Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my supervisors, Dr. Yusniza
Binti Kamarulzaman, who has provided me supervision, guidance and advice. This
research project would not have been success without her constant support and
concern. Her trust and patience is very much appreciated.
My special thanks go to Mr. Frankie Lee Chee Lih, Mr. Yong Yuan Wu, Mr.
Chin Kian Hoong, Ms. Ding Kay Lee, Ms. Ng Yin Lee, Mr. Ting Teck Kai, Ms.
Norashikin, and Ms. Lee Wei Ting, who have afforded me advice, help,
encouragement, and suggestion related to this study.
Last but not least, my deepest gratitude also goes to my family numbers, who
were very understanding, and have given their best support and encouragement to me
throughout this study.
ABSTRACT
Higher education industry in Malaysia has been given a boost in the past couple of
decade. Due to the tremendous increased number of HEI; HE environments have
become intense competitive and HEIs have to compete for recruiting students from
the market. However, with the numbers of HEIs and courses around, it is difficult to
understand how students select HEIs for their choice. Therefore, it is a key issue for
HEI authorities to know what the underlying factors that influencing students
intention to study at a HEI. The purpose of this research is to assist HEIs marketing
effort in understanding of what determines a students intention to study at a HEI.
Moreover, the differences among students gender and academic background regard
with their perceived important attribute towards HEI are investigated.
A conceptual model integrating the different factors that influencing the study
intention of Malaysian students at a HEI was proposed in this study. The employed
instrument was developed based on adaption from previous studies. The instrument
was then subjected to validity and reliability test to ensure the appropriation. Result
proved that the instrument is appropriate, and applicable in Malaysia context.
Content
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
ii
ABBREVIATIONS
vi
LIST OF FIRURE
vii
LIST OF TABLE
viii
CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
Introduction
Education System in Malaysia
An Overview of the Malaysian Higher Education System
The Emergence of Marketing in Higher Education Institutions
Studies of Higher Education Marketing in Malaysia
Problem Statements
Research Objectives
Research Questions
Scope of the Study
Significance of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Organization of the Study
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
INTRODUCTION
1
3
6
8
10
11
13
13
14
14
15
16
18
LITERATURES REVIEW
Introduction
The Nature of Education as a Service
Background of the Study
Colleges and University Selection Process
Review of Important Attributes
2.5.1 Cost of Education
2.5.2 Degree (Content and Structure)
2.5.3 Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
2.5.4 Value of Education
2.5.5 Institutional Information
2.5.6 Significant People (Family, friends, peers and Teachers)
Review of Multiple Attribute Researches
Gender Effect on HEI Selection
Academic Background Effect on HEI Selection
Conclusion of the Chapter
19
19
20
20
22
23
24
24
26
27
28
35
41
43
44
iii
CHAPTER 3
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Introduction
Conceptual Model
Definition of Variables
Hypotheses Development
3.4.1 Cost of Education
3.4.2 Degree (Content and Structure)
3.4.3 Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
3.4.4 Value of Education
3.4.5 Institutional Information
3.4.6 Influences from People (Family, friends, peers and
Teachers)
3.4.7 Gender Differences on Important Attributes of HEI
3.4.8 Academic Background Differences on Important
Attributes of HEI
3.5 Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 4
Introduction
Research Design
Selection of Sample
Sampling
Instrument of Measurement
Data Collection
Research Approaches
4.7.1 Determination of Sample Normality
4.7.2 Descriptive Analyses
4.7.3 Validity Test
4.7.4 Reliability Test
4.7.5 Relationship Approach
4.7.6 Differences Approach
4.8 Assumptions of the Study
4.9 Conclusion of the Chapter
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
55
56
58
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
CHAPTER 5
45
45
48
51
51
51
52
53
53
54
59
59
59
60
61
62
63
63
64
64
64
65
65
66
67
Introduction
Result of Sampling
Respondents Profile
Normality Test
5.4.1 Histogram
5.4.2 Stem-and-leaf Plots
5.4.3 Boxplot
5.4.4 Descriptive Statistic
5.4.5 Summary of Normality Tests
5.5 Descriptive Analysis
68
68
70
76
76
76
76
77
77
78
iv
82
83
90
92
95
97
103
104
108
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Discussion of Results
6.2.1 Normality Tests
6.2.2 Descriptive Analysis
6.2.3 Validity and Reliability Test
6.2.4 Pearsons Correlation
6.2.5 Multiple Regression
6.2.6 Independent Sample t-test
6.2.7 One-Way ANOVA
6.3 Conclusion
6.4 Implications
6.5 Recommendations
6.6 Contribution of the Study
6.7 Suggestion for Future Research
6.8 Conclusion of the Chapter
109
109
109
109
115
116
116
118
119
122
124
126
127
128
129
130
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
Questionnaire
144
APPENDIX II
148
APPENDIX III
159
ABBREVIATIONS
DV
Dependent Variable
etc
Et Cetera
Hypothesis
HE
Higher Education
HEI
i.e.
In Example
IV
Independent Variable
L.O.U.
N.A.
Not Applicable
NS
Not Significant
PHEI
Pre-U
Pre-university
S.D.
Standard Deviation
Sig.
Significant
QL
Qualitative
QT
Quantitative
Percent
Pre-U
and
University
vi
LIST of FIGURES
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
vii
LIST of TABLES
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 2.1
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Statistical normality tests for scale data from the sample (N = 480)
Table 5.4
Table 5.5
Table 5.6
Table 5.7
Table 5.8
Table 5.9
Table 5.10
Table 5.11
Table 5.12
Table 5.13
Table 5.14
Table 5.15
Table 5.16
Table 5.17
Table 5.18
Table 5.19
Table 2.2
Table 5.20
viii
Table 5.21
Table 5.22
Table 5.23
Table 5.24
Table 5.25
Table 5.26
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
ix
CHAPTER
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Education System in Malaysia
1.3 An Overview of the Malaysian Higher Education System
1.4 The Emergence of Marketing in High Education Institutions
1.5 Studies of Higher Education Marketing in Malaysia
1.6 Problem Statements
1.7 Research Objectives
1.8 Research Questions
1.9 Scope of the Study
1.10 Significance of the Study
1.11 Limitations of the Study
1.12 Organization of the Study
1.13 Conclusion of the Chapter
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
Introduction
Education System in Malaysia
An Overview of the Malaysian
Higher Education System
The Emergence of Marketing in
High Education Institutions
Studies of Higher Education
Marketing in Malaysia
Problem Statements
Research Objectives
Research Questions
Scope of the Study
Significance of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Organization of the Study
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
In summary, this study aims to identify the important factors that significantly
influence students intention to study at a HEI. Moreover, the differences among
students gender and academic background with regard to their perception of
important attributes towards HEIs are investigated. The findings of this study will be
beneficial in terms of decision making and contribute to the roles that assist the HEI
marketers to plan and improve their marketing strategy for the recruitment of
students.
1.2
While in the past, the education system only provided for nine years of basic
education, a reform in the early 1990s extended the basic education from nine years to
eleven years. Instead of sitting for a selective public examination at the end of the
lower secondary level (i.e., Form 3) with only about 50% of the Form 3 students
proceeding to Form 4, today all Form 3 students are promoted to Form 4. This has
changed an elitist school system into a system that provides for mass education
(Molly, 2004). The successful democratisation of secondary education has resulted in
an increasing demand for post-secondary education, which, in turn, has brought about
a rapid expansion of higher education as reflected in the increased number of
universities and the proliferation of private colleges.
Starting Age
Five
Seven
Thirteen
Sixteen
Eighteen
Twenty
-
Duration
Two years
Six years
Three years
Two years
One to two years
Three to five years
One to five years
Pre-school education
Primary Education
Compulsory
Education
Secondary Education
STPM
(Six Years)
GCE A-Level
Matriculation
(Five Years)
University
Foundation
Year
Overseas Pre-U
(CPU, SAM)
Tertiary Education
Figure 1.1: Flowchart of the education system in Malaysia
1.3
In the early 1990s, there were approximately 200 private colleges, seven public
universities and no private universities in Malaysia. With the nations focus on the
development of HEIs, by the end of 2001 there were eleven public universities, five
conventional private universities, and branch campuses of three foreign universities.
By 2005, Malaysia had approximately 72 public and 559 private institutions.
Currently, the number of tertiary education institutions has further increased. There
are now 79 public tertiary education institutions, which comprises 20 universities, 22
polytechnics, and 37 community colleges. Furthermore, at the time of this study there
were approximately 600 PHEIs in Malaysia. The statistics for HEIs is shown in Table
1.2.
Institution
Year
2005
2000
2007
Public
University
11
18
20
Polytechnic
11
20
22
Community College
0
34
37
Sub-total
22
72
79
Private
University
5
22
32
Branch Campus
3
5
5
College
482
532
563*
Sub-total
512
559
600
Total
534
631
679
*Approximation (Source: www.mohe.gov.my, accessed 2 Feb 2009)
As the statistics in Table 1.1 show the number of HEIs in Malaysia has
dramatically increased within the last decade, similarly the enrolment of students into
HEIs in Malaysia has also increased. In 2002, there were 253,153 students enrolled
into HEIs. The number increased to 336,845 by 2007 with a compounded annual
growth rate (CAGR) of 6.9%. The statistics for student enrolment are presented in
Table 1.3.
Year
2002
87,390
165,763
253,153
Public
Private
Total
2003
98,781
163,480
262,261
2004
113,827
169,834
283,661
2005
117,797
113,105
230,902
2006
130,771
144,775
275,546
2007
169,057
167,788
336,845
CAGR
(%)
14.4
2.6
6.9
Programmes that are linked with foreign universities are sometimes known as
transnational education programmes and these include twinning programmes, credit
transfer programmes, external degree programmes and distance learning programmes.
The twinning programmes are split degree programmes where the students study part
of the degree programme in a local institution before proceeding to the foreign
university to complete the programme. Typical twinning arrangements are either
2+1 (2 years in a local college and 1 year in an overseas twinning university) or
2+2. However, a number of private colleges began to offer 3+0 programmes
when the economic crisis hit Malaysia in 1997 as fewer students could afford to
continue their studies overseas due to the devaluation of the Malaysian Ringgit.
Currently, there are more than 12 private colleges offering 3+0 programmes and
five branch campuses of foreign universities, which means that Malaysians can obtain
a foreign degree without having to go abroad (Molly, 2004).
Furthermore, as tuition fees are the main source of revenue for most PHEIs,
their programmes have to be tailored to meet the market demand. As a result, the
PHEIs tend to offer programmes in disciplines that do not require a large capital
outlay such as accountancy, business studies, and computer studies. In order words,
the majority of PHEIs in Malaysia offer similar programmes. Consequently, it further
stimulates the competition among PHEIs as well as public HEIs.
1.4
Most HEIs now recognise that they need to market themselves in a climate of
competition, which for universities is frequently a global one, and substantial
literature on the transfer of the practices and concepts of marketing from other sectors
to HE has been developed (Gibbs, 2002). For example, Nguyen and LeBlanc (2001)
focused on the image and reputation of the institution and referred to the crucial role
these factors played in the development of market positioning they drew on the well
established concepts and theories in business sector marketing for their study. On the
other hand, Binsardi and Ekwulugo (2003), who claimed that a centrally important
principle of marketing is that all marketing activities should be geared towards the
customer, relied on the literature used in business sector marketing, and applied it in
the context of higher education.
In contrast, Ogbuehi and Rogers (1990) cited that American universities have
been forced to pay more attention to the utilization of marketing techniques in their
recruitment processes due to the sharp decrease in the number of US High School
graduates. This rationale is increasingly apparent within the Asian region. In the past,
due to the relatively low participation rates in university education and the largely
public provision of such education, Asian Universities tended to have a captive
audience, requiring very little in the way of marketing. However, in recent years,
participation rates have exploded and many private institutions have emerged. This
means that Asian tertiary institutions need to give close attention to the utilization of
marketing techniques and improving student recruitment.
1.5
Studies relating to the marketing of HEIs in Malaysia are relatively few. Nonetheless,
a number of studies have been conducted by many researchers on the institutional
characteristics influencing the choice of institutions in various host countries,
including regions close to Malaysia. Most studies identified the factors that influence
the students choice of institutions, however, studies such as Lin (1997), Joseph and
Joseph (1998), Joseph and Joseph (2000), AEI-International Education Network
(2003), Sidin et al. (2003) and Gray et al. (2003) analyze further the underlying
factors of the many variables.
From the existing literature at least six variables can be identified, (1) financial
attractiveness, (2) programme and course suitability and availability, (3) ease and
flexibility of enrolment procedure, (4) future ease of employment after graduating, (5)
attractiveness of institutions, and (6) quality reputation, which have been adopted as
the basis of the hypotheses in this research. In addition, the outcome of the focus
group of an extended study done by Krishnan and Nurtjihjia (2007) revealed that 32
variables should be used instead of 26 variables. However, the research field of higher
education marketing in Malaysia is still at a relatively pioneer stage with much
research still to be carried out both from an exploratory and strategic perspective.
