Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Straight Wire
It is found, that when there is an electrical current flow for whatever reason, there will be an
associated magnetic field. Figure 2 depicts the magnetic dipole orientation curves for the
magnetic field associated with a current flow through a conducting wire.
Figure 3: magnitude of the magnetic field in the vicinity of a wire carrying an electrical current.
Helix
We cannot depict the magnitude of the entire magnetic field surrounding an electrical current
carrying helical coil, but we can take a convenient line through it and depict the magnitude of the
magnetic field along this line. In Figure 4, a red line is shown drawn at right angles to the central
axis of the helical coil and the magnitude of the magnetic field along it. Projected below this, is a
plot of the magnitude of the magnetic field along this red line.
Figure 4: conducting helical carrying an electric current: in the upper diagram are its associated
magnetic dipole orientation curves and in the lower diagram, a plot of the magnetic field
magnitude along the red line.
Toroid
Figure 5 depicts an electrical current carrying toroidal coil and the magnetic dipole orientation
curves associated with it. We cannot depict the magnitude of the entire field surrounding such a
toroidal coil but we can take a convenient line through it, and plot the magnitude of the magnetic
field along this line. In Figure 5, a red line is shown drawn through the centre of the toroidal coil:
projected below this, is a plot of the magnitude of the magnetic field along this red line.
The toroidal coil drawn here is depicted with widely spaced turns: this has been done only to
make the presentation clearer. In practice, especially for power applications, turns are closely
wound in several layers. The plot of the magnetic field magnitude is thus for a toroidal coil with
closely wound turns. The important feature to notice is that the great majority of the magnetic
field is confined to interior of the coil and only the leakage field appears outside it. For a
theoretically perfect toroidal coil, there would be no magnetic field at all outside the coil. This
feature is particularly useful when a coil carrying heavy current is deployed in the close vicinity of
sensitive electronic circuitry. Where a simple helical coil doing the same duty might be employed
with its attendant strong far reaching magnetic field , the toroidal coil will perform the same
function with very little exterior magnetic field that might upset sensitive electronic circuitry.
Manufacturing a toroidal coil is much more difficult and expensive than manufacturing a helical
coil and so they are only made when this particular attribute is required.
carrying a current but the coil on the right, which is called the secondary, is not. If the current
through the primary is a steady stated.c.current then this will have no effect on the secondary, but
if the primary current is varying in amplitude, then this will cause a varying voltage to appear
between the two ends of the secondary coil. If a load, such as a resistor, is connected between the
ends of the secondary coil then a varying current will flow and so power is transferred from the
primary coil to the secondary coil without there being any physical connection between the two.
Since the only field known to be present is a magnetic one, and because such a field is known to
be the cause of action at a distance in interactions between magnets, it is assumed that it is the
magnetic field is the medium by which power is transferred from one coil to another. I shall show
that this is not so.
For the limits within which such a transformer is designed to operate, the secondary output
voltage variations will be similar to that of the voltage variations across the primary coil although
the amplitude may be different depending on how far apart the two coils are, and the ratio of the
number of secondary turns to the number of primary turns. This ability for the output voltage to
be greater or less, than the primary input voltage, as required, is the reason that it is called a
transformer. Such devices are much used in electronic and electrical circuits. In power circuits
they are designed to transfer power with maximum efficiency, and to effect this, the two coils are
usually wound together on the same iron alloy core. Well designed power transformers can
achieve power transfers from one coil to another with efficiencies in excess of 90%.
Figure 6 Transformer: the left hand coil is the current carrying primary:
the right hand coil is the secondary
Toroidal Transformer
The most efficient transformers are those wound on a toroid of iron alloy: the windings for such a
transformer are depicted in figure 7. For clarity of presentation the toroid of iron alloy on which
the turns are wound is not shown and the turns are widely spaced. For a high efficiency
transformer, the turns would be close wound in several layers. In this particular depiction the
primary coil is the outside coil, coloured blue, and the secondary coil is the inside coil, coloured
green.
Figure 7. Toroidal transformer with the outer toroidal coil as the primary.
