NZSEE are given in Table 2. Corresponding expressions from ACI, AWWA, and API standards are given in Tables 3 and 4, along with
the modified expressions of ASCE 7. Various terms used in these expressions are also
described in these tables. Base shear coefficient is typically specified in terms of design
acceleration spectrum, seismic zone factor, soil factor, importance factor, response
modification factor, and damping factor. In the next section, various quantities involved
in the expressions for base shear coefficient from various codes/standards are reviewed
and compared.
VARIATION OF BASE SHEAR COEFFICIENT WITH TIME PERIOD

Variation of base shear coefficient with natural period can typically be divided into
three time period ranges: acceleration-sensitive or short-period range, velocitysensitive range, and displacement-sensitive or long-period range. In most of the codes,
impulsive and convective mode base shear coefficients have a different type of variation
with natural period and therefore they are discussed separately.

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Table 2. Base shear coefficient from 2006 IBC/ASCE 7, Eurocode 8, and NZSEE
Code
2006 IBC
/ASCE 7

Expression for base shear coefficient

For impulsive mode

For convective mode

SDSI
for Ti Ts
R
SD1I
=
for Ts Ti TL
RTi
SD1ITL
=
for Ti TL
RTi2
0.5S1

Csi =

SD1I
for Tc TL
Tc
SDSI
SD1ITL
=
for Tc TL
Tc2

Csc =

I is importance factor; R is response modification factor; Ti is natural period of

impulsive mode; Tc is natural period of convective mode; SDS and SD1 are design
spectra response coefficients; Ts = SD1 / SDS; TL is transition period for long-period range;
and S1 is mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral response acceleration at a
period of 1 s.
Eurocode 8 For impulsive mode
Csi = ISe or ISd

For convective mode

Csi = ISe

where Se is elastic spectrum and Sd is design spectrum; I is importance factor.

T
T 2.5
Sd = S 1 +
Se = S 1 +
0 T TB
1 0 T TB
TB2.5 1
TB q
=2.5S TB T Tc
S
=2.5 TB T Tc
Tc
q
=2.5S
Tc T 3
T
S Tc 2/3
=2.5
0.2Tc T 3
q T
Tc
= 7.5S 2 3 T
S Tc2/3
T
0.23 T
=39
q T5/3
0.5
7
=
2+

is peak ground acceleration factor; S is soil factor; is damping factor; is viscous

damping ratio; q is behavior factor; T is natural period; and TB andTc are periods at
which constant-acceleration and constant-velocity range begin, respectively.
NZSEE

For impulsive and convective mode

Csi = ChT,1SpRZLuCf,

ChT , 1 is basic seismic hazard coefficient; T is natural period; Sp is performance

factor; R is risk factor; Z is zone factor; Lu is limit state factor; and Cf , is correction
factor that depends on ductility factor, , and damping factor, .

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243

Table 3. Impulsive mode base shear coefficient from American industry standards
Standard

Original expression from standard

2.75ZI
for Ti 0.31 s
Rwi
1.25ZIS
for Ti 0.31 s
=
RwTi2/3
2.75ZI

Rwi

Csi =
ACI 350.3

Modified expression from ASCE 7

Csi =

0.6

SDs
Ti + 0.4SDS I
T0
for 0 Ti Ts
1.4R

SDSI
for T0 Ti Ts
1.4R
SD1I
=
for Ts Ti TL
1.4RTi
SD1ITL
=
for Ti TL
RTi2
=

D-110

Csi =

1.25ZIS 2.75ZI

Ri
RiT2/3
i

Same as ACI 350.3

D-115

Csi =

1.25ZIS 2.75ZI

Rw
RwT2/3
i

Same as ACI 350.3

SDSI
Rwi
0.007 or 0.5S1I/Rwi

No modification

SDSI
for 0 Ti Ts
1.4Ri
SD1I
=
for Ts Ti TL
1.4RiTi
SD1ITL
=
for Ti TL
1.4RiTi2
0.36S1I/Ri

No modification

Csi =
API 650

Csi =

D-100

1.2CV
RT2/3
i
2.5Ca

R
0.5Ca

Csi =
ACI 371

SD1I
for Ts Ti 2.5 s
RTi
SDSI
and 0.2SDS

Csi =

Note: Z is zone factor; S is soil factor; I is importance factor; R, Ri, Rw, and Rwi are response modification
factor; SDS and SD1 are design spectra response coefficients; S1 is mapped maximum considered earthquake
spectral response acceleration at a period of 1 s; Ca and Cv, are seismic acceleration coefficients; Ti is natural
period of impulsive mode; To = 0.2SDS / SD1; Ts = SD1 / SDS; and TL is transition period for long-period range.