10
1.6
Problem Statements
In Malaysia today there is greater opportunity for secondary school students to attend
colleges and universities. Moreover, students are able to select their preference from a
large pool of universities and colleges regardless of whether they are public or private,
or local or overseas HEIs. Consequently, the competition for HEIs to recruit more
students and retain them has become fiercer than ever before (Sohail et al., 2003).
Facing a growing competitive environment, HEIs have dramatically increased the
competition for recruiting and retaining students by providing a high quality service
as the solution to compete in this turbulent market. Due to the increasing competitive
forces for marketing education in Malaysia, marketers need to be more aware of the
underlying factors considered by students when selecting a HEI (Hassan and Sheriff,
2006) if they want to survive in this competitive environment (Vaira, 2004). Thus, it
is very important for marketers to know the factors that influence the study intention
of prospective students and to understand the nature of the relationship among them.
These factors are significant from the perspective of the HEIs marketing strategy
planning for student recruitment. As a result, an extensive investigation of the
important attributes that influence Malaysian students intention to study at a HEI is
proposed in this study.
In the empirical search process in this study, no studies were found that
address the difference by students gender with regard to the choice of HEI in
Malaysia. Previous studies have demonstrated that the gender effect plays an
important role in HEI student recruitment (Shank and Beasley, 1998; Mansfield and
Warwick, 2005). Researchers argue that male and female students differ in the
selection criteria they consider important when choosing a HEI. Thus, it will be
interesting to see whether such gender differences also arise within the Malaysian HEI
context.
12
1.7
Research Objectives
In line with the problem statements, this study has two specific objectives
1.8
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed in order to guide the present study:
Q1:
What are the influencing factors and the contributions they make to a students
intention to study at a HEI ?
Q2:
13
1.9
The scope of this study is limited to those students who live in the Klang Valley. This
is because most of the PHEIs that conduct pre-university courses are concentrated
around major urban areas in the Klang Valley. Moreover, the number of public
schools that offer Form Six (STPM) in these areas is higher than other states. As a
result, a sample from this segment may be considered to adequately represent the
actual population.
1.10
The findings of the research would expound on the theoretical contributions, thus,
enriching the existing literature. This research will explain further those factors that
influence a students intention to study at a HEI.
students in their further study decision making process. In consequence, HEIs may
improve their marketing strategy in student recruitment.
1.11
The sampling process of the present study was carried out in the Klang Valley. Even
though the majority of educational institutions that offer pre-university programmes
are concentrated in this urbanized area, there are some others located in Suburban
areas of Malaysia. For instance, public high schools that offer Form Six programmes.
Thus, samples from the Klang Valley may not be adequate in generating an
exhaustive picture that reflects the whole student population in Malaysia.
Furthermore, students from sub-urban areas may have distinct preferences concerning
HEIs compared to students who live in urban areas.
15
1.12
This thesis consists of six chapters and the organization of the study is as follows:
Chapter 1: This chapter presents the introduction, related information on the interests
of study, problem statements, research objectives, research questions,
research scope, and significance and limitations of study.
Chapter 2: This chapter addresses the nature of education as a service, the background
of the study, college and university selection process, comprehensive
review of important attributes and multiple attribute researches, and gender
and academic background effects on HEI selection.
Chapter 3: This chapter focuses on the development of the conceptual model,
definition of proposed variables, and hypotheses development.
Chapter 4: this chapter covers the selection of the sample, sampling technique,
instrument design, data collection process, extensive research approach
and research methodology employed in this study, and assumptions of the
study.
Chapter 5: This chapter presents the sampling results and respondents profile, data
analysis and findings from various analyses such as normality tests,
validity and reliability tests, Pearsons correlation, multiple linear
regression, independent sample t-test, and One-way ANOVA.
Chapter 6: This chapter includes an in depth discussion of the results, conclusion,
implications, recommendations, contribution of the study, and suggestions
for future research.
The organization of this study is graphically presented in Figure 1.2.
16
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
Figure 1.2: The organization of the present study
17
1.13
This chapter described the general view of the present study. Information relating to
the interest of the study was discussed. The problem statement, research objectives,
and research questions were clearly defined. Further, the scope and significance of the
study were covered. Limitations of the study were stated, and the chapter ended with
the organization of the study. The literature regarding this study is reviewed in
Chapter 2.
18
CHAPTER
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Nature of Education as a Service
2.3 Background of the Study
2.4 Colleges and University Selection Process
2.5 Review of Important Attributes
2.5.1 Cost of Education
2.5.2 Degree (Content and Structure)
2.5.3 Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
2.5.4 Value of Education
2.5.5 Institutional Information
2.5.6 Significant People (Family, friends, peers and Teachers)
2.6 Review of Multiple Attribute Researches
2.7 Gender Effect on HEI Selection
2.8 Academic Background Effect on HEI Selection
2.9 Conclusion of the Chapter
Chapter 1
Introduction
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
Introduction
The Nature of Education as a Service
Background of the Study
Colleges and University Selection
Process
Review of Important Attributes
Review of Multiple Attribute
Researches
Gender Effect on HEI Selection
Academic Background Effect on HEI
Selection
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 2
2.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter presents an extensive review of the literature and research related to
factors that influence a students intention to study at a HEI. This chapter first
discusses the nature of education as a service industry. The second part focuses on the
background of the study, followed by stages in the college or university selection
process. Moreover, this chapter describes literature concerning the important
attributes, multiple-attribute researches, gender, and academic background effects on
HEI selection. This chapter ends with a discussion on marketing in higher education.
2.2
19
2.3
Researchers have focused on student choice of college or HEI for more than 40 years.
In the 1960s and 1970s, this research related to sociology, which explored the process
of social mobility and occupational attainment (Sewell & Shah, 1968; Alexander &
Eckland, 1975). Other researchers, such as Lewis and Morrison (1975), examined
college choice as complex decision-making. In the 1980s and 1990s, most collegechoice research focused on three basic studies: factors influencing college choice,
stage models, and student (as consumer) behaviour. In this case, the proposed
research in this study is one of the analyses towards factors influencing students
intention to study at a HEI. Nevertheless, the stage model is discussed in the next
section for a better understanding that will complement the implications of this study.
2.4
Choosing a college or university is a critical stage for all high school graduates who
plan to attain higher education in the future. However, students may make decisions
that will affect persistence, which is a critical stage in their education.
20
Gallagher 1987; Hossler et al., 1989). Hossler and Gallagher (1987) proposed a three
phase model of college choice. At each phase of the model, individual and
organizational factors interact to produce outcomes that influence the student college
choice process as follows:
The first stage is the predisposition phase in which students determine whether
they would like to continue their education beyond the secondary level or not. This
phase is affected by student ability, achievement, socioeconomic status, parents, peer,
educational activities and school characteristics (Tillery, 1973; Litten, 1982; Stage
and Hossler, 1989; Nora and Cabrera, 1992; Somers et al., 1999).
The second stage is the search phase during which they gather information
about institutions of higher education and formulate a choice set that is the group of
institutions to which they will actually apply. The search phase is affected by the
students preliminary HEI values, their search activities and college or university
search activities for students (Chapman, 1981; Hossler and Gallagher, 1987).
The third stage is that of choice, that is, deciding which college or university
to actually attend. Educational and occupational aspirations, costs and financial aid,
and college or university courtship activities influence the choice phase (Hossler and
Gallagher, 1987; John, 1990; Nora and Cabrera, 1992).
2.5
Higher education is not a frequent purchase and demands a high level of involvement
from students (Brookes, 2003). Indeed, the decision to study at a HEI involves cost
(time and monetary) and people surrounding the student. Moreover, as discussed in
Section 2.2, education is one kind of service that cannot be easily touched and tasted.
The only way to evaluate the appropriateness of the choice to study at a HEI is to go
through the process by experience. In turn, the perceived risk of making a decision of
HEI choice is relatively high.
22
2.5.1
Cost of Education
Tillery and Kildergaard (1973) stated that cost is more influential concerning whether
a student attends college or not than it is on which college he or she attends. Cabrera
and La Nasa (2000) pointed to research that consistently showed a significant
negative relationship between tuition increases and enrolment. Besides, in the
research done by Leslie and Brinkman (1988), findings suggest that all students were
sensitive to tuition cost.
According to research done by Hossler et al. (1989) 70% of students and 87%
of parents indicated that they were either well informed or informed about
financial aid programmes and their eligibility for financial aid. Some theorists cited
that receiving aid is more important than the amount of aid received, because that aid
becomes the substantive way the institutions communicate that we want you to be
part of our community (Jackson, 1982; Abrahamson & Hossler, 1990; Freeman,
1997).
23
2.5.2
Hooley and Lynch (1981) observed that the suitability of the programme is the most
important factor, as students will accept any level of the other factors. Studies that
focused on the variables that influence students selection of tertiary institution
(Houston, 1979; Krone et al., 1983; Webb, 1993) point towards a wide range of
choice criteria. The criteria that seem to be most important are programme related
issues such as flexibility and length of the programme, and programme entry
requirements. Houston (1979) found length of the programme was at the bottom of
the scale, while in Webbs (1993) study it is one of the most important elements.
2.5.3
Chapman (1984) cited that fixed college characteristics are one of the external
influences that influence a students intention to study at a particular HEI. The fixed
24
Researchers such as Litten (1980), Tierney (1983), and Seneca and Taussig
(1987) found that academically-talented students look for different attributes
compared to average students. The former evaluate an institution based on the quality
of their programmes while the latter, in addition to good programmes, are also
interested in factors like physical appearance and social life. This illustrates the scope
for segmenting the market and approaching the recruitment of the distinct segments
with tailor-made strategies.
Jackson (1982) stated that most students only seriously consider colleges
located relatively near their homes that present no extraordinary financial or academic
obstacles.
Wajeed and Micceri (1997) identified that the location of the HEI has a
significant influence on the college choice of high school students. Their research at
the University of South Florida (USF) suggested that geographic location or
proximity is a primary motivating factor for students choosing to attend USF. They
concluded that First Time in College (FTIC) and students from community colleges
show enrolment preferences for institutions in their home counties or regions.
Past studies pointed out that HEI selection is determined by several factors
including the quality and expertise of its teaching faculty, attractiveness and campus
atmosphere (Krampf and Heinlein, 1981; Lin, 1997; Mazzarol, 1998; Soutar and
Turner, 2002).
25
The output of Price et al. (2003) analyses the degree to which facilities and
location factors influence the decision of a group of customers. The most important
factor related to facilities is social life at the university and its surroundings. Results
also revealed that factors such as safety, security, cleanliness, and sports facilities are
considered less significant.
Other physical factors influencing the students HEI choice through auxiliary
services are: library facilities (Qureshi, 1995), availability of computers, quality of
library facilities, availability of quiet areas such as study rooms, and the availability of
areas for self-study (Price et al., 2003).
2.5.4
Value of Education
The academic reputation and image of the institution are the sum of opinions, ideas,
and impressions that prospective students have of the institution (Kotler and Fox,
1995). Their opinion about the reputation and image of the institution are formed from
word of mouth, past experience, and marketing activities of the institution (Ivy, 2001).
Thus, very often the perception of the institutions excellence goes beyond its actual
quality (Kotler and Fox, 1995).
26
2.5.5
Institutional Information
Cleopatra (2004) cited that in order to increase participation and to assist students in
their choice of institution, information is needed that will change the attitude of the
potential students and facilitate their decision-making. Moreover, due to the highly
competitive HEI market, facing concerns relating to widening access, and students
facing new choices and many more alternatives, produce and seek increased
information to enable them to reach an informed and better decision. Applicants
information seeking continues even after students initial selection of institutions and
the completion of their post-secondary form or pre-university level (Moogan et al.,
1999).
27
Joseph and Joseph (1998, 2000) reported that the course and career
information is, by far, the most important category of information during the selection
of a specific higher education institution. Studies found that potential students place a
strong emphasis on the need to collect, and no doubt compare, academic information
such as area of study, and career opportunities after graduation (Cleopatra, 2004;
Felix, 2006).
2.5.6
Studies of the college and university choice process have shown that a persons
decision to attend college is influenced by individuals with personal or social ties to
the student. Sheppard et al. (1992) showed that parents, other family members, and, to
a lesser extent, peers had the largest influence on students college aspirations.
Chapmans model includes the influence of high school personnel as an additional
significant person in a students college choice process.
28
respondents reported that they spoke with friends, teachers, counsellors, or parents
about college. Another 61% obtained information from counsellors and local libraries.