It is easy to see, that the secondary coil being inside the primary coil is clearly getting the full
benefit of the magnetic field generated by the primary. It is found that if the roles of the coils are
reversed such that the inside coil is the primary and the outside coil is the
secondary, as depicted in Figure 8, then the transformer functions exactly the same as before.
There is however a significant difference between these two arrangements: In the first instance,
the secondary was located in the strong concentrated field of the primary, but in the second case
the secondary is not located in the strong concentrated field of the primary but in its leakage field
which has a magnitude of possibly only 1% of the magnitude of the strong magnetic field inside
the coil.
Figure 8. Toroidal transformer with the inner toroidal coil as the primary
A study of these two situations should convince the reader that it cannot be the magnetic field, as
we know it, which is the medium by which energy is transferred from the primary of a
transformer to the secondary because, in the second instance the secondary coil is not in the
magnetic field associated with the primary coil. This then of course begs the question, then what
is the medium which effects the transfer of energy?: two possible answers come to mind:
1)
electrical transformer action involves a new type of field which has yet to be recognized
or
2)
the magnetic field may have attributes of which we are still ignorant.
COMMENT
The interesting aspect of this, is that this situation has been extant for some 100 years, and yet
no-one has yet thought to address the problem, nor even point out that there is one.
Posted in Uncategorized | Tagged electrical transformer, magnetic field, toroidal transformer | Leave a comment
Sub-atomic Particles
Posted on June 20, 2011 by colourmangreen
fundamental particles,
2)
compound particles,
3)
neutrinos,
4)
smithereens.
Fundamental Particles
The fundamental particles are the electron and the positron, which are
the material building blocks of the universe: much is known about them, but there is still more to
discover.
Compound Particles
Compound particles include all those other sub-atomic particles which consist of conglomerations
of electrons and positrons such as neutrons, protons, atomic nuclei, etc.
Neutrinos
are three of these such parameters: electric charge, energy and momentum and each of these may
be subdivided as follows:
1)
Electric charge: -
a) positive
b) negative
2)
Energy -
a) mass
b) kinetic energy
c) photon
3) Momentum
a) linear
b) angular
The situation for the electric charges is not complicated. There may be a change in the number of
individual charges but any such changes will occur in positive-negative pairs such that the net
charge remains unchanged.,
The situation for the other parameters is very complicated. A change in the magnitude of one of
them will affect the magnitude of one or more of the others. It may thus happen, that for reasons
we do not yet understand, it may not be possible, using conventional compound sub atomic
particles, for the sum of the resultant parameters after the event to equate to the sum of the
parameters before the event such that it is then necessary for there to be a special particle to
account for residual parameter values due to this inequality.
This special particle would not have any electric charge since this has been taken care of; it
cannot be a photon, since this would not then be a special particle; this then only allows that it
can consist of one or more of the following parameters: mass, kinetic energy, linear momentum
and/or angular momentum. It is this residual particle that we call a neutrino.
From the foregoing, it would seem that there could thus be an infinite number of structures for a
neutrino.
Smithereens
If sub-atomic particles are allowed to impact with each other with a sufficient amount of energy,
then the material involved will be smashed into smithereens. These smithereens will be very
short lived and will appear as distorted material objects with extremely short lives which will then
form themselves into one or more of the three other sub-atomic particles mentioned above.
Even as I write this, scientists at CERN in Geneva are having fun with an enormously large and
expensive machine called a Hadron Collider. This machine is designed to cause massively
energetic collisions between sub-atomic particles so that the results can be studied. It is held by
some, that this will enable us to gain more understanding of events at, or near, the start of the big
bang (assuming that there ever was one). Even so, It is difficult to see that much significant
benefit will accrue from studying endless numbers of such smithereens
Figure 1. Bar magnet with its associated magnetic dipole orientation pattern
It has long been known that the Earth has an associated magnetic field which has proved to be
constant enough to be used for navigation. If an iron needle is placed in a strong magnetic field,
then, when it is removed from this field, it is found to be magnetised with its magnetic dipole
orientation pattern now in the same sense as the initially applied field. An iron needle so
magnetised and mounted to freely to rotate in a horizontal plane, is called a compass and will
always align itself such that one end of the needle will point to the earths magnetic north pole and
the other to earths magnetic south pole.