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Table 4. Convective mode base shear coefficient from American industry standards
Standard

Original expression from standard

1.875ZIS
2.75ZI for Tc 2.4 s
Tc2/3
6ZIS
= 2 for Tc 2.4 s
Tc

Modified expression from ASCE 7

Csc =
ACI 350.3

Csc =

1.5SD1ITL
for all values of Tc
Tc2

D-110

Csc =

4ZIS
RcT2c

Same as ACI 350.3

D-115

Csc =

ZIS
RwTc

Same as ACI 350.3

1.5SD1I
for Tc TL
TcRwc
1.5SD1ITL
=
for Tc TL
Tc2Rwc
Csi

No modification

1.5SD1I
for Tc TL
1.4TcRc
SDSI/1.4Rc
1.5SD1ITL
=
for Tc TL
1.4Tc2Rc

No modification

Csc =
API 650

Csc =
D-100

ACI 371

No Provision

No Provision

Note: Z is zone factor; S is soil factor; I is importance factor; Rc, Rc, and Rw are response modification factor;
SDS and SD1 are design spectra response coefficients; Ts = SD1 / SDS; Tc is natural period of convective mode; and
TL is transition period for long-period range.

Impulsive Mode
Natural period of the impulsive mode Ti for ground-supported RC/PSC tanks,
which may have a flexible base, is expected to remain in the acceleration-sensitive or
velocity-sensitive range, and therefore, in ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115, the impulsive
base shear coefficient is specified in these ranges only. In these standards, the base shear
coefficient has a constant value in the acceleration-sensitive range and beyond this range
variation Table 3, which has been changed to 1 / Ti in ASCE 7 modified
it has 1 / T2/3
i
expressions for Ts Ti TL, and for Ti TL it has 1 / T2i variation. Here TL is transition

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245

Table 5. Basic seismic hazard coefficient, ChT , 1, for flexible soil NZS 4203
Period, T in s

Ch T , 1

0.0 to 0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.00

4.00

1.0

0.94

0.88

0.81

0.75

0.52

0.38

0.30

0.25

0.19

period for long-period or constant displacement range. ASCE 7 provides contour maps
for values of TL in various regions of America. These contour maps are given for TL
= 4, 6, 8, 12, and 16 s.
Natural period of the impulsive mode for ground-supported steel tanks is expected to
remain in the acceleration-sensitive range, and therefore API 650 specifies a constant
value of the base shear coefficient, which is independent of time period. The value of the
base shear coefficient shall not be less than 0.007 for tanks on hard or stiff soil and shall
not be less than 0.5S1I / Rwi for tanks on very soft soils.
Impulsive base shear coefficients given in ASCE 7, D-100, and Eurocode 8 are applicable to ground-supported as well as elevated tanks. Since elevated tanks can have
quite large time period for the impulsive mode, ASCE 7, D-100, and Eurocode 8 have
specifically prescribed variation of the impulsive base shear coefficient in the
displacement-sensitive range also. In ASCE 7, the impulsive base shear coefficient has a
constant value in the acceleration-sensitive range and has 1 / Ti variation in the velocitysensitive range, and in the displacement-sensitive range it has 1 / T2i variation. There is a
lower limit 0.5S1 on base shear coefficient, however, which ensures a minimum level
of design force. This lower limit of ASCE 7 is quite higher than the lower limit specified
by D-100 0.36S1I / Ri.
In Eurocode 8, two types of spectra, namely, the elastic spectrum and the design
spectrum, are mentioned see Table 2. In the acceleration-sensitive range, both the spectra have a rising part from zero periods to TB, at which constant-acceleration range begins and continues up to Tc. In the velocity-sensitive range, which begins at Tc, the elastic spectrum has 1 / Ti variation, whereas the design spectrum has 1 / T2/3
i variation. In the
displacement-sensitive range, which begins at 3 s, the elastic spectrum has 1 / T2i variation, whereas the design spectrum has 1 / T5/3
variation. The elastic spectrum does not
i
have any lower limit, but the design spectrum has a lower limit due to which the base
shear coefficient is a constant value in the long-period range Table 2. This lower limit
is similar to one given in ASCE 7 and D-100. ACI 371 also specifies such a lower limit
for elevated tanks on pedestal tower and the modified expression of ASCE 7 retains this
lower limit Table 3. In NZSEE, variation of the base shear coefficient with time period
is governed by the basic seismic hazard coefficient ChT , 1, which is taken from NZS
4203 1992. The basic seismic hazard coefficient corresponds to the elastic design level,
i.e., ductility factor = 1.0. In NZS 4203, values of ChT , 1 for different time periodT
are given in tabular form and they depend on soil type. Values of ChT , 1 for flexible
soil are reproduced in Table 5, wherein it is seen that in the short-period range, ChT , 1
has constant value.