In addition, 55% sent off for college information and 55 % visited one or more
campuses. Consequently, by the end of the junior year, teachers and counsellors
played an important role in assisting students learn about specific institutions.
In sum, when students must make the decision concerning which college to
attend, they tend to consult family, friends, peers, teachers, counsellors, and college
recruiters. All these individuals will have a certain degree of influence on the
students decision (Stefanie, 2006).
The influence of the family on college attainment for students and the way the
family imparts values differs from what the research indicates about the influence of
the family towards college attainment for all students (Freeman, 1997; Wilson &
Allen, 1987).
29
In other words, to know students and their parents expectations could be one
of the effective ways that colleges have to take to face the highly competitive new
environment (Thomas et al., 1996; Walther, 2000; St. John et al., 2005; Schweitzer,
2006).
Friends Influence
Maringe
(2006),
Hemsley-Brown
and
Oplatka
(2006)
found
that
approximately 27% of the students turned to their friends and neighbours for their
HEI choice. This is because formal sources of interpersonal information such as
agents, experts, university staff and counsellors are less easily accessed than informal
sources such as friends, family, neighbours and relatives. However, formal sources
30
may be more believable if the product is perceived to be highly technical and high
involvement (Coccari et al. 1995).
Peers Influence
Several researchers (Coleman, 1966; Tillery, 1973; Russell, 1980; Falsey &
Haynes, 1984) examined the relationships between student interaction with other
college bound students and their college participation.
Leslie et al. (1977) reported research data that shows that students are most
likely to rely on information about college from their high school counsellor. This
study concluded that upper income students cite parents, students, catalogues, college
representatives, and private guidance counsellors as sources for information on their
college search.
31
Researchers have studied the influence of high school personnel on the college
choice of minority students (Lewis & Morrison, 1975; Hossler & Stage, 1997).
Research indicates that minority students are more likely to consult with counsellors
about their college choice.
32
Table 2.1: Summary of important attributes that affect students intention to study at a
HEI
Reference
Baird (1967)
Important Attributes
9 Good faculty
9 High academic standards
9 Special programmes
2.
9 Good faculty
9 High standards
3.
Chapman (1979)
4.
Murphy (1981)
9 Academic reputation
9 Cost of education
5.
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Financial aid
Peer influence
Special programmes
Size of the institution
Location
Athletic facilities
Social activities
6.
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
7.
9
9
9
9
9
9
Course suitability
Academic reputation
University location
Distance from home
Advice from parents and teachers
Type of university (morden/old)
8.
Chapman (1981)
9 Significant person
9 Fixed college characteristics
9 College efforts to communicate with
students
9.
9 Academic reputation
9 Peer influence, financial assistance, and
location
10.
9 Good programmes
9 Social life
33
11.
Reference
Houston (1979), Krone et
al. (1983), Webb (1993)
Important Attributes
9 Flexibility and length of the programme
9 Reputation and prestige
9 Cost of education
12.
Qureshi (1995)
9
9
9
9
9
13.
14.
Lin (1997)
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
15.
Turner (1998)
9
9
9
9
9
16.
9
9
9
9
9
17.
9
9
9
9
9
Value of education
Degree (content and structure)
Cost of education
Physical aspect and facilities
General (Information and influence of family
& friends)
Course suitability
Academia reputation
Job prospects
Teaching quality
Campus atmosphere
University reputation
Wide selection of courses
Total cost of attendance
Availability of financial aid
Reputation of the programme
34
18.
Reference
Pimpa (2003)
Important Attributes
9 Family influences (finance, information,
expectation, competition, persuasion)
19.
9
9
9
9
9
Course suitability
Availability of computers
Quality of library facilities
Good teaching reputation
Availability of quiet areas
20.
9
9
9
9
Environmental
Cultural and attitudinal influences
Social class
Family influence
2.6
Krampf and Heinlein (1981) undertook one of the earliest studies into the
marketing of universities, interviewing prospective students for a large mid-western
university in the USA. Their objective was to determine the needs of the prospective
student market, examine the university's image, and develop ways of identifying
potential students who had a high probability of matriculating and were eligible for
entry. Their sample was collected from the American College Testing program, which
provides more than 100 pieces of information for each student who completes their
profile. Using factor analysis, they found that prospective students who had a positive
attitude towards the university rated highly the attractiveness of the campus,
35
36
particular institution. They found that the most important selection factor was the
recognition of their qualifications by future employers. This was followed by the
institution's reputation for quality, its willingness to recognize previous qualifications
and the staff's reputation for quality and expertise.
Joseph and Joseph (1998, 2000) found that students from different
geographical areas revealed different preferences of attributes towards a HEI.
Moreover, they identified that male and female students differ in the selection criteria
they consider important when choosing a HEI. Some relevant multiple-attribute
analyses are summarized in Table 2.2.
37
Analysis Applied
1. Chapman (1981)
2. Krampf and
Heinlein (1981)
3. Hooley and
Lynch (1981)
MONANOVA
Conjoint analysis
4. Qureshi (1995)
Correlation analysis
ANOVA
Model of Consumer Behaviour
Kind of
Study
QT/QL
QT
QT/QL
QT
38
Reference
Analysis Applied
5. Lin (1997)
Descriptive analysis
Factorial analysis
6. Mazzarol (1998)
Factor analysis
Logistic regression model
8. Ivy (2001)
Correspondence analysis
Kind of
Study
QT
QT
QT/QL
QT
Indonesian Students:
1. Course and career information
2. Physical aspect and facilities
3. Cost of education
4. Degree (content and structure)
5. Value of education
Old UK Universities:
1. Top quality teaching
2. Research output
3. The range of courses
offered
4. Staff reputation
39
Reference
9. Soutar and
Turner (2002)
Analysis Applied
Combined analysis/Conjoint analysis
Cluster analysis
Kind of
Study
QT
Ranking-independence analysis of
Chi-square statistics
QT/QL
Country Aspects:
1. Education standard/recog.
qualify - worldwide
2. Ease of university admissions
3. Ease of immigration
procedures
4. Ease of finding employment
5. Cost of living, accommodation,
safety and culture
Descriptive analysis
QT/QL
1. Course suitability
2. Availability of computers
3. Quality of library facilities
4. Good teaching reputation
5. Availability of quiet areas
Institution Aspects:
1. Lower tuition fee
2. Providing more
scholarship
3. Providing better quality
care and services
4. Supplying more facilities
5. Alumni networks
international students
40
2.7
Literature cited the notion that in general, males and females differ in their
psychological orientation along the dimensions of agency and communion (Bakan,
1966; Meyers-Levy, 1988). Meyers-Levy (1988) determined that males are
characterized as being relatively self-focused and are guided by agency goals
encompassing self-assertion and achievement-oriented concerns; whereas, females are
more sensitive to the needs of both self and others and are guided by communal
concerns including interpersonal affiliation, a desire to be at one with others, and
harmonizing relations between themselves and disparate parties. Hence, this theory
offers a partial explanation for why there are gender differences in processing
strategies (Laroche et al, 2000).
41
changes occurring in the gender roles are likely to impact the kinds of appeals that
will be effective with students, both male and female (Mansfield and Warwick, 2005).
Shank and Fred (1998) performed a study regarding gender differences in the
university selection process. Results indicated that male and female students differ in
terms of the importance placed on various attributes of a university.
Jacobs (1999) described that the significant gender differences found among
high school seniors may be more important than ever as women now constitute the
42
majority of associate and other two year degree recipients, the majority of bachelor's
degree recipients, about half the master's and professional degree recipients, and
nearly 40% of doctoral degree recipients.
A more recent study reported that females attend college primarily to improve
their chances of success in the workplace (Green & Hill, 2003). This led us to probe if
there are different influential factors for choice of colleges between males and
females. In conclusion, there is no doubt that male and females differ in their decision
making for HEI attendance.
2.8
The Chapman (1981), Freeman (1999) and Cabera and La Nasas (2000) models all
illustrate aspects of student characteristics as an influencing factor to college
selection. Each of these three models examine the influence of academic status such
as the highest academic qualification, courses attended during high school, high
school achievement or academic ability and educational aspiration as characteristics
of students, which researchers have concluded influence how students conclude their
college choice.
Additionally, Sohail and Saeed (2003) claimed that in the Malaysian context,
the courses that students attended at pre-university or high school is positively
associated with a predisposition to attend a HEI in the future. Furthermore, Elizabeth
Ng (2003) observed that Malaysian students who studied in different programmes at
pre-university level have a distinct perception towards their HEI preference. In sum,
43
2.9
Also, the literature revealed that there are gender and academic background
differences in the importance students place on these attributes. The relationships and
the differences between these attributes will be further discussed in the next chapter.
44
CHAPTER
Conceptual Model
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Conceptual Model
3.3 Definition of Variables
3.4 Hypotheses Development
3.4.1 Cost of Education
3.4.2 Degree (Content and Structure)
3.4.3 Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
3.4.4. Value of Education
3.4.5 Institutional Information
3.4.6 Influences from People (Family, friends, peers and
Teachers)
3.4.7 Gender Differences on Important Attributes of HEI
3.4.8 Academic Background Differences on Important
Attributes of HEI
3.5 Conclusion of the Chapter
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Introduction
Conceptual Model
Definition of Variables
Hypotheses Development
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 3
3.1
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Introduction
This chapter presents the study using the theoretical approach, the proposed
conceptual model, variables and the research hypotheses. The research hypotheses
include the relationship between these important influencing factors and students
intention to study at a HEI. In addition, research hypotheses also cover the difference
concerning important attributes among students gender and academic background.
The development of the conceptual model is extensively discussed, and the variables
are defined in this chapter.
3.2
Conceptual Model
The theoretical model is adapted from a previous study by Cubillo et al. (2006).
Previous study proposes a theoretical model that integrates the different groups of
factors that influence the decision-making process of international students. The
theoretical model comprises the purchase intention, as a dependent and not observable
variable, and four factors with a total of 19 items identified from the existing
literature. The factors identified are personal reasons, country image, institution
image, and programme evaluation. The theoretical model is presented in Figure 3.1.
45
cost of education, degree (content and structure), physical aspects, facilities and
resources, value of education, institutional information, and influences from people
(family, friends, peers, and teachers). The theoretical model is modified in such a way
to study the important attributes that influence students intention to study at a HEI,
which is in line with the objectives of this study.
Personal Reasons
(3 Items)
Country Image Effect
(3 Items)
City Image
(4 Items)
Purchase
Intention
Institution Image
(5 Items)
Programme Evaluation
(4 Items)
In addition, a further modification of the items within the IVs adopted from
Joseph and Joseph (1998, 2000) is made to address the important attributes that
influence students intention to study. The dependent variable (DV) proposed in this
study is the students intention to study at a HEI. This variable has the same
magnitude as the DV (purchase intention) in the adapted model. According to the
favourable behavioural intention studies demonstrated by Zeithaml et al. (1996), it
was found that certain behaviours signal that customers are forging bonds with a
company. When customers praise the firm, express a preference for the company over
46
others, increase the volume of their purchase, or agreeably pay a price premium, they
are indicating behaviourally that they are bonding with the company. The
phenomenon is similar to the HEI industry, in this case students act as customers. If
students intend to study at a HEI, the students reveal a favourable behavioural
intention towards the HEI. In turn, students may say positive things about the HEI,
recommend the HEI to others, remain loyal to the HEI, spend more time with the HEI,
and pay a premium rate for the HEI (Parasuraman et al., 1996). The proposed
conceptual model of this study is shown in Figure 3.2
Cost of Education
Physical Aspects,
Facilities and Resources
Intention to Study at a
Higher Educational
Institution
Value of Education
Institutional Information
Figure 3.2: The proposed conceptual model in this study, adapted from Zeithaml et
al. (1996), Joseph and Joseph (1998, 2000), and Cubillo et al. (2006).
47
The model presented in this study aims to explain the factors influencing the
study intention of Malaysian students. The intention to study is used as a predictor for
the preferential choices of students, and is defined as the intention of the student to
study at a particular HEI (Peng et al., 2000; Srikatanyoo and Gnoth, 2002; Cubillo et
al., 2006).
3.3
Definition of Variables
Items of IVs are adopted from the previous studies by Joseph and Joseph (1998,
2000). The items of DV are adopted from Zeithaml et al. (1996). These items are
reorganized in such a way as to be applicable in the Malaysian context. The definition
and items for each variable is summarized in Table 3.1.
1.
Independent Variable
Cost of education (IV1)
Definition: Students financial consumption during study (Foskett et al, 2006)
Five Measurable items
- Reasonable cost
- Availability of financial aid
- Availability of scholarship
- Flexible payment of fee
- Accommodation at reasonable cost
Sample item
Provides education at a reasonable cost
48
2.