Figure 2. Depiction of the earth and its magnetic dipole orientation pattern
. Figure 2 depicts the planet earth with its associated magnetic dipole orientation pattern which
indicates the direction in which a freely suspended magnetic dipole will point. This behaviour is
found to act over the entire surface of the planet. It is however less useful as a navigation aid in
the vicinity of the north and south poles as the lines of the magnetic dipole orientation pattern
there are approximately vertical.
This magnetic dipole orientation pattern is very similar to that associated with a bar magnet as
depicted in figure 1. For this reason the earth is often referred to as behaving as though it had a
bar magnet located at its centre.
Current Theory
The current theory to explain the existence of the Earths magnetic field postulates a selfsustaining dynamo at, or near, the centre. Many efforts have been made to justify this theory both
by calculation, experimentation and theoretical extrapolation. It is appears that one or more of
these approaches has indeed satisfied many that this is the case.
Desperate theory
This is what I describe as a desperate theory. A desperate theory is one where the true facts of the
issue have not been established and so a desperate theory is created to fill the vacuum. It is
characterized by usually having at least one of the following characteristics:
a) it is impossible to disprove the theory, until the true facts are discovered
b) it flys in the face of accepted physics
c) it stretches credulity to breaking point.
The concept of a self-perpetuating dynamo at the centre of the Earth certainly meets criterion a),
and for me at least, it also meets criterion c).
I shall now offer a more rational explanation.
Equi-potential surfaces
distances between the charges only serves to enlarge or reduce these circular contours
appropriately. It should also be noted that each of the circular contours encloses each of the two
outer pair of charges
. The circular contours are not perfect circles, but for the purposes of the following presentation
are close enough to be considered as such. The difference in radii between these imperfect circles
and a perfect circle selected to be a best match is 3%. For convenience, I shall refer to them as
circular contours, and draw them as such.
Figure 4: the same situation as Figure 3: showing only the three electric in-line charges
and their attendant circular equi-potential contours
Figure 4 depicts the same situation as Figure 3 but showing only the three in-line charges and
their two attendant circular equi-potential contours.
Figure 5. Three in-line charges and one associated circular equi-potential contour.
Figure 5 shows the same situation as Figure 4 but depicting the three in-line charges and just one
of the circular contours.
If an electrically neutral conductive shell of material of the same dimensions as the equi-potential
contour is placed to be coincident with it, then the electric field and contours associated with the
three charges will be unaltered. While the conductive shell is being put in place the electric field
and equi-potential contours will be disrupted, but once in place all will be as it was, except for the
shell itself. If the shell was initially electrically neutral, then once in place, it will still be so, except
that the electric charges within the shell material will have redistributed themselves as shown in
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Stylised representation of the charge distribution at the surfaces of the conductive shell.
In Figure 6, positive charges are shown as red, negative charges are shown as blue. The thickness
of the red and blue lines is indicative of the density of the electric charges at that point. It can be
seen that there are two areas of charge on the exterior of the shell, which are mirrored in size by
two areas inside, but of opposite electric polarity. Of particular importance is the fact that on the
exterior of the shell the negative charges are bunched together and cover less than half of the shell
while the positive charges are more thinly spread and cover more than half of the surface of the
shell.
It is well known and proven that any electric charges within an enclosed conductive shell will
display no electric field outside of that shell; similarly any electric charges outside a conducting
shell will display no field inside the shell. This is illustrated in Figure 7 where the two charges
inside the shell have been randomly re-arranged. The distributed charges on the exterior surface
of the shell remain unchanged because they are controlled by the single external charge and in no
way are affected by the disposition of the two internal charges but the distributed charges on the
inside of the shell have changed as they are dependant on the disposition of the two inner charges,
which have changed.
Figure 7. Random distribution of internal point charges and the consequent charge distribution
at the surfaces of the shell.
If we now remove the two inner charges altogether we will be left with the situation shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 9. Stylised depiction of earth: showing the disposition of electric charges due to an electric
charge in the sun.