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Convective Mode
The natural period of convective mode Tc is usually more than 2 s and can be as
high as 10 s. Thus, for convective mode, variation of the base shear coefficient in the
velocity- and displacement-sensitive range is of relevance. Significant differences exist
among various codes in specified variation of the convective base shear coefficient with
time period. ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650 put an upper limit on the convective base
shear coefficient, whereas ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115 do not have such upper limit
Table 4. The upper limit specified in API 650 is quite different and lower than that
specified in ASCE 7 and D-100. In ASCE 7, ACI 350.3, D-100, and API 650, the
displacement-sensitive range is well demarcated from the velocity-sensitive range. The
displacement-sensitive range begins at 2.4 s in ACI 350.3 Table 4, whereas in ASCE 7,
D-100, and API 450 it begins at TL, whose values varies from 4 to 16 s, depending on
the location. In these standards, base shear coefficient has 1 / T2c variation in
displacement-sensitive range. In velocity-sensitive range, convective base shear coefficient varies as 1 / T2/3
c in ACI 350.3, whereas in ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650, it has 1 / Tc
variation. D-110 and D-115 do not explicitly specify the beginning of the displacementsensitive range. Moreover, D-110 specifies 1 / T2c variation for all values of Tc, whereas
D-115 specifies 1 / Tc variation for all values of Tc Table 4. Notwithstanding the differences in the convective base shear coefficients of ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115, the
modified expression of ASCE 7 is the same for these standards Table 4.
In Eurocode 8 and NZSEE, variation of the base shear coefficient with time period in
convective and impulsive modes is the same. It may be recalled here that NZSEE uses
the basic seismic hazard coefficient ChT , 1 given in NZS 4203, whose values are given
for a maximum period of 4 s only Table 5, which may be too low for certain shallow
containers.
RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTOR

In seismic codes, design seismic forces are reduced by a certain amount depending
on the ductility, overstrength, and redundancy of the structure or depending on its
energy-absorbing capacity. In ASCE 7, this reduction is achieved with the help of the
response modification factor R; Eurocode 8 uses the behavior factor q; and NZSEE uses
the correction factor Cf, which is a function of ductility factor and damping ratio .
Standards from American industries use a factor similar to the response modification
factor of ASCE 7; however, D-110 and D-115 refer to it as a structure coefficient.
Significant differences are seen in the strategies followed by different codes to reduce elastic design seismic force. The first major difference pertains to classification of
tanks depending on their energy-absorbing capacity. Some codes and standards give a
detailed classification of tanks and specify the value of the response modification factor
for each type of tank. For example, three types of ground-supported RC and PSC tanks
and two types of ground-supported steel tanks are described in ASCE 7 and other
American standards. Details of these tanks and their response modification factors are
given in Table 6. NZSEE also suggests classification for tanks, which is given in Table 7
along with the corresponding values of ductility factor , damping ratio , and correc-

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Table 6. Type of tanks and response modification factors from American standards
Type of base

Response modification factor

Ground-supported RC/PSC tanks
ASCE 7

Anchored flexible
Reinforced nonsliding
Unanchored and
contained flexible
Unanchored and
uncontained flexible

ACI 350.3

D-110

D-115

Impl.

Conv.

Impl.

Conv.

Impl.

Conv.

Impl.

Conv.

3.0
2.0

1.5
1.5

4.5
2.75
2.0

1.0
1.0
1.0

4.5
2.75

1.0
1.0

2.5
3.0
3.0

2.5
3.0
3.0

1.5

1.5

2.0

1.0

2.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

Ground-supported steel tanks

ASCE 7
Mechanically anchored
Self anchored

3.0
2.5

1.5
1.5

ASCE 7
RC pedestal
Braced/ unbraced legs

2.0
3.0

1.5
1.5

D-100
3.0
2.5

API 650

1.5
4.0
1.5
3.5
Elevated tanks

ACI 350.3
3.0

1.0

2.0
2.0

ACI 371
2.0

D-100
3.01
3.0

1.51
1.5

a = No provision
1
For steel pedestal

tion factor Cf. It may be noted that NZSEE gives a detailed classification for groundsupported steel tanks but does not give such a classification for RC/PSC tanks. It is intriguing to note that Eurocode 8 does not suggest any classification for groundsupported tanks. It mentions that elastic design forces i.e., q = 1 shall be used for all
types of ground-supported tanks unless better energy-dissipating capacity is demonstrated by proper analysis.
Values of the response modification factor from D-115 are quite different than those
from ACI 350.3 and D-110 Table 6. Moreover, D-115 uses the response modification
factor for the convective mode, which is not the case with ACI 350.3 and D-110. D-115
specifies different values of the response modification factor for unanchored contained
and unanchored uncontained bases; however, ACI 350.3 specifies the same values for
these two base conditions.
The values of the response modification factor from ACI 350.3, D-110, and API 650
are about 1.4 times higher than that of ASCE 7 Table 6. This difference is due to the
fact that ASCE 7 specifies seismic design forces at the strength design level, whereas
ACI 350.3, D-110, and API 650 are at the allowable stress design level. In this context
it is interesting to note that D-100 also specifies seismic design forces at the allowable

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O. R. JAISWAL, D. C. RAI, AND S. K. JAIN