Independent Variable
Degree (Content and Structure) (IV2)
Definition: The availability and suitability of the offered courses to students
(Hooley and Lynch, 1981)
Five Measurable items
- Reasonable entry requirements
- Wide range of courses
- Flexibility in selecting courses/subjects
- Specialized programmes
- Reasonable completion periods of study
Sample item
Have reasonable entry requirements for its programme
3.
4.
49
5.
Independent Variable
Institutional Information (IV5)
Definition: Information made available by institutions to students (Cleopatra,
2004)
Five Measurable items
- Application process
- information availability
- Career opportunities
- Area of study
- Post-graduate studies
Sample item
Provide students with information regarding application processes
6.
1.
Dependent Variable
Intention to Study at a Higher Educational Institution (DV)
Definition: Students intention to further their study at a higher educational
institution (Mazzarol, 2000)
Six Measurable items
- Likelihood to further study
- Strong interest to pursue study
- Recommend the chosen HEI
- Say favourable things about the chosen HEI
- Willing to spend
- Willing to pay at high rate
Sample item
The likelihood to further my study at a HEI is high
50
3.4
Hypotheses Development
3.4.1
Cost of Education
In a previous study, James et al. (1999) stated that overall costs incurred have not
usually been a strong influence in the applicants decision and choice of university.
While confirming the above, research done in England (Fokskett et al., 2006)
suggests factors influencing students intention to study at a HEI could be turned
upside down now that financial considerations are of greater importance to students.
Moreover, the recently announced introduction of student fees in HEIs may result in
greater consumerist behaviour by applicants as the issue of value for money may
become a major factor affecting students decision making.
Thus, this study hypothesises that the cost of education is a significant factor
that influences students intention to study at a HEI in the Malaysian context.
H1: The cost of education is a significant factor that influences students intention to
study at a HEI
3.4.2
Studies (Mazzarol, T. 1997, 1998, 1999) have found that the majority of students
when making decisions for their further study only have limited knowledge about the
programme and its content. Thus, it may be argued that the ability of a HEI to offer a
wide range or specialised courses for its students is not the main factor that attracts
students intention to study at the HEI. Nevertheless, some other researchers
expressed contrasting opinions.
51
Hooley and Lynch (1981) observed that the suitability of the programme is the
most important factor, as students will accept any level of the other factors. In this
sense, prospective students will compare programmes offered with those being
promoted by competing institutions in order to check their suitability (Krampf and
Heinlein, 1981). Consequently, this study hypothesises that the content and structure
of degree is a significant factor that influences students intention to study at a HEI in
the Malaysian context.
H2: The content and structure of the degree is a significant factor that influences
students intention to study at a HEI
3.4.3
Some researchers cited that the physical aspects of a HEI, including its location and
good social life on campus, are not usually the determinants in students intention to
study at a HEI (Robert, 1998; Hemsley-Brown, 1999).
However, Price et al. (2003) found that when provided, high standard facilities
are considered as a relevant factor that influence the students selection of institution
for the pursuit of their studies. Hence, this study hypothesises that the physical
aspects, facilities and resources of an institution form a significant factor that
influences students intention to study at a HEI in the Malaysian context.
H3: The physical aspects, facilities and resources of an institution are a significant
factor that influences students intention to study at a HEI
52
3.4.4
Value of Education
H4: The value of education is a significant factor that influences students intention
to study at a HEI
3.4.5
Institutional Information
Studies (Turner, 1998) have found that the institutional information does not have a
major affect on students intention to study at a HEI. Studies also indicate that in the
decision making process for further study, most students consider other factors as
being more important and that institutional information only acts as a guide for them.
53
3.4.6
Results from previous studies (McMahon, 1992, Kemp, 1995), showed that many HEI
marketers were of the opinion that students who intend to continue their studies at a
higher level were often those that were considered mature, independent and in
possession of a critical thinking mentality. Hence, they concluded that the influence of
students family, friends and peers was not the main factor affecting their intention to
study at a HEI.
H6: The significant people (family, friends, peers and teachers) is a significant factor
that influences students intention to study at a HEI
54
3.4.7
Numerous studies have addressed the differences between males and females with
regard to their psychological orientation and behaviour. From a consumer behaviour
perspective (in this study, students as customers), there have been several studies
directed towards gender differences. Studies have addressed gender differences in
information processing strategies (Meyers-Levy and Maheswran, 1991), roles and
attitudes (Fischer and Arnold, 1994), cueing and judgment-related activities (MeyersLevy and Sternthal, 1991), and right-brain/left- brain activity (Meyers-Levy, 1994) to
name a few.
Given that research has also found gender differences in shopping behaviour
(Roberts and Wortzel, 1984; .Zeithaml, 1985) and in the characteristics males and
females consider when evaluating products (Fischer and Arnold, 1994; Meyers-Levy
and Sternthal, 1991), it is likely that gender differences are extended to the evaluative
criteria in the selection of a college. As a result, this study hypothesises that there are
significant differences between students gender concerning the importance placed on
the factors that influence students intention to study at a higher educational
institution.
H7: Male and female students differ in the importance placed on the factors that
influence students intention to study at a higher educational institution.
55
3.4.8
Sohail and Saeed (2003) proposed that the different academic background of students
leads to different preferences towards a HEI. Other researchers found that students,
who come from a distinct academic background, especially those who studied
different courses at pre-university level, revealed different perceptions of which HEI
to attend (Hassan and Shariff, 2006).
Nevertheless, a few studies were found that addressed the differences in
students academic background with regards to the HEI selection process in the
Malaysian context. Consequently, this study hypothesises that there is a significant
difference between students academic background and the importance placed on the
factors that influence students intention to study at a higher educational institution.
H8: Students with different academic background will differ in the importance placed
on the factors that influence students intention to study at a higher educational
institution.
56
Dependent Variable, DV
H1
H2
H3
H4
Value of Education
(5 Items, Interval)
H5
Institutional Information
(5 Items, Interval)
H6
Figure 3.3: The conceptual model and proposed hypotheses in the study
H1: The cost of education is a significant factor that influences students intention to
study at a HEI
H2: The content and structure of the degree is a significant factor that influences
students intention to study at a HEI
H3: The physical aspects, facilities and resources of an institution are a significant
factor that influences students intention to study at a HEI
57
H4: The value of education is a significant factor that influences students intention
to study at a HEI
H5: The institutional information is a significant factor that influences students
intention to study at a HEI
H6: The significant people (family, friends, peers and teachers) is a significant factor
that influences students intention to study at a HEI
H7: Male and female students will differ in the importance placed on the factors that
influence students intention to study at a higher educational institution.
H8: Students with different academic background will differ in the importance
placed on the factors that influence students intention to study at a higher
educational institution.
3.5
This chapter discussed the development of the proposed conceptual model. This
model combines a few previous studies as a platform, allowing the present study to
investigate the relationships between variables, and the difference in students gender,
and academic background concerning their intention to study at a HEI. Each proposed
variable is comprehensively defined in this chapter.
58
CHAPTER
Research Methodology
4.1 Introduction
4.2
4.3 Selection of Sample
4.4 Sampling
4.5 Instrument Design
4.6 Data Collection
4.7 Research Approaches
4.7.1 Determination of Sample Normality
4.7.2 Descriptive Analyses
4.7.3 Validity Test
4.7.4 Reliability Test
4.7.5 Relationship Approach
4.7.6 Differences Approach
4.8 Assumptions of the Study
4.9 Conclusion of the Chapter
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Introduction
Research Design
Selection of Sample
Sampling
Instrument Design
Data Collection
Research Approaches
Assumptions of the Study
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 4
4.1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter reveals the research methodology employed in the present study. The
chapter begins with a discussion on the sample selection and sampling, followed by
instrument design and data collection. A complete methodology of the performed
analyses is discussed in the later section of this chapter.
4.2
Research Design
The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering questions.
In this study, the qualitative approach was employed as the theories are well
developed and lead to a formal conceptual model. As a result, hypotheses can be
developed and tested. The instrument was adapted from previous studies (Zeithaml et
al., 1996; Joseph and Joseph, 1998 & 2000). The instrument was a self-administered
questionnaire that was distributed to the respondents in the form of survey, and the
data collected was primary data for the analysis.
4.3
Selection of Sample
The targeted sample of this study was students who were currently attending preuniversity level programmes, including Form Six (high school), GCE A-Level, local
matriculation, overseas Pre-U courses, and other foundation courses. Recent school
leavers, for instance, those students who graduated from their secondary school within
the previous two years were eligible for participation in this study. However, no
school leavers participated in the study; all respondents were currently attending preuniversity level programmes.
59
The targeted sample was defined as such, as these groups of people have the
highest possibility of continuing their study at a HEI. In other words, their intention to
continue their study at a HEI was assumed. Consequently, they are of interest to HEI
marketers for identifying what factors influence the students intention to study at a
HEI. Moreover, knowing the reasons why students choose a university and course of
study is central to developing institutional positioning in an increasingly competitive
HE environment.
4.4
Sampling
Sampling was carried out in selected PHEIs, matriculation centres and tuition
centres. The samples were collected using stratified convenience sampling. Using this
method, the selection of sample for this research was based on the appropriateness of
the research objectives; specifically, the respondents academic background (as
respondents highest qualification in questionnaire) was divided into three distinct
categories with a minimum of 150 responses each; as presented in Table 4.1.
Therefore, respondents were asked to identify their study status, and then only
qualified respondents were considered for participation in the sampling process.
60
Instrument of Measurement
The instrument used in this study was designed based on prior published researches
regarding the important factors affecting students selection of a HEI. A multiple
attribute model was developed for use in this study by adapting those employed in
previous studies (Zeithaml et al., 1996; Joseph and Joseph, 1998 & 2000; Cubillo et
al., 2006).
Section B:
Section C:
61
In Section B, a table was provided for respondents to place the ranking order
in the blank column, regarding their perceived importance of factors influencing their
intention to study at a HEI. The ranking order of important factors ranged from one to
six in decreasing order of importance. For example, one represented the most
important factor, whereas six represented the least important factor. An example was
give next to the table to provide assistance in answering the section correctly and to
avoid any confusion.
4.6
Data Collection
62
4.7
Research Approaches
Data was coded using Statistical Package for Social Studies (SPSS), version 15.0.
Data was screened and cleaned in order to identify any significant outlier or missing
value.
4.7.1
In order to perform the parametric analyses on the samples, all collected scale type
data from the survey was subject to exploration for the normality tests before
subsequent analyses. The objective of sample normality tests is to ensure the sample
is normally distributed and randomly selected. It is important that the normality of the
sample is confirmed before subjecting it to inferential and differential analyses, as it
proves the capability and appropriateness of the sample in representing the actual
population. Thus, the findings from consequent analyses in this study can be
generalized to the population with confidence.
Several normality tests were carried out on the data by employing graphical
and statistical analyses on the sample as shown in the following table:
Analysis
1.
Histogram
Graphical
2.
Stem-and-leaf Plots
Graphical
3.
Boxplot
Graphical
4.
Descriptive Statistics
Statistical
63
4.7.2
Descriptive Analyses
Descriptive analyses were performed on two distinctive sections of the collected data,
namely, Section A and Section B. The analyses were:
Section A: Mean and standard deviation for items in each variable; and
computed mean and standard deviation for the variables.
Section B: Rank ordering score for the influencing factors.
4.7.3
Validity Test
The validity test of the instrument in this study was performed by factor analysis.
Generally, factor analysis is carried out to condense a large set of scale items down to
a smaller, more manageable number of factors. It can be done by summarizing the
underlying patterns of correlation and looking for groups of closely related items.
In this study, there were 36 items allocated in seven variables, including six
IVs and a DV. The objective of the validity test in this study was to identify whether
the proposed items were valid for measuring the underlying concept. In this case, the
concept referred to the respondents perceived importance of factors influencing their
intention to study at a HEI. In order words, the confirmatory factor analysis approach
was employed. In short, the validity test was demonstrated to test and ensure the
appropriateness of the instrument used in the present study.
4.7.4
Reliability Test
The reliability test of this instrument was examined through Cronbachs Alpha
Coefficient. The objective of the reliability test was to ensure that the measurable
items of each variable were measuring the same underlying construct. If the results
reveal a high alpha value then the internal consistency of the set of items is
64
determined. Consequently, these items were eligible for making up the scale (be
computed) for the following analyses.
4.7.5
Relationship Approach
Two inferential analyses were carried out to investigate the relationship between the
proposed IVs and DV in the present study; Pearsons correlation and multiple linear
regression. First, the correlation analysis was carried out to identify the significant
strength and direction of the linear relationship between the proposed IVs and DV.
Computed items under each variable and averaged variable score of IVs and DV were
subject to analysis using Pearsons correlation.