DIURNAL VARITIONS
It has been known for hundreds of years that the strength and direction of the earths magnetic
field varies in a daily cycle. It is clear now why this is so. At noon a positive charge will be
travelling past us at around 1,000 km per hour while at midnight a negative charge will be doing
the same, clearly then, we might expect that the alternation of the presence of these two moving
charges every twelve hours would give rise to a daily variation of the magnetic field.
FIELD STRENGTH
In order to create a magnet it is necessary to subject a magnetisable material to a magnetic field.
When the field is removed, it will be found that the magnetic material itself now exhibits its own
magnetic field, but one which is less powerful than that which was applied. The evidence seems
to suggest that the earths primary magnetic field today is much weaker than the secondary
magnetic field; this being so, it implies that in the past the primary field must have been much
greater in order to have magnetised the earth and so create the secondary magnetism. It could be
that if the primary magnetism is so much less than the secondary magnetism that it may not even
have the same polarity as the secondary magnetism.
There are two possible ways by which the amplitudes of each of the two magnetic fields might be
determined. The most obvious way is to travel around the equator at the same speed, but in the
opposite direction to the movement of the earth, thus effectively remaining stationary with
respect to the suns position and then by measuring the magnetic field under these conditions any
value measured should only be that of the secondary magnetism. A second method could be to
measure the diurnal variation and from the theory, calculate the strength of field necessary to
produce this variation. This then would be the primary magnetism.
MAGNETIC STORMS
We normally think of the earths magnetic field as being a relatively static phenomenon.
Certainly, it has been steady enough to have served sailors well for navigation over many
millennia. However it does suffer from time to time from violent and sudden variations in
amplitude and direction: when this occurs, it is referred to as a magnetic storm. It is observed
that these occur at the same time that violent activity is observed on the sun: the reason for these
magnetic storms should now be clear.
POLARITY REVERSAL
As we know, the rocks underground are molten, so that when they cool and become solid, the
prevailing magnetism of the earth at that time will magnetise them, thus the direction of the
magnetic field at that time will be frozen into them. From such palaeontological evidence we
know that the polarity of the earths magnetic field has reversed several times in the past. It is
now possible to offer an explanation as to how this happens: It seems most likely that the earths
magnetic field is composed of both primary magnetism and secondary magnetism, with the
secondary magnetisation of the earths material usually contributing the most. I suggest that at
times in the history of the solar system the primary magnetism has suddenly and massively
increased to the point that the earth becomes re-magnetised. This re-magnetisation may be of the
same polarity as before the surge or of the opposite polarity. When this primary magnetic surge
has subsided it will leave in its wake a refreshed secondary magnetism which may then be of the
same polarity as before or of a reversed polarity.
AMPLITUDE DECAY
It is published that the strength of the earths magnetic field is continuously reducing and has
been doing so for some considerable time. If most of the earths magnetic field is from secondary
magnetisation, then this is to be expected. Any magnet, including the earth, not subject to an
external magnetic influence will gradually, over a period of time, diminish in strength as it decays
towards zero. It will then need a sufficient increase in primary magnetism to effect an increase of
secondary re-magnetisation
MOVEMENT OF MAGNETIC POLES
The magnetic poles are defined as those points on the surface of the earth where a compass
needle, free to pivot in 3 dimensions at its mid-point, will align itself vertically. These poles are
not coincident with the geographic poles, nor do they occupy fixed positions, but continuously
wander around as depicted in Figure 10, which shows their movement over a nine year period.
Figure 10. Movement of the magnetic poles over a nine year period
The earth travels around the sun in an orbit that is approximately circular. The plane in which
this orbit lies is called the ecliptic plane. The geographical poles of the earth are not
perpendicular to this plane, but tilted by 23.5 from it. It is this tilt which gives rise to the various
seasons on earth as the earth presents different faces of its surface towards the sun during a single
orbit. As a consequence of this, an axis passing through the centre of the earth and perpendicular
to the ecliptic plane, will be continuously changing its position at the surface of the earth as
shown in figure 10 by the green circle which is its track during the course of one year.