Table 7. Types of tanks, ductility factor , damping ratio , and correction factor Cf, from NZSEE Whittaker and Jury 2000
Type of Tank
Steel Tanks on Grade
Elastically supported
Unanchored tank designed for uplift elephant foot shell
buckling may occur under seismic overload
Unanchored tank designed for uplift and elastic
diamond shaped shell buckling mode
Anchored with nonductile hold-down bolts
Anchored with ductile tension yielding hold-down bolts
Ductile skirt pedestal
On concrete base pad designed for rocking
Concrete Tanks on Grade
Reinforced concrete
Prestressed concrete
Elevated Tanks

Cf

1.25
2.0a

Impl.**
2
2

Conv.
0.5
0.5

Impl.
0.83
0.54

Conv.
0.92
0.58

1.25

0.5

0.83

0.92

1.25
3.0b
3.0b
2.0b

2
2
2
2

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

0.83
0.41
0.41
0.54

0.92
0.43
0.43
0.58

1.25
1.0

5
5

0.5
0.5
0.5

0.72
1.0

0.92
1.75

Check that elastic buckling does not occur before elephant foot.
Capacity design check required to protect against other forms of failure.
*
As appropriate for support structure. Capacity design approach shall be used to protect elevated tanks against
failure while yielding occurs in the chosen support system
**
Damping ratio depends on soil type and aspect ratio of tank. Values given here are for soil with shear-wave
velocity of 500 m / s and height to radius ratio of 2.0.
b

stress design level; however, it uses a factor of 1.4 to convert seismic design forces from
strength design level to allowable stress design level. Hence the values of the response
modification factor in D-100 are the same as those in ASCE 7. In the case of elevated
tanks, the response modification factor depends on the structural form of the supporting
tower. Different response modification factors are suggested in ASCE 7 for tanks supported on pedestal towers and frame-type towers. However, NZSEE does not give any
specific description of a supporting tower, and it merely states that the ductility factor
applicable to a supporting tower shall be used Table 7. Similarly, Eurocode 8 suggests
elastic design forces i.e., q = 1 for all elevated tank types except for tanks with low risk
and simple types of support structures, for which q = 2 can be used. D-100 has specified
a response modification factor of 3.0 for elevated tanks on frame-type towers and pedestal towers. It is to be noted that the pedestal tower referred to in D-100 is of steel
plates, whereas ASCE 7, ACI 350.3, and ACI 371 refer to the RC pedestal tower.
Another major difference among various codes is regarding the use of the response
modification factor for convective forces. ACI 350.3, D-110, and Eurocode 8 explicitly
mention that the response modification factor shall not be used for the convective mode,
thereby implying that no reduction due to the energy-dissipating capacity is available.
ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650 allow limited reduction in convective mode forces by
specifying lower values of the response modification factor for the convective mode.
ASCE 7 and D-100 specify a response modification factor of 1.5 and API 650 suggests

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249

a response modification factor of 2.0. Moreover, in these standards, the response modification factor for the convective mode is the same for all types of tanks. On the other
hand, D-115 and NZSEE allow large reduction in convective forces by specifying the
same response modification factor or its equivalent factor used for impulsive forces.
Thus in D-115 and NZSEE the response modification factor for the convective mode is
different for different types of tanks.
DAMPING IN IMPULSIVE AND CONVECTIVE MODES

All codes prescribe 0.5% damping for the convective mode, whereas for the impulsive mode they have different values, depending on the type of the tank, construction
material, etc. ASCE 7 uses 5% damping for impulsive modes in all types of tanks and
this results in a design spectrum that is 1.5 times lower than the 0.5% damped spectrum
in the velocity sensitive range. Eurocode 8 specifies 5% damping for the impulsive mode
of RC and PSC tanks and 2% damping for steel tanks and its effect is included in the
damping factor, . Thus the convective spectrum = 0.5% is 1.7 times the impulsive
spectrum = 5 % in Eurocode 8.
NZSEE specifies 0.5% damping for the convective mode in all types of tanks, and
for the impulsive mode of ground-supported tanks, it suggests damping values that depend on tank material, aspect ratio of tank geometry, and foundation soil shear wave
velocity. However, for elevated tanks, NZSEE does not suggest any specific value for the
impulsive mode, and it mentions that the damping value appropriate for the supporting
tower of an elevated tank shall be used. In NZSEE, the effect of damping on the correction factor Cf depends on the ductility factor Table 7.
ACI 350.3, which deals with RC/PSC tanks, has 5% damping for the impulsive
mode and 0.5% damping for the convective mode. Further, in the velocity-sensitive
range, the 0.5% spectrum is 1.5 times higher than the 5% spectrum. D-110 and D-115,
which deal with PSC tanks, suggest 5% damping for the impulsive mode and 0.5%
damping for the convective mode. API 650 and D-100, which deals with steel tanks,
specify 5% damping for the impulsive mode and 0.5% damping for the convective
mode, and the 0.5% spectrum is 1.5 times higher than the 5% spectrum in the velocitysensitive range. It is to be noted that in D-110 and D-115, the impulsive and convective
base shear coefficients have a different variation with natural period.
IMPORTANCE FACTOR