Methodology
Objective of Analysis
Graphical and statistical To ensure the sample are normally
normality tests
distributed and the homoscedasticity of
sample
Descriptive
(A) Comparison of means
Statistical description
Statistical description
Validity test
Factor Analysis
Reliability test
Cronbachs Alpha
Coefficient
Relationship Approach
(A) Relationships between
variables
(B) Predictors and its
contribution to
criterion
Differences Approach
(A) Difference between
gender
(B) Difference between
academic background
4.8
Pearsons Correlation
Multiple Regression
Independent Sample
t-test
One-way ANOVA
HEI. However, other factors are not considered as significant factors as the impact
level may be negligible.
All the respondents were assumed to understand the items in the questionnaire,
and answer honestly. As a result, the findings in this study represent real situations.
66
4.9
The research methodology employed in the present study was extensively discussed
in this chapter. The discussion included research design, sample selection and
sampling process, measurement design and the data analysis the study is going to
apply. The findings of these analyses are exhibited in Chapter 5.
67
CHAPTER
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
Introduction
Result of Sampling
Respondents Profile
Normality Test
Descriptive Analysis
Validity Test
Reliability Test
Correlation Analysis
Multiple Regression Analysis
Independent Sample t-Test
One-Way Analysis of Variance
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 5
5.1
Introduction
This chapter presents the findings obtained from the analyses. The chapter begins
with the results of the sampling, which illustrates the sources of respondents from
various locations within the Klang Valley. The exact locations and response rate are
clearly indicated. The demographical data is shown in the respondents profile
section. Normality tests were performed to ensure the sample normality, then
descriptive analyses were performed for each item and variable. Two inferential
analyses were carried out, namely, Pearsons correlation and multiple regression. The
bivariate analysis analyzes the relationship between the independent variables and the
dependent variable. Multiple regression analysis is to indicate its predictor and
criterion. In addition, differential analyses including independent t-test and One-Way
ANOVA were carried out to identify the difference between the respondents gender
and highest qualification (academic), respectively.
5.2
Result of Sampling
Questionnaires were distributed in the form of a survey to students currently at preuniversity level in the three selected sampling areas: tuition centres at Jalan Petaling,
International Islamic University Malaysia (UIAM) Matriculation Centre, and private
institutes at Wangsa Maju, Subang Jaya and Cheras. The entire sampling was
completed in approximately 22 days. A total of 800 questionnaires were distributed
and 522 responses were returned, contributing to a 65.25 percent response rate, which
is reasonably good. However, a total of 30 students responses were excluded from
68
analysis due to leaving one or more items blank. Eight responses were excluded due
to incorrect answers in their questionnaires. Another four responses from
undergraduate students were eliminated as they were not qualified as the targeted
sample for this study. The remaining 480 respondents accounted for 60.00 percent of
the total number of distributed questionnaires and were eventually used for analysis.
The report of sampling is shown in Table 5.1.
Sampling Location
1. (A) Pusat Tuisyen K
(Jalan Petaling)
(B) Pusat Tuisyen Y
(Jalan Petaling)
2.
3.
International Islamic
University Malaysia
Matriculation Centre
(Petaling Jaya)
(A) Tunku Abdul
Rahman College,
TARC (Wangsa
Maju)
(B) Taylor University
College (Subang
Jaya)
(C) University
College Sedaya
International,
UCSI (Cheras)
Total
Return of
Questionnaire
Return of
Questionnaire
(Percentage)
Total
Respondents
Subject to
Analysis
100
52
52.00
48
100
77
77.00
72
100
68
92.50
63
300
186
62.00
170
100
84
84.00
78
100
55
55.00
49
800
522
65.25
480
Number of
Questionnaires
Distributed
69
5.3
Respondents Profile
The majority of respondents come from small (1-4 persons) and average (5-6
persons) sized families. These family sizes account for 79.5 percent in this category.
Most respondents family gross monthly income is RM6,000 and below which
accounted for 86.6 percent, and the largest income group is in the range of RM2,001
to RM4,000 at 38.5 percent. This result indicates that most of the respondents have a
medium family monthly income level. The findings are graphically shown in Figure
5.1 to Figure 5.7.
70
Gender
Male
Female
Total
Age Group
15 years or below
16-18 years
19-21 years
22 years and above
Total
Ethnic Group
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Others
Religion
Muslim
Christian
Buddhist
Hindu
Others
Total
Total
Highest
Qualification
(Including
Currently
Attending)
Family Size
(Including
Respondent)
Family Gross
Monthly Income
STPM/Form Six
GCE A-Level
Oversea Pre-U
Local Matriculation
University Foundation Programme
Others
Total
1-2 persons
3-4 persons
5-6 persons
7-8 persons
Above 8 persons
Total
RM 2000 or less
RM 2001 RM 4000
RM 4001 RM 6000
RM 6001 RM 8000
RM 8001 RM 10000
RM 10001 and above
Total
Frequency, n
Percentage, %
202
278
480
0
224
238
18
480
159
193
120
8
480
164
104
130
77
5
480
160
160
60
63
37
0
480
16
183
183
81
17
480
137
185
94
50
8
6
480
42.10
57.90
100
0.00
46.70
49.60
3.80
100
33.10
40.20
25.00
1.70
100
34.20
21.70
27.10
16.00
1.00
100
33.3
33.3
12.5
13.1
7.70
0.00
100
3.30
38.10
38.10
16.90
3.50
100
28.50
38.50
19.60
10.40
1.70
1.30
100
71
Respondent's Gender
Male, n = 202
42.1 %
Female, n = 278
57.9 %
49.6%
250
200
Number of 150
Students 100
3.8%
50
0
16-18 years
19-21 years
22 years and
above
Year
72
Others
n =8, 1.7%
Indian
n =120, 25%
Malay
n =159, 33.1%
Chinese
n =193, 40.2%
Respondent's Religion
Hindu
n =77, 16%
Others
n=5, 1%
Muslim
n=164, 34.2%
Buddhist
n =130, 27.1%
Christian
n=104, 21.7%
73
Local
Matriculation
n =63, 13%
STPM/ Form
Six
n =160, 33%
Overseas
Pre-U
n =60, 13%
GCE A-Level
n =160, 33%
Figure 5.5: The highest qualification status profile of the respondents
38.1%
38.1%
16.9%
3.3%
3.5%
1-2
3-4
5-6
7-8
Above 8
persons persons persons persons persons
Family Size
74
38.1%
38.1%
16.9%
3.3%
1-2
persons
3.5%
3-4
persons
5-6
persons
7-8
persons
Above 8
persons
Family Size
Figure 5.7: The family gross monthly income profile of the respondents
75
5.4
Normality Test
5.4.1 Histogram
All the scale type data shows a normally distributed curve in the histogram chart. The
findings indicate that the sample is normally distributed. The histogram is shown in
Appendix II.
5.4.2
Stem-and-leaf Plots
Stem-and-leaf plots of the collected data are emerging normal distributions; therefore
the sample is normally distributed. The result of the stem-and-leaf plots is shown in
Appendix II.
5.4.3
Boxplot
The potential outliers were counter checked by boxplot and all potential outliers were
eliminated. The boxplot of collected data is shown in Appendix II. The distribution
of the boxplot showing the sample is normally distributed after drawing the potential
outlier respondents data (normalization). Furthermore, no significant outliers were
revealed in the boxplot for the any of the variables.
76
5.4.4
Descriptive Statistics
The normality of the sample is deduced from the results of the Skewness and Kurtosis
tests. All the values are between -2 to +2, which fall in the normal range for the
Skewness and Kurtosis tests (Sekaran, 2003). Therefore, the normality of the sample
is acceptable. The details of the findings are reported in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Statistical normality tests for scale data from the sample (N = 480)
Mean
5%
Trimmed
Mean
Median
Variance
Std.
Deviation
Minimum
Maximum
Range
Skewness
Kurtosis
Cost of
education
Degree
(content
and
structure)
Physical
aspects,
facilities and
resources
Value of
Education
3.62
3.61
3.84
3.62
3.62
3.60
0.17
Institutional
information
People
(Family,
friends, peers
and teachers)
Intention
to study
at a HEI
3.44
3.74
3.64
3.93
3.85
3.44
3.73
3.65
3.93
3.60
0.30
4.00
.145
3.40
.424
4.00
.241
3.75
.526
4.00
.288
0.41
0.54
0.38
0.65
0.49
0.73
0.54
2.80
4.40
1.60
0.18
-1.84
2.20
5.00
2.80
-1.53
-1.92
3.00
4.50
1.50
-1.77
-1.14
2.00
5.00
3.00
0.50
-0.98
2.00
5.00
3.00
-1.64
-0.97
1.00
5.00
4.00
-1.44
1.76
2.17
5.00
2.83
-0.46
1.12
Table 5.4:
Test
Histogram
Stem-and-leaf Plots
Boxplot
Descriptive Statistic (Skewness and Kurtosis)
77
The overall results indicate that the distribution of the sample is normal.
Hence, the sample is acceptable and can be considered as normally distributed and
randomly selected from the population. The importance of the determination of the
samples normality is to ensure its homoscedasticity. The residual between the
observed value and the predicted value must be small enough so that the model fits
the sample indicating that the sample is representative of the population.
5.5
Descriptive Analysis
The summary of the means for the 42 items according to each variable is shown in
Table 5.5. All the items have a mean score of above 3.00. Thus, the findings indicate
that the majority of the respondents agreed with the statement of items for each
variable, and considered those items important for their intention to study at a HEI.
Variable
Cost of education(IV1)
C1 Provide education at a reasonable cost
C2 Make financial aid available to its students
C3 Make scholarships available to its students.
C4 Make flexible payment of fee to its students
C5 Make accommodation available to its students at reasonable cost
Degree (Content and Structure) (IV2)
D1 Have reasonable entry requirements for its programmes
D2 Provide a wide range of courses for students to select from
Provide students flexibility in selecting courses/subjects during
D3
their study
Provide students with a number of specialized programmes to suit
D4
their needs
D5 Offer degrees with reasonable completion periods of study
Note: Importance score: 5 = maximum, 1 = minimum
Importance
Mean S.D.
3.63
3.62
3.59
3.63
3.63
0.61
0.65
0.69
0.61
0.60
3.64
3.57
0.68
0.82
3.56
0.75
3.64
0.72
3.63
0.70
78
Variable
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources (IV3)
P1 Be situated in an ideal location
P2 Provide students with an environment that is conductive to learning
P3 Provide students with great recreation and other facilities
P4 Provide students with an expected social life on campus
Provide students with all the necessary resources that are required
P5
for their education
P6 Provide students with a clean study environment
P7 Provide students with a safe condition for study
P8 Have exceptional quality of faculty members
Importance
Mean S.D.
3.87
3.82
3.94
3.83
0.49
0.56
0.48
0.51
3.84
0.51
3.72
3.86
3.83
0.56
0.51
0.50
3.49
3.41
3.37
3.46
3.48
0.79
0.87
0.81
0.77
0.76
3.73
3.72
3.76
3.78
3.71
0.54
0.54
0.51
0.55
0.58
3.68
3.65
3.68
3.52
3.67
3.52
3.71
3.66
0.81
0.80
0.82
0.90
0.80
0.92
0.80
0.85
4.08
3.90
3.75
4.05
3.95
3.84
0.70
0.72
0.81
0.70
0.70
0.85
79
A summary of the computed means of all the items according to the variables
is shown in Table 5.6. The overall scores for each variable were obtained by
averaging the response to the appropriate items.
Table 5.6: Summary of the means of computed items according to variable (N = 480)
Importance
Mean
S.D.
3.62
0.41
3.61
0.55
3.84
0.38
3.44
0.65
3.74
0.50
3.64
0.73
3.93
0.54
Variable
Cost of Education
Degree (Content and Structure)
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
Value of Education
Institutional Information
People (Family, Friends, Peers and Teachers)
Intention to Study
The means of all computed items are above 3.00. This result indicates that the
respondents consider all the factors listed above have some importance regarding their
intention to continue their studies at a HEI.
Rank (I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Number of
respondent, n
240
99
79
24
14
24
Total
35
60
49
155
92
89
Total
Score
(I n)
240
198
237
96
70
144
985
35
120
147
620
460
534
1916
80
Variable
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
(IV3)
Rank (I)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
People (Family,
Teachers) (IV6)
Friends,
Peers
and
1
2
3
4
5
6
Number of
respondent, n
92
78
197
76
25
12
Total
28
29
46
101
215
61
Total
15
31
30
104
116
184
Total
69
185
78
21
17
110
Total
Score
(I n)
92
156
591
304
125
72
1340
28
58
138
404
1075
366
2069
15
62
90
416
580
1104
2267
69
370
234
84
85
660
1502
In order to obtain the score for each factor, the ranking was multiplied by the
number of respondents accordingly. Thus, the sum score of each factor was obtained.
