Journal of Hydrology, 68 (1984) 333--348

333

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

ADVANCES IN OPEN-CHANNEL HYDRAULICS AFTER V.T. CHOW's

BOOK

H.W. SHEN and B.C. YEN

Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523

(U.S.A.)
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, CO 61801 (U.S.A.)
(Accepted for publication August 23, 1982)

ABSTRACT
Shen, H.W. and