The importance factor depends on the utility of tank and damage consequences. In
ASCE 7, tanks are classified in three categories I = 1.5, 1.25, and 1.0, which depend on
functional requirements and hazards due to leakage of their content. In Eurocode 8,
tanks are assigned three protection levels depending on the type of liquid stored. Each
protection level is further assigned three classes of reliability depending on risk to life
and environmental, economical, and social consequences. Thus there are nine values of
the importance factor, ranging from 0.8 to 1.6. NZSEE uses a risk factor whose values
range from 0.5 to 1.6, depending on whether consequences of failure are negligible,
slight, moderate, or extreme, which are arrived at by considering risk to life, environment, community utility, and value of adjoining properties.

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ACI 350.3, D-100, and API 650 also classify tanks in three categories with importance factors of 1.5, 1.25, and 1.0, respectively. ACI 350.3 mentions that a value greater
than 1.5 may be used for tanks containing hazardous materials, depending on engineering judgment to account for the possibility of an earthquake greater than the design
earthquake. D-110 and D-115 group tanks in two categories with importance factors of
1.25 and 1.0, respectively.
COMPARISON OF BASE SHEAR COEFFICIENTS FROM VARIOUS CODES
As discussed above, among various codes, significant qualitative and quantitative
differences exist in the parameters associated with base shear coefficients. These differences lead to large variations in the values of base shear coefficients across these codes,
as shown in Figures 13. Impulsive and convective mode base shear coefficients are
compared separately at strength design level, for which prescribed values in American
industry standards except ACI 371 at working stress level were multiplied by a factor
of 1.4. For this comparison, several parameters corresponding to a similar seismic hazard level are chosen from various codes and are given in Table 8. The soil categories
chosen from various codes represent medium to stiff soil, representing approximately
similar shear-wave velocity. In ASCE 7, the value of transition period TL is taken as 4 s.
GROUND-SUPPORTED RC/PSC TANKS

In Figure 1, a comparison for ground-supported RC/PSC tanks with three types of

base conditions is presented. Unlike American standards, impulsive base shear coefficients from NZSEE and Eurocode 8 have higher values as they either permit very little
inelastic behavior or none. Among American codes, impulsive base shear coefficients of
D-115 are different from those from ACI 350.3, D-110, and ASCE 7 Figure 1 because
of its very different values of response modification factor Table 6. The lower-bound
limit on the impulsive base shear coefficient from ASCE 7 is quite high.
In NZSEE, for PSC tanks, the value of the correction factor Cf for convective mode
is 1.75 compared to 0.92 for RC tanks Table 6, and hence PSC tanks have a significantly higher convective base shear coefficient than RC tanks. Further, convective base
shear coefficient values from ACI 350.3 are quite higher than those from D-110 and
ASCE 7.
Comparison of base shear coefficient from American industry standards and corresponding modified expressions from ASCE 7 is given in Table 9. This comparison is
presented at selected values of time periods for impulsive and convective modes. ASCE
7 modifications suggest the same values of base shear coefficients for ACI 350.3, D-110,
and D-115. The modified values match well with ACI 350.3 values for ground-supported
RC/PSC tanks on flexible base and for elevated tanks on shaft support.
GROUND-SUPPORTED STEEL TANKS

Comparison of the base shear coefficient is presented in Figure 2 for groundsupported steel tanks with anchored and unanchored bases. The impulsive base shear
coefficient from Eurocode 8 is on the higher side, since it is specified at the elastic level.

REVIEW OF SEISMIC CODES ON LIQUID-CONTAINING TANKS

Figure 1. Base shear coefficient for RC/PSC tanks.

251

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O. R. JAISWAL, D. C. RAI, AND S. K. JAIN

Figure 2. Base shear coefficient for ground-supported steel tanks.

For tanks with ductile anchored bolts, NZSEE suggests a very high ductility factor,
hence its impulsive base shear coefficient is less than that for anchored tanks with nonductile bolts Figure 2a. In API 650, due to a lower value of upper limit, the convective
base shear coefficient remains constant for natural periods less than 2 s. On the other
hand, in ASCE 7 and D-100 this upper limit is quite high and its effect is not seen for
natural periods greater than 1.5 s Figure 2.
Since API 650 and D-100 have already adopted parameters from ASCE 7, there are
no modifications in ASCE 7 for these standards. Hence, in Table 9, there is no comparison between API 650, D-100, and modified expressions of ASCE 7.

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253

Figure 3. Base shear coefficient for elevated tanks.