The scores were sorted in ascending order (from low to high), with the lowest score
indicating the first rank, and the highest score indicating the last rank. The result of
this analysis is shown in Table 5.8.
81
Table 5.8: The overall score of each factor ranked by respondents (N = 480)
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
Variable
Cost of Education
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
People (Family, Friends, Peers and Teachers)
Degree (Content and Structure)
Value of Education
Institutional Information
Total Score
985
1340
1502
1916
2069
2267
5.6
Validity Test
The validity test is used to determine that the questions in the questionnaire are
tapping the right concept and not something else (Sekaran, 2003). Validity tests
determine how well an instrument measures the particular concept it is supposed to
measure. Pallant (2007) cited that there are two main issues to consider in determining
whether a particular data set of a sample is appropriate for factor analysis; sample size
and the strength of the relationship among the items or variables. For sample size,
Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) suggested that it is comforting to have at least 300 cases
for factor analysis. The sample size of this study is 480, which exceeds the minimum
number required, therefore, the data set for the sample is acceptable for factor
analysis. The validity test is performed through factor analysis. Factor analysis is
carried out to validate the appropriateness of the measureable items used in this study.
82
The strength of the inter-correlation among the items must also be considered.
According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), a correlation coefficient (loading level)
greater than 0.3 is considered acceptable for analysis. Based on the result of factor
analysis, a total of 36 items listed in the independent variables were included. An
inspection of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of many coefficients of 0.3
and above, see Appendix III.
Two statistical measures were also carried out to determine the ability to
perform factor analysis. In other words, the suitability of data for factor analysis was
assessed. First, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy, and
Bartletts test of Sphericity. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), Bartletts test
of Sphericity should be significant (p < 0.05) in order for the factor analysis to be
considered appropriate, while the minimum value for a good factor analysis is 0.60
for the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) index (Pallant, 2007). In this section, two factor
analyses were carried out separately for the independent variables and the dependent
variable.
.805
15358.357
630
.000
83
Scree Plot
Eigenvalue
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Component Number
Component
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Initial Eigenvalues
% of
Cumulative
Total Variance
%
6.948
19.301
19.301
5.345
14.848
34.149
4.542
12.618
46.767
3.790
10.529
57.296
2.521
7.004
64.300
1.491
4.142
68.442
1.044
2.901
71.344
.954
2.651
73.994
.904
2.510
76.504
.775
2.151
78.656
.748
2.077
80.732
.668
1.856
82.588
.631
1.752
84.339
.574
1.596
85.935
.540
1.499
87.434
.521
1.447
88.881
.481
1.336
90.217
.460
1.278
91.495
.403
1.121
92.615
.359
.997
93.612
.342
.950
94.562
.274
.761
95.324
.244
.677
96.001
.220
.610
96.611
.180
.499
97.109
.165
.457
97.567
.146
.406
97.973
.128
.356
98.329
.117
.325
98.655
.100
.278
98.933
.093
.258
99.190
.080
.221
99.412
.063
.176
99.587
.055
.152
99.740
.053
.148
99.888
.040
.112
100.000
85
Random Eigenvalue
Standard Dev
1.5541
1.4855
1.4341
1.3931
1.3514
1.3160
1.2819
1.2506
1.2219
1.1912
1.1634
1.1380
1.1120
1.0854
1.0625
1.0403
1.0156
0.9910
0.9663
0.9446
0.9214
0.8980
0.8745
0.8516
0.8312
0.8091
0.7862
0.7666
0.7441
0.7207
0.6970
0.6740
0.6475
0.6226
0.5963
0.5604
.0391
.0277
.0260
.0243
.0201
.0185
.0172
.0185
.0173
.0169
.0142
.0166
.0146
.0146
.0129
.0138
.0141
.0137
.0111
.0116
.0136
.0125
.0141
.0144
.0141
.0143
.0133
.0140
.0120
.0123
.0134
.0144
.0169
.0153
.0157
.0214
Table 5.12: Comparison of eigenvalue from PCA and criterion values from
parallel analysis
Component
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Actual Eigenvalue
from PCA
6.948
5.345
4.542
3.790
2.521
1.491
1.044
Decision
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Accept
Reject
86
F1
F5
F8
F4
F7
F3
F6
F2
D4
D3
D2
D5
D1
P7
P5
P4
P2
P1
P6
P8
P3
I1
I2
I5
I4
I3
V5
V4
V1
V2
V3
C2
C3
C5
C1
C4
1
.932
.909
.897
.891
.880
.873
.862
.647
Component
3
4
.785
.776
.753
.618
.597
.873
.870
.837
.809
.784
.645
.622
.394
.949
.933
.901
.888
.813
.743
.740
.663
.442
.328
.787
.731
.407
.349
.329
87
Component
1
2
3
4
5
6
Factor
People (Family, Friends, Peers and Teachers)
Degree (Content and Structure)
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
Institutional Information
Value of Education
Cost of Education
Factor 2 contains four items, they are Provide students with a number of
specialized programmes to suit their needs, Provide students flexibility in selecting
courses/subjects during their study, Provide a wide range of courses for students to
select from, and Offer degrees with reasonable completion periods of study. These
items fall into the independent variable named Degree (Content and Structure).
Nonetheless, there are five items under this variable in the instrument. Have
reasonable entry requirements for its programmes was not included as its factor
loading was less than 0.60.
88
There are seven items in Factor 3, namely, Physical Aspects, Facilities and
Resources. It consists of Provide students with a safe condition for study, Provide
students with all the necessary resources that are required for their education,
Provide students with an expected social life on campus, Provide students with an
environment that is conducive to learning, Be situated in an ideal location,
Provide students with a clean study environment, and Have exceptional quality of
faculty members.
In general, the overall results of factor analysis for the independent variables is
reasonable, and supports the proposed questionnaire. The identified six factors
accounted for 68.44% of the total variance explained. Thus, this finding revealed an
acceptable result, as all the proposed items of the independent variables in the
89
5.6.2
Dependent Variables
The results of the KMO and Bartletts Test for independent variable are shown in
Table 5.14. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value is 0.75, exceeding the minimum value of
0.60 (Kaiser 1970, 1974), and Bartletts Test of Sphericity (Bartlett 1954) reached
statistically significant, supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix.
.750
1282.916
15
.000
In the principal components analysis (PCA), a total of six items listed under
dependent variable were subjected to analysis. Results revealed only the components
with eigenvalues exceeding 1, explaining 54.2% of the variance; these are shown in
Table 5.15. Furthermore, an inspection of the scree plot shown in Figure 5.9 revealed
a clear break after the first component. A complete component matrix result for
dependent variables is shown in Table 5.16. The results clearly indicate that only one
factor was measured from the items in the dependent variable, which is Intention to
study at a HEI. This factor comprises five items comprising The likelihood to
further my studies at HEI is high, I am willing to spend for studying in a HEI, I
will say favourable things about the HEI I chose, I am willing to pay at a high rate
for the HEI I choose, and I have a strong interest to pursue my studies at a HEI
90
Component
Initial Eigenvalues
% of
Cumulative
Variance
%
54.229
54.229
16.357
70.587
12.606
83.193
8.635
91.828
5.387
97.215
2.785
100.000
Total
3.254
.981
.756
.518
.323
.167
1
2
3
4
5
6
% of
Cumulative
Total Variance
%
3.254
54.229
54.229
Scree Plot
Eigenvalue
0
1
Component Number
5.7
Reliability Test
92
In this study, Cronbachs alpha coefficient was used to measure the internal
consistency of the scales employed in this survey. The Cronbachs alpha value for
each variable is shown in Table 5.17.
Variable
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
DV
Cost of Education
Degree (Content and Structure)
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
Value of Education
Institutional Information
People (Family, Friends, Peers and Teachers)
Intention to study at a HEI
Number
of item
5
5
8
5
5
8
6
Cronbachs
alpha Value
0.65
0.80
0.88
0.87
0.93
0.95
0.82
Table 5.17 shows that all the variables except the cost of education revealed
Cronbachs alpha Values greater than 0.80. As Nunnally (1978) and DeVellis (2003)
recommend a minimum level of 0.70, the scale of the six variables can be considered
as having high reliability. Also, the Cronbachs alpha values are dependent on the
number of items. Pallant (2007) cited that when there are a small number of items in
the scale, for instance fewer than ten items, it is common to find low Cronbachs
alpha values (i.e. 0.50).
The results show that those items under the variable of cost of education
contribute a Cronbachs alpha value of 0.65, which is lower than the minimum level
of 0.70. In this case, it is more appropriate to report the mean inter-item correlation
for the items within the variable, see Table 5.18.
Briggs and Cheek (1986) recommend an optimal range for the inter-item
correlation of 0.20 to 0.40. Accordingly, half of the mean value of items within the
93
variable fall within this optimal range. Additionally, a minimum Cronbachs alpha
value cut-off point of 0.60 is common in social-science research (Cohen, 1988). As a
result, the scale of this variable is acceptable to be considered as reliable in this study.
Provide education at
a reasonable cost
Make financial aids
available to its
students
Make scholarships
available to its
students
Make flexible
payment of fee to its
students
Make
accommodation
available to its
students at
reasonable cost
Make
scholarships
available to its
students
Make
flexible
payment
of fee to
its
students
Make
accommodation
available to its
students at
reasonable cost
.215
.195
.125
.258
.215
1.000
.472
.242
.212
.195
.472
1.000
.360
.212
.125
.242
.360
1.000
.435
.258
.212
.212
.435
1.000
Provide
education
at a
reasonable
cost
Make
financial aids
available to its
students
1.000
In conclusion, the findings of both the validity and the reliability tests support
the appropriateness of the instrument used throughout this study. In other words, the
items in the variables are valid and reliable to measure the concept that they are
supposed to measure. Therefore, the outcome of the instrument is suitable for a higher
level of analyses such as inferential and differential analysis.
94
5.8
Correlation Analysis
In this section, Pearsons correlation is used to explore the relationship between the
independent variables (IVs) and the dependent variable (DV). Correlation coefficients
are able to provide a numerical summary of the direction and the strength of the linear
relationship between the IVs and the DV. Pearsons correlation coefficients (r) range
from -1 to +1 and the sign in front indicates whether there is a positive or negative
correlation. The size of the absolute value provides information on the strength of the
relationship (Pallant, 2007). The findings of correlations between the independent
variables and the dependent variable are summarized in Table 5.19.
Table 5.19: The correlations between the independent variables and the dependent
variable (N =480)
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Degree (content and structure), IV2
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Physical aspects, facilities and resources, IV3
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Value of education, IV4
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Institutional information, IV5
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
People (Family, friends, peers and teachers, IV6 Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Intention to
study, DV
0.11**
0.02
0.20**
0.00
0.09**
0.04
0.18**
0.00
0.10**
0.03
0.16**
0.00
95
educational institute, the higher the students intention to further their study at the
institute.
96
5.9
linearity,
homoscedasticity,
multicollinearity,
autocorrelation,
and
multivariate outlier, all refer to the various aspects of the distribution of scores and the
nature of the underlying relationship between the variables. These assumptions were
97
checked by inspecting the Normal Probability Plot (P-P) of the Regression Standard
Residual, Scatter plot, and other tests that complement the regression analysis.
According to the histogram of the intention to study at a higher educational institution
(see Appendix II), the data of the dependent variable is normally distributed. Hence,
it ensures the normality of the sample. In addition, sample normality is further
demonstrated by a Normal P-P of the Regression Standard Residual, as shown in
Figure 5.10.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 5.10: Normal P-P Plot of regression standardized residual for dependent
variable
In the Normal P-P plot, points are laid in a reasonably straight diagonal line
from bottom left to top right. It indicates no major deviation from normality.
98
On the other hand, from the scatted plot of residuals in Figure 5.11, the
residuals are roughly rectangularly distributed, with most of the scores concentrated in
the centre along the 0 axes. (red line). The findings indicate that the predictors
(independent variables) are linearly related to the residual of the criterion (dependent
variable). Therefore, the homoscedasticity of the sample is ensured. The findings
show that no outliers are detected as no score has a standardized residual of more than
3.3 or less than -3.3.
Scatterplot
-2
-4
-3
-2
-1
Figure 5.11: The scatter plot of residuals observed value and predicted value
In addition, in the collinearity statistic tests all three predictors have tolerance
values greater than 0.10, and variance inflection factor, (VIF) values less than 10. It
reveals that there is no multicollinearity between the variables. The Durbin-Watson
value in this analysis is 1.54, which falls in the range of 1.5 to 2.5, indicating that
99
After all the assumptions were complied with, the multiple regression analysis
was carried out. The results of the multiple regression are shown in Table 5.20 to
Table 5.22.