When there is a surge of electric activity in the sun sufficient to cause a primary magnetic surge at
the earth which is greater than the existing secondary magnetism, then the earth will become remagnetised. The magnetisation will be such, that the poles created will tend to align themselves
with an axis perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. It can be seen from the diagram that the
positions of the magnetic poles are, in general, nearer to the circular track of the ecliptic poles
than the geographic poles. It is also interesting to note that their approximate distances from the
ecliptic pole track are only about that of an equivalent movement of twenty years, which
immediately suggests that re-magnetisation may only have occurred several decades ago. This remagnetisation would probably have been accompanied by violent magnetic storms on earth.
It is possible to see now, how it is that the position of the magnetic poles may have wandered
across the equator as reported in some publications. This could happen if there was a prolonged
period in which no re-magnetisation occurred
CHARGE SURFACE
I have referred to the electric charges produced on earth by the electric charge on the sun as being
located at the surface of the earth. This has been for the convenience of keeping the explanation
simple. I suspect that it is far more likely that these charges are located in, and flow through, the
ionosphere. This is a charged layer of atmosphere which exists 50 km above the earths surface.
Either way it does not affect the essential arguments presented here.
SOLAR WIND
Although I have, for the sake of simplicity, built this proposition on the basis that the suns net
electric charge will cause asymmetric charges to appear on planet earth, and hence give rise to a
magnetic field, it is more complicated than that. The sun is surrounded by a solar wind which
itself will almost certainly have a net electric charge. The solar wind consists of atoms, ionised
atoms, sub atomic particles and electromagnetic radiation: all streaming away from the sun. I
would expect that the energy profile for particles leaving the sun would be similar for all particles,
this means then that lighter particles such as electrons would have higher velocities than (say)
ionised atoms. As a consequence, it is to be expected that more of the lighter particles would
escape the suns gravity field than the heavier particles leaving the sun and the solar wind with a
net positive charge.
OTHER PLANETS
One test of this proposal is to see how well it applies to other planets.
The magnetic moment of a planet is ~
(peripheral current) x (the cross sectional area of the planet)
the peripheral current is ~ electric surface charge x speed of rotation
and since the electric surface charge is ~ to its surface area
then the peripheral current is ~ surface area x speed of rotation
and
The electric charge at the surface of the planet will be proportional to the charge in the sun and to
the inverse square of its distance from the sun. For the solar wind, the charge relationship will be
more complicated. I would expect it to be proportional to an apparent charge in the sun and to
be between 1/r and 1/r where r is the distance between the sun and the planet, this value may
be different for each planet as the solar wind thins out and is subject to local and short term
variations.
If we choose d = diameter of the planet
p = period of rotation
r = distance from the planet to the sun
a = charge in the sun
This equation may then be used to calculate the magnetic moment of any planet as shown in the
table of Figure 11.
Figure 11. Measured and calculated magnetic moments for the planets
The magnetic moments from this table are shown in graphical form in Figure X for greater clarity
of presentation. The lines joining the positions of the planetary magnetic moments are only to
make the presentation clearer and have no other significance. The equation should also apply to
the moons of the solar system although their fields will be influenced by the proximity of their
associated planet. If for example we consider our local moon, each orbit takes 29 days to
complete and so the magnetic field will be extremely weak compared to the earths magnetic field.
Values for our moon are not represented in this figure because the measured value is so different
from the calculated value, and in any case will not fit on the diagram. I hope to offer an
explanation at a later date for this apparent anomaly.
SUMMARY
It is proposed that the earths magnetic field is composed of two components: a primary magnetic
field induced by electric charges within the sun and the solar wind, and a secondary magnetic
field which is the inherent magnetism of the earth caused by a surge in the primary magnetic field
at some time in the past. It appears that the present major contributor to our magnetic field is the
secondary magnetic field, which is decaying slowly, as any magnetised object will, when left
undisturbed by external magnetic influences. The primary magnetic field may be of either
polarity with respect to the secondary field.
This proposal made here offers an explanation for many of the phenomena associated with the
earths magnetic field that are considered perplexing or simply not understood at all: i.e. the
movement of the magnetic poles, that the poles can meander and cross the equator, the switching
of polarity, the non-coincidence of the geographic and magnetic poles, diurnal fluctuations,
magnetic storms, the currently observed steady decay of magnitude. This proposal also provides
an explanation as to why Mercury has a much stronger field than expected from current theory.