ELEVATED TANKS

In Figure 3, comparison of the base shear coefficient for elevated tanks on a frametype tower and a RC shafttype tower is presented. Since NZSEE does not give explicit
values of the ductility factor for elevated tanks, a ductility factor = 3.0 for the frametype tower and = 2.0 for RC shafttype tower is assumed for comparison purposes. In
Eurocode 8, impulsive base shear coefficients for both the elevated tanks correspond to
behavior factor q = 2. The convective base shear coefficient from ACI 350.3 is quite a bit
higher. Base shear coefficients per the modified expressions of ASCE 7 match well with
those obtained from ACI 350.3, ACI 371, and D-100 Table 9.

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Table 8. Parameters from various codes and standards

Code/Standard

Values of various parameters

ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650

Eurocode 8
NZSEE
ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115
ACI 371

SS = 1.5, S1 = 0.6, Fa = 1.0, FV = 1.5, Site Class D,

I = 1.25, SDS = 2 / 3FaSS, SD1 = 2 / 3FVS1, TL = 4 s
= 0.3, S = 1, = 1.2, TB = 0.15, TC = 0.6, q = 2, sub
soil class B
Z = 1.2, Sp = 1.0, R = 1.3, Lu = 1, site category C
Z = 0.4, I = 1.25, S = 1.5, Soil type C
Ca = 0.44, Cv = 0.64, Soil type D

PROVISIONS ON ANALYSIS OF TANKS

Codes and standards also give provisions for analysis of the tank liquid system.
These provisions deal with modeling of the tank-liquid system, rules for combining impulsive and convective responses, hydrodynamic pressure on wall, sloshing wave height,
and so on. Some important provisions on analysis aspects are reviewed and compared in
this section.
MODELING OF TANK LIQUID SYSTEM

All the codes and standards suggest modeling the tank-liquid system using mechanical analogs, wherein liquid mass is divided into impulsive and convective masses. The
impulsive liquid mass vibrates along with the tank wall and the convective liquid mass
vibrates relative to the tank wall and undergoes sloshing motion. Liquid in the lower
portion mostly contributes to impulsive mass and liquid in the upper portion undergoes
sloshing motion. Housner 1963 has given details on impulsive and convective masses.
In the literature, two types of mechanical analogs are available for obtaining impulsive
and convective masses. The first one is for tanks with rigid walls, which represents the
tank-liquid system as a two-mass model Housner 1963; Veletsos and Yang 1977. The
second one is for tanks with flexible walls, which represents the tank-liquid system as a
three-mass model Haroun and Housner 1981; Veletsos 1984. In the three-mass model,
the effect of wall flexibility is included while evaluating impulsive and convective
masses. Except for NZSEE, all other codes use a rigid tank model for all types of tanks.
NZSEE uses a rigid tank model for RC tanks, and a flexible tank model for steel tanks.
The effect of wall flexibility on impulsive and convective mass has been studied by Veletsos 1984, and it is shown that wall flexibility becomes important only for very slender and thin tanks. Moreover, those codes, which use the rigid tank model, do include
the effect of wall flexibility in the evaluation of impulsive mode time period. Thus wall
flexibility is neglected only in the evaluation of impulsive and convective masses, but is
included in the evaluation of time period.
It is important to point out that the mechanical analog is a combination of impulsive
and convective responses. ASCE 7, and Eurocode 8 use the absolute summation rule,
whereas ACI 350.3, D-110, D-115, D-100, API 650, and NZSEE use the SRSS rule. The
absolute summation rule in Eurocode 8 is taken from Malhotra et al. 2000; however,

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255

Table 9. Comparison of base shear coefficient obtained from original expressions of various
American industry standards with their modified expressions given in ASCE 71
Time period s
ACI 350.3
D-110
D-115
Modified2

Original
Original
Original
0.17

ACI 350.3
D-110
D-115

Original
Original
Original
Modified2

ACI 350.3
D-110
D-115

Original
Original
Original
Modified2

ACI 350.3

Original
Modified
Original
Modified

ACI 371
1
2

Impulsive base shear coeff.

0.0
0.2
0.5
0.8
1.0

Convective base shear coeff.

2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0

Ground-supported RC/PSC tanks; flexible base

0.43 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.29 1.24 0.70 0.39 0.25
0.43 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.29 1.05 0.47 0.26 0.17
0.77 0.77 0.77 0.61 0.53 0.21 0.14 0.11 0.08
0.42 0.42 0.31 0.25 1.60 0.70 0.39 0.25 0.18
Ground-supported RC/PSC tanks; reinforced nonsliding base
0.70 0.70 0.70 0.55 0.48
Same as flexible base
0.70 0.70 0.70 0.55 0.48
Same as flexible base
0.64 0.64 0.64 0.51 0.44 0.18 0.12 0.09 0.07
0.25 0.63 0.63 0.47 0.38
Same as flexible base
Ground-supported RC/PSC tanks; unanchored, uncontained base
0.96 0.96 0.96 0.76 0.66
Same as flexible base
0.96 0.96 0.96 0.76 0.66
Same as flexible base
1.93 1.93 1.93 1.52 1.31 0.53 0.35 0.26 0.21
0.33 0.83 0.83 0.62 0.50
Same as flexible base
Elevated tanks on shaft support
0.64 0.64 0.64 0.51 0.44 1.24 0.70 0.39 0.25
0.25 0.63 0.63 0.47 0.38
1.6
0.70 0.39 0.25
0.61 0.61 0.61 0.49 0.42