R
.199(a)
.245(b)
.281(c)
R Square
.040
.060
.079
Adjusted
R Square
.038
.056
.073
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.52625
.52120
.51646
R Square
Change
.040
.020
.019
F Change
19.684
10.314
9.788
df1
1
1
1
df2
478
477
476
There are multiple correlations (R =.28) of three significant predictors with the
criterion (dependent variable), as shown in Table 5.22. From the model, factors that
influence students intention to study at a HEI are degree (content and structure),
people (family, friends, peers and teachers), and cost of education. The three factors
have a significant effect size that explains 7.90 percent of the variability towards the
intention to study at a HEI. The adjusted R2 indicates that in the population, the three
factors account for 7.30% of the variance in respondents intention to study at a HEI.
100
A total of 92.70% of the variance of the criterion is unaccounted for. Table 5.21
reveals this regression is significant (F3, 476 = 13.58, p < .01).
Table 5.21: Significances of Independent variables
ANOVAd
Model
3
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Sig.
Regression
10.864
3.621
13.576
.000(c)
Residual
126.966
476
.267
Total
137.830
479
c. Predictors: (Constant), Degree (Content and Structure), People (Family, Friends, Peers and
Teachers), Cost of Education
d. Dependent Variable: Intention to Study at a Higher Educational Institution (HEI)
Model
3
(Constant)
Cost of Education
Degree (Content and Structure)
Physical Aspects, Facilities and
Resources
Value of Education
Institutional Information
People (Family, Friends, Peers and
Teachers)
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Std.
B
Error
1.998
.377
.178
.082
Standardized
Coefficients
Collinearity
Statistics
Sig.
.000
.031
Tolerance
VIF
.136
t
5.296
2.160
.492
2.032
Beta
.192
.075
.196
2.562
.011
.331
3.018
.052
.064
.037
.802
.423
.933
1.071
-.007
.008
.066
.060
-.009
.008
-.108
.140
.914
.889
.303
.641
3.297
1.560
.107
.034
.145
3.192
.002
.947
1.056
Table 5.22 indicates that only three significant predictors out of six
independent variables are positively related to the criterion in the regression. They are
degree (content and structure), IV2 (t = 4.40, p <.01), People (Family, Friends, Peers
and Teachers), IV6 (t = 3.42, p <.01), and Cost of Education, IV1 (t = 1.81, p <.05).
101
The degree (content and structure) has the highest regression coefficient, 0.19
(95% CI = 0.11 to 0.28), followed by people (family, friends, peers and teachers),
0.18 (95% CI = 0.05 to 0.18), and cost of education, 0.11 (95% CI = 0.07 to 0.30).
[Confidence level, CI please refer to Appendix III] Effects from other predictors are
insignificant in this set of combinations, and those factors are not included in the
multiple regression equation. Therefore the multiple regression equation is as follows:
The beta value indicates that one unit increase in degree (content and
structure) will result in an increase in the respondents intention to study by 0.19
units. If the influences from significant people such as family, friends, peers and
teachers increases by one unit, the respondents intention to study will increase by
0.11 units. If the reasonability of cost of education increases by one unit, respondents
intention to study will increase by 0.19 units. The relationship and implications are
further discussed in Chapter 6.
102
5.10
An independent sample t-test was carried out to identify the differences between
respondents gender on the perceived importance of factors that influence their study
intention towards a HEI. The results of the independent sample t-test are shown in
Table 5.23.
Table 5.23: Independent sample t-test result for male and female respondent towards
proposed variables
Variable
Male
( N = 202)
Female
( N = 278)
P < .05
Cost of Education
Mean
S.D.
3.56
0.41
3.66
0.40
-2.83
Sig
Mean
S.D.
3.64
0.51
3.58
0.57
1.11
NS
Mean
S.D.
3.79
0.40
3.87
0.36
-2.46
Sig
Value of Education
Mean
S.D.
3.39
0.59
3.48
0.69
-1.67
Sig
Institutional Information
Mean
S.D.
3.76
0.51
3.72
0.48
-0.75
NS
Mean
S.D.
3.57
0.65
3.68
0.78
-1.69
NS
Intention to Study
Mean
S.D.
3.79
0.51
4.03
0.53
-4.77
Sig
According to Table 5.23, four out of seven variables are significantly different
between the gender of the respondents. These variables are cost of education,
physical aspects, facilities and resources, value of education, and intention to study.
The other three variables degree (content and structure), institutional information,
103
and people (family, friends, peers, and teachers) remain insignificant. Furthermore,
the findings show that all variables have a small effect size.
5.11
In this study, One-way ANOVA was used to investigate the significant difference
between respondents academic background on perceived importance of factors that
influence their study intention towards a HEI. The use of One-way ANOVA is to
compare the variance between the different groups of respondents academic
background with the variability within each of the groups (analysis of variance).
In general, One-way ANOVA shows whether or not the means of the various
groups are significantly different from one another, as indicated by the F statistical
value. The F value shows whether two sample variances differ from each other or if
104
they are from the same population. The F distribution is a probability distribution of
sample variances and the family of distributions changes with the changes in sample
size. In order words, the F value is the ratio of the variance between groups divided by
the variance within groups. Therefore, the greater the likelihood of between-group
variance compared with within-group variance, the greater the probability that the
means of the groups will be different (Sekaran et al., 2000).
In brief, One-way ANOVA was performed through two steps. In the first step
the significance of F value was determined. The F values were obtained from overall
ANOVA. The second step was the multiple comparisons between groups. However,
these comparisons were only applicable to those variables that were found to have a
significant difference in overall ANOVA; those variables with a significant F value.
In this section, the Scheffe test was used to compare the significant difference
between respondents academic background; STPM/Form Six, GCE A-Level, and
L.O.U. (comprising all other courses). The mean difference between groups indicated
whether groups were statistically significantly different from one another. In addition,
the Scheffe test was able to identify the strength of those differences. The results for
the F value and effect size for each variable are presented in Table 5.24; the
comparison between groups is shown in Table 5.25.
Table 5.24: One-way ANOVA, F values and effect size
Variable
F
Cost of Education
22.31
Degree (Content and Structure)
151.10
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Resources
6.01
Value of Education
49.93
Institutional Information
2.01
People (Family, Friends, Peers and Teachers)
14.49
Intention to Study
1.79
* Note: Sig = Significant, NS = Not Significant
P < .05
Sig
Sig
Sig
Sig
NS
Sig
NS
105
Variable
Cost of Education
Group
Respondents Respondents
Qualification Qualification
(I)
(J)
STPM
GCE A-Level
STPM
L.O.U.
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
0.16
0.29
0.12
P < .05
Sig
Sig
Sig
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.82
-0.54
0.29
Sig
Sig
Sig
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.12
0.01
0.13
Sig
NS
Sig
Value of Education
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.65
-0.23
0.43
Sig
Sig
Sig
Institutional Information
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.06
0.06
0.11
NS
NS
NS
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.31
-0.41
-0.10
Sig
Sig
NS
Intention to Study
STPM
STPM
GCE A-Level
GCE A-Level
L.O.U.
L.O.U.
-0.01
0.09
0.10
NS
NS
NS
* Note:
The results revealed that five out of seven variables are significantly different
among the respondents academic background. These variables are cost of education,
degree (content and structure), physical aspects, facilities and resources, value of
education, and people (family, friends, peers and teachers). The other two variables
remained insignificant. In terms of their effect size, degree (content and structure) and
value of education have a large effect size, followed by a moderate effect size for cost
106
of education and people (family, friends, peers and teachers). The variable which has
the significant smallest effect size is physical aspects, facilities and resources.
Further, from the results of group comparisons, students with STPM/Form six
backgrounds are more concerned with the cost of education than students with GCE
A-Level backgrounds and L.O.U.. Nevertheless, within the same variable, students
with GCE A-Level place a higher importance on the cost of education compared to
students with L.O.U. academic backgrounds. The detail of the comparison is
summarized in Table 5.26, and the further discussion is presented in Chapter 6.
Physical Aspects, Facilities and Students with GCE A-Level qualification place
Resources
higher importance than students with STPM and
L.O.U. qualification. No significant difference
found between students with STPM and L.O.U.
qualification.
107
Variable
Value of Education
People (Family, Friends, Peers Students with GCE A-Level and L.O.U.
and Teachers)
qualifications place higher importance than
students with STPM qualification.
5.12
All the performed analyses were extensively discussed throughout this chapter.
Normality tests indicate that the sample is normally distributed. The factor analysis
and Cronbachs alpha coefficient test confirm the validity and reliability of the
instrument employed in the present study. Correlation analysis and multiple linear
regression were carried out to establish the relationships between IVs and DV. Mean
Difference analyses were performed to identify the significant differences between the
respondents gender as well as academic background towards the importance placed
on a HEI. The further discussions of those findings are presented in Chapter 6.
108
CHAPTER
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Literature Review
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
Chapter 5
Data Analysis and
Findings
Chapter 6
Discussion and
Conclusion
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.5
6.7
6.8
Introduction
Discussion of Results
Conclusion
Implications
Recommendations
Contribution of the Study
Suggestion for Future Research
Conclusion of the Chapter
CHAPTER 6
6.1
Introduction
This chapter presents in depth discussions on the findings obtained from Chapter 5.
The conclusion of the study discusses whether the findings support the proposed
hypotheses, answer the research questions, and achieve the research objectives.
Implications and recommendations are provided for HEI marketers to gain insights
into crafting their strategies for student recruitment. The contributions of the study are
discussed based on theoretical, methodological and practical approaches. Lastly,
suggestions for future research are presented in this chapter.
6.2
Discussion of Results
6.2.1
Normality Tests
According to the findings obtained from the analyses of sample normality, both
graphical and statistical results reflect the positive approach. Hence, the overall results
of the normality tests confirm that the sample used in this study is normally
distributed. This result reveals that the sample is well defined and the stratified
convenience sampling method is appropriate for the present study. Consequently, the
homoscedasticity of the sample is ensured and the sample is representative of the real
population. Thus, the findings of this study can be confidently generalized to the
population.
109
6.2.2
Descriptive Analysis
Comparison of Means
In the descriptive analysis of the means of all items for each variable, all items
revealed mean scores of more than 3.00 (Table 5.5). Responses to the items were
measured on a five-point Likert scale where 1 means Strongly Disagree and 5
means Strongly Agree. Hence, the findings show that the majority of the
respondents agreed with the importance of the proposed items. Therefore, these items
are significant to their decision making when choosing a HEI to attend.
The means of all computed items variables are more than 3.00 (Table 5.6).
The results indicate that, in general, most of the respondents agreed with the
importance of all the proposed variables as influencing their study intention towards a
HEI. In the comparison of means between variables, Physical aspects, facilities and
resources has the highest mean score, followed by institutional information. Cost
of education, Degree (content and structure) and People (family, friends, peers
and teachers) have similar means, which are about 3.60. Subsequently, value of
education has the lowest mean score compared to the others.
The findings reveal that students place more importance on the HEIs physical
aspects such as the location, conducive learning atmosphere, recreation and sports,
cleanliness, safe environment, campus social life, facilities, and quality faculty
members. In addition, students also place importance on the ability of the HEI to
provide relevant information. Information such as on-time application processes, area
of study of offered programmes, future job prospects and career opportunities, and
possibility of post-graduate studies upon the completion of the programme.
110
111
PHEIs as their study destination; however, students in the present study have not
decided to attend either a public HEI or PHEI. It shows that students in the previous
study were more focused on PHEIs. Thus, those students will have a distinct
perceived importance of the HEI they choose compared to the students in this study.
The findings of the previous study are in line with the findings obtained from
differential analysis of the students academic background in this study. The further
discussion is presented in section 6.2.7.
The dependent variable, intention to study has a high computed mean value
of 3.93, which is higher than all the independent variables. This finding indicates that
respondents have a high interest in pursuing their tertiary education. Their intention to
continue their studies at a HEI in the near future is assumed. In sum, based on the
computed mean value for each variable, the proposed six factors in this study affect
the students intention to study at a HEI.
112
Table 6.1: Comparison of ranking order of importance for three distinct nations
Rank
1
2
Physical Aspects,
Facilities and Resources
3
People (Family, Friends,
Peers and Teachers)
4
Physical Aspect, Facilities Degree (Content and
Degree (Content and
and Resources
Structure)
Structure)
5
General*
Value of Education
Value of Education
6
Institutional Information
N.A.
N.A.
Note: *Consists of institutional information and influences from significant people
(family, friends, peers and teachers)
**Includes influences from people (family, friends, peers and teachers)
N.A. = Not Applicable
The comparison shows that students from the different nations have distinctive
perceptions of the varying importance in their further study intention. Thus, HEI
marketing strategies will also vary from nation to nation. Some factors may be the
main focus in some countries while they may be of low significance in others.