0.63 0.63 0.63 0.49 0.42

0.18
0.12
0.07

0.06

0.18

0.18
0.18

In ASCE 7, the value of TL is taken as 4 s.

common for ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115

recently Malhotra 2004 has also used the SRSS rule. Though ASCE 7 suggests use of
the absolute summation rule, it also mentions that the SRSS rule may also be used.
HYDRODYNAMIC PRESSURE ON TANK WALL AND BASE

Stresses in the tank wall depend on distribution of hydrodynamic pressure along its
height. Distribution of impulsive and convective hydrodynamic pressure along wall
height, which is curvilinear, is described in NZSEE and Eurocode 8, and is based on the
work of Housner 1963. Simplified linear pressure distribution is also described in NZSEE and ACI 350.3. Expressions for hydrodynamic pressure on the tank base are given
in NZSEE only; however, the effect of hydrodynamic pressure on a tank base in obtaining overturning moment is included in all the codes. ASCE 7 does not specify hydrodynamic pressure distribution on wall and base; however, as mentioned earlier, for different
types of tanks, it suggests using the provisions of respective industry standards.

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O. R. JAISWAL, D. C. RAI, AND S. K. JAIN

SLOSHING WAVE HEIGHT

The sloshing component of liquid mass undergoes vertical displacement and it is

necessary to provide suitable freeboard to prevent spilling of liquid and possible damage
to the tank roof. All the codes except D-115 and ACI 371 give explicit expressions to
evaluate maximum sloshing wave height. ACI 350.3 and D-110 give the sloshing wave
height as CscRo, where Csc is the convective mode base shear coefficient and Ro is
the radius of the tank. Eurocode 8 suggests wave height as 0.84CscRo. NZSEE recommends that the contribution of the higher sloshing mode shall be considered while evaluating the sloshing wave height. However, if only the first sloshing mode is considered,
then the sloshing height is given as 0.84CscRo. ASCE 7 and API 650 suggest the sloshing wave height as CscRoRwc and D-100 suggests CscR01.4Rwc, where Rwc is the
response modification factor for the convective mode. In ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650,
the upper limit on the convective base shear coefficient is not applicable for obtaining
the sloshing wave height. For determining the sloshing wave height in tanks under low
seismic user group, D-100 and API 650 suggest setting the value of the transition period
TL as 4 s. Though D-115 does not give any explicit expression for sloshing wave height,
it mentions that the sloshing wave height shall be evaluated per Housner 1963. A comparison of the sloshing wave height from various codes and standards is shown in Table
10. Like the convective base shear coefficient, ACI 350.3 also overestimates the sloshing
wave height. In NZSEE, for different types of tanks, different values of the response
modification factor are used in the expression for the convective base shear coefficient.
Hence one gets different sloshing wave heights in different types of tanks when using
NZSEE, whereas in other codes, sloshing wave height remains the same for all types of
tanks.
Based on the sloshing wave height, Malhotra 2005 has proposed a simplified
method of estimating the additional design forces for tank roof and walls, when sufficient freeboard is not provided.
SOIL STRUCTURE INTERACTION

Provisions on soil structure interaction are given in ASCE 7, NZSEE, and Eurocode
8. Soil flexibility enhances the impulsive time period, and radiation damping of the soil

Table 10. Comparison of sloshing wave height from various codes and standards
Ts
2
4
6
8
1

Sloshing wave height/radius of tank

ASCE 7 Eurocode 8 NZSEE1 NZSEE2 NZSEE3 ACI 350.3 D-110 D-100 API 650
0.56
0.38
0.46
0.87
0.21
0.88
0.75
0.56
0.56
0.28
0.14
0.23
0.43
0.107
0.28
0.19
0.28
0.28
0.125
0.063

0.125
0.083 0.125 0.125
0.07
0.035

0.07
0.047 0.07
0.07

RC tanks and unanchored steel tanks

PSC tanks
3
Anchored steel tanks with ductile bolts
2

REVIEW OF SEISMIC CODES ON LIQUID-CONTAINING TANKS

257

increases the total damping of the structure. Expressions for the impulsive time period
including soil flexibility are given in ASCE 7, NZSEE, and Eurocode 8, along with expressions for the equivalent damping of a tank including the radial damping of soil,
which are taken from Veletsos 1984.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Recognizing that liquid-containing tanks possess low ductility and redundancy, all
the codes discussed in this paper suggest higher design seismic force for tanks by specifying lower values of the response modification factor or its equivalent factor in comparison to the building system. There are substantial differences, however, in the manner
and extent to which design seismic forces are increased in various codes. American
codes and standards provide a detailed classification of tanks and are assigned a different
value of the response modification factor. In contrast, Eurocode 8 and NZSEE do not
have such detailed classification, although NZSEE has given classification for groundsupported steel tanks. Due to this basic difference in the strategy, there is a large variation in the values of impulsive and convective base shear coefficients from Eurocode 8,
NZSEE, and American standards Figures 13.
Interestingly, there are some appreciable differences among American standards also.
Convective base shear forces from ACI 350.3 are quite a bit higher than those given in
other American standards. The lower limit on the impulsive base shear coefficient specified in ASCE 7 0.5S1 is quite different and is higher than that specified in D-100
0.36S1I / Ri and API 650 0.5S1I / Rwi. Moreover, there is no such lower limit in ACI
350.3. For convective base shear, ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650 specify an upper limit,
which is not present in ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115. Moreover, this upper limit is on
the lower side in API 650 in comparison to that of ASCE 7 and D-100. For elevated
tanks, which can have a large time period in the impulsive mode, D-100, and ACI 371
have given a lower limit on the value of the impulsive base shear coefficient. Such a
lower limit does not exist for elevated tanks in ACI 350.3. For the convective base shear
coefficient, in ACI 350.3, the displacement-sensitive range begins at 2.4 s, whereas in
ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650, it begins the transition period TL, whose values vary from
4 to 16 s, depending on the location of the site. ACI 350.3 and D-110 have identical
expressions for the impulsive base shear coefficient, but for the convective base shear
they have quite different expressions.
Provisions of D-115, which deals with ground-supported PSC tanks, are singularly
different from those of D-110 and ACI 350.3. These differences are in the values of the
response modification factor, nature of the variation of convective base shear coefficient
with time period, and presence of the response modification factor in the expression for
convective base shear. Provisions of D-115 need a critical revision so as to make them
consistent with other American standards.
D-100 and API 650 specify design seismic forces in terms of the ground-motion parameters of ASCE 7. However, other standards from American industry ACI 350.3,
D-110, D-115, and ACI 371 specify design seismic forces in terms of the groundmotion parameters of 1994 and 1997 UBC. For these standards, ASCE 7 suggests modi-

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O. R. JAISWAL, D. C. RAI, AND S. K. JAIN

fied expressions for design seismic forces in terms of its own ground motion parameters,
without changing the basic design philosophy of these standards. A critical review of
these modifications has revealed the following:
For ground-supported RC/PSC tanks, ASCE 7 modifications bring base shear coefficients of ACI 350.3, D-110, and D-115 at the same level. The ASCE 7 modifications match well with the original values of ACI 350.3.
For the convective base shear coefficient, ACI 350.3 values are on the higher
side, and in ASCE 7 modifications these higher values are retained. It seems that
ASCE 7 modifications should reduce its values by a factor of 1.4, so as to be
consistent with other provisions of ASCE 7.
Among other differences in various codes, it is noted that some codes continue to
specify design forces at the allowable stress design level, whereas others have upgraded
themselves to strength design level. In some codes ACI 350.3, D-110, Eurocode 8, the
response modification factor is not used for the convective mode; however, NZSEE and
D-115 use the same response modification factor as that of the impulsive mode. On the
other hand, ASCE 7, D-100, and API 650 use a lower value of response modification
factor for the convective mode.
Differences also exist in the provisions on the analysis of the tank-liquid system. NZSEE uses different mechanical analogs for tanks with rigid and flexible walls. All other
codes use the rigid tank model for all types of tanks. However, in these codes, design
acceleration corresponding to the impulsive mode time period is used, which depends on
wall flexibility. ASCE 7 and Eurocode 8 use the absolute summation rule, whereas ACI
350.3, D-110, D-115, D-100, API 650, and NZSEE use the SRSS rule to combine impulsive and convective responses. However, ASCE 7 states that SRSS rule may also be
used to combine impulsive and convective responses. Expressions for hydrodynamic
pressure distribution on the tank wall are provided in NZSEE, Eurocode 8, and ACI
350.3. Except for NZSEE, no code has given expressions for hydrodynamic pressure
distribution on the tank base. However, the effect of hydrodynamic pressure on the base
in the evaluation of overturning moment is considered in all the codes. Provisions on
soil-structure interaction are provided in ASCE 7, NZSEE, and Eurocode 8 only.
The present study has revealed significant differences in the seismic provisions of
various codes and standards on tanks, particularly with regard to design seismic forces.
There is an urgent need to evolve a unified approach for the classification of tanks and
the assigning of response modification factor for different types of tanks. Such a unified
approach will also help in ironing out other differences addressed in this study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported through a project awarded to IIT Kanpur by the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority GSDMA, Gandhinagar, through World
Bank finances. The views and opinions expressed therein are those of the authors and
not necessary those of the GSDMA or the World Bank. Mr. Stephen Meier of Tank Industry Consultants, USA, provided useful information regarding AWWA D-100 2005.

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259

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Received 21 January 2006; accepted 6 October 2006