Therefore, it is important to understand the psyche of students in the nation that
affects their intention to study at a particular HEI. In order words, there is no one
size fits most strategy for the education industry.
113
frameworks. It is not surprising that students from both these countries share some
common perceived importance factors that influence their study intention
114
New Zealand students placed greater importance on the value of education and the
degree (content and structure) obtained. They are much appreciative of the value and
the knowledge that can be gained from education. Thus, the appropriateness of the
reputation, organization, and content of degree is more significant to New Zealand
students compared to Malaysian students.
6.2.3
The validity and reliability of the instrument employed in this study were investigated
through factor analysis and Cronbachs alpha coefficient test, respectively. The results
exhibit that a total of six IVs are identified from a pool of 36 items, and only one DV,
which consists of six items. Generally, IVs and the DV in this study have high
Cronbachs alpha values, which are above 0.70, except the variable cost of
education (0.65). Nevertheless, this variable is still considered as reliable as the
majority of the mean values of items within this variable fall within the optimal range
for the inter-item correlation of 0.20 to 0.40. In conclusion, the validity and reliability
test ensure the appropriateness of this instrument. The instrument is reliable and valid
in measuring the concepts proposed in this study. Moreover, it proves that the
adaption and further modification of the instrument are applicable in the present
study.
115
6.2.4
Pearsons Correlation
According to Table 5.21, the results reveal that all independent variables (IV1 to IV6)
are weak (<0.30) and positively correlated with the dependent variable at the high
significance level p <.01. Hence, there is a significant relationship between each
independent variable (IV1 to IV6) and the dependent variable.
6.2.5
Multiple Regression
Based on the findings obtained from the multiple linear regression analysis in
Chapter 5, the multiple regression equation is as follows:
There are three significant predictors presented in this model. Content and structure of
degree offered by a HEI has the highest coefficient value meaning that the content and
the structure of the degree has the highest contribution level towards students
intention to study at a HEI. The second highest contribution predictor is cost of
education, followed by influence from significant people such as family members,
friends, peers and teachers. The remaining predictors are insignificant predictors in
the intention to study at a HEI. These silent predictors are physical aspects, facilities
and resources, value of education, and institutional information.
116
This finding is almost in line with the ranking order of students perceived
importance. Students ranked cost of education, physical aspects, facilities and
resources, people (family, friends, peers and teachers) and degree (content and
structure) as the four most important factors in the decision making of choosing a
HEI. The only difference is that the physical aspects, facilities and resources is the
silent predictor in the multiple regression analysis.
Based on the regression equation, the constant value is 2.00, which is greater
than zero. This means that the respondents have a strong predisposition to further their
study even without the stimulus from proposed important factors. Furthermore, this
constant value is higher than all the coefficient values of the three predictors. To a
certain extent, these predictors may only act as some encouragement to motivate
students in choosing a particular HEI.
Taking into account the findings of the Pearsons correlation and multiple
regression, the present study concludes that the proposed factors have a positive
relationship towards Malaysian students intention to study at a HEI. More
specifically, all the proposed factors appear to be important attributes in students HEI
selection. However, only three factors are the determinant attributes that distinguish
the intention to attend a particular HEI instead of others. For example, perhaps,
Malaysian students assume that if the HEI is able to offer certain programmes, the
HEI must have sufficient capabilities such as facilities, resources, and faculty
members to support the administration of those programmes. As a result, the physical
aspect of a HEI may not be a key attribute that students see as a significant difference
among competing alternatives.
117
In summary, there are three key determinant attributes that affect students
intention to study at a HEI. These attributes are cost of education, content and
structure of the degree, and influences from significant people such as family
members, friends, peers and teachers. Thus, the proposed hypothesis (H7) is rejected
due to some proposed predictors being insignificant in the multiple regression
analysis.
In conclusion, based on the results of the multiple regression, the first, second
and sixth hypothesis (H1, H2 and H6) are accepted, whereas the third, fourth and fifth
hypothesis (H3, H4 and H5) are rejected.
6.2.6
According to Table 5.25, four out of seven proposed variables are significantly
different between the gender of the respondents. These variables are cost of education,
physical aspects, facilities and resources, value of education, and intention to study.
The other three variables degree (content and structure), institutional information,
and people (family, friends, peers, and teachers) are not significantly different
between male and female students.
Generally, the mean difference shows that female students are more concerned
with these three important attributes than male students. Also, the findings reveal that
female students have a higher intention to further their study at a HEI than male
students. This result is consistent with earlier studies regarding the gender differences
in shopping behaviour (Meyers-Levy et al., 1991; Mansfield and Warwick, 2005).
Those studies indicated that females attempt to engage in effortful, itemized analysis
of all available information giving equal weight to information of attributes relevant
118
to self and others; whereas, males tend to rely on a single cue or a cue that is highly
available and particularly salient in the focal context. Hence, this could help explain
why female students take more consideration on these important attributes than male
students in the HEI context. Furthermore, the findings indicate that Malaysian female
students often engage in comprehensive processing of information, and exhaustive
evaluation of important attributes. Consequently, HEI marketers may take this finding
into consideration for designing and managing integrated marketing communications
(IMC) for potential students, especially female students.
119
It is apparent that students with an A-level background view the content and
structure of the degree offered by a HEI as typical compared to students with the other
two different academic backgrounds. This finding indicates that A-level students are
more conscious of the availability and suitability of the offered courses by a HEI.
Moreover, students with other backgrounds also have a higher mean value than
students with STPM backgrounds.
In the variable of physical aspects, facilities and resources, students with Alevel background reveal a significantly higher mean value compared to students with
STPM and other academic backgrounds. This result indicates that A-level students
consider the facilities and physical aspects that a HEI could offer them as important.
Nonetheless, there is no significant difference between STPM students and other
academic background students in the perceived importance of a HEIs physical
aspects.
In conclusion, male and female students, and students with different academic
background place significantly different importance on the factors that influence
students intention to study at a higher educational institution. Hence, there is
sufficient evidence supporting the two hypotheses (H7 and H8). Thus, these
hypotheses are accepted in this study. The discussion of differential analyses is
summarized in Table 6. 2.
120
Gender
Female students are
more cost conscious
than male students
Difference
Academic Background
STPM
students
place
highest
importance, followed by A-level, and
L.O.U., as follows:
STPM > GCE A-Level > L.O.U.
No significant
difference between
male and female
students
Physical Aspects,
Facilities and Resources
A-level
students
place
more
importance than STPM and L.O.U..
No significant difference between
STPM and L.O.U.. As follows:
GCE A-Level > STPM
GCE A-Level > L.O.U.
Value of Education
Female students
appreciate the value
more than male
students
Institutional Information
No significant
difference between
male and female
students
No significant
difference between
male and female
students
Intention to Study
121
6.3
Conclusion
According to the findings from the inferential analyses, all proposed IVs are
significant and positively correlated to the DV. Therefore, the first to sixth proposed
hypotheses (H1 to H6) in this study are accepted. In addition, the eighth and ninth
proposed hypotheses (H7 and H8) are also accepted. This statement is supported by
the findings of the present study that reveal a significant difference between students
gender and academic backgrounds on their perceived important factors for selecting a
HEI. The overall result of the hypotheses testing is presented in Table 6.3.
To answer the first research question (Q1), the significant factors influencing
students intention to study at a HEI are cost of education, degree (content and
structure), and people (family, friends, peers, and teachers). The factor of degree
(content and structure) has the highest impact on students intention to study at a HEI,
followed by cost of study, and people (family, friends, peers, and teachers).
To answer the second research question (Q2), male and female students do
differ significantly in the selection criteria that they consider important when
choosing a HEI. Male and female students significantly differ in the following factors:
cost of education, physical aspects, facilities and resources, and value of education. In
general, female students place higher weight on these important factors. Additionally,
female students reveal that they have a higher study intention than male students.
Also, students from different academic backgrounds such as STPM, GCE A-level,
and other academic backgrounds significantly differ in the selection criteria they
consider important when choosing a HEI. These factors are cost of education, degree
(content and structure), physical aspects, facilities and resources, value of education,
and people (family, friends, peers and teachers). Generally, students from different
122
Result
Accepted
H2
Accepted
H3
Rejected
H4
Rejected
H5
Rejected
H6
Accepted
H7
Accepted
H8
Accepted
H1
123
6.4
Implications
Through this study, Malaysian students have shown the proposed variables that
influence their intention to study at a HEI. As a result, it will be interesting to further
investigate the impact of those variables on their study intention. Moreover, it may
create a complete picture if the differences among students gender and academic
backgrounds were defined. Therefore, findings from the analyses in this study are
integrated in order to provide appropriate, meaningful, and comprehensive
implications to HEI marketers as well as other researchers. The overall implications
of this study are presented in Table 6.4.
According to Table 6.4, there are six important factors that influence students
in their HEI choice. In essence, it is suggested that HEI marketers focus more
attention on the determinant factors such as cost of education, influences from
significant people (family members, friends, peers and teachers), and content and
structure of degree. Although all factors influence students HEI choice, to a certain
extent, these significant factors are the key factors influencing their decision to attend
a HEI. In order words, HEIs may develop their institutional positioning, and craft
relevant strategies based on the findings accordingly.
124
Relationship with
study intention
Positive
Impact
Significant
factor
Gender
Female students are more
cost conscious than male
students
Difference
Academic Background
STPM students place highest importance, followed by
A-level, and L.O.U., as follows:
STPM > GCE A-Level > L.O.U.
Physical
Aspects,
Facilities and
Resources
Positive
People (Family,
Friends, Peers
and Teachers)
Positive
Significant
factor
No significant difference
between male and female
students
Degree
(Content and
Structure)
Positive
Significant
factor
No significant difference
between male and female
students
Value of
Education
Positive
Institutional
Information
Positive
N.A.
Intention to
Study
N.A.
N.A.
6.5
Recommendations
HE is a services industry and within this industry HEIs play a role as service
providers with students as the customers. The decision made to study at a particular
HEI is often referred to as a high purchase involvement. It is because the decision
involves many people surrounding the student, and such decisions are normally
associated with a higher perceived risk. Therefore, usually many attributes are taken
into consideration by students in evaluating the HEI before a decision is made.
According to the findings presented in this study, both the significant and
insignificant factors are identified. Further, differences among students gender and
academic background concerning these attributes are clearly defined. As a result, HEI
authorities may make use of these findings to tailor their marketing elements with
potential students needs. For instance, in this study students with STPM background
are more sensitive to expenditure; HEIs could offer those students scholarships or
other financial aid to reduce their perceived risk in selecting the HEI of their choice.
126
6.6
Theoretical
The findings of this study prove that male and female students differ in the selection
criteria that they consider important when choosing a HEI in the Malaysian context.
This approach is in line with the theory proposed in previous studies (Shank and
Beasley, 1998; Mansfield and Warwick, 2005). Furthermore, the findings reveal that
students from different academic backgrounds differ in their perceived importance
towards a HEI. This approach confirms that the assumption in a previous study by
Elizabeth Ng (2003) is demonstrable. In her study, she found that Malaysian students
from different courses at pre-university level have distinct selection criteria in
selecting educational institutions abroad.
Methodological
The research instrument employed in this study is based on the adaption and further
modification of previous studies (Cubillo et al., 2006; Joseph and Joseph, 1998; 2000;
Zeithaml et al., 1996). This instrument has passed the validity and reliability tests in
this study indicating that the adaption and modification of this instrument are
appropriate. In other words, this is a new approach instrument, and is applicable in the
Malaysian context.
Practical
The findings of this study can assist HEI authorities to have a better understanding
regarding the factors that influence students intention to study at a HEI. This study
discusses the difference between students gender and academic background
concerning the important attributes. It enables HEI authorities to have a fuller
comprehension of students needs.
127
6.7
2. In this study, the dependent variable: students intention to study did not
specify whether the intention was to further their studies at a public or
private HEI. As a matter of fact, students perceived values of public
HEIs and PHEIs are very different. Krishman and Nurtjahja (2007) cited
that PHEIs charge students a higher fee than public HEIs. Hence, the
students evaluative criteria for a PHEI will be very different from that
of a public HEI. Consequently, future research may be redesigned to
include two parallel sets of questionnaires to measure the two distinct
variables, namely, the intention to study at a public HEI and the intention
to study at a PHEI.
128
6.8
The findings of the present study are extensively discussed in this chapter. Moreover,
this chapter summarises the tasks completed in the present study by reporting the
hypotheses testing, answering the research questions, and describing the achievement
of the research objectives. Additionally, this chapter outlines some implications and
recommendations for HEI authorities for gaining a better understanding of students
needs. Finally, the chapter describes the contributions of the study, and then proposes
some insights for future research.
129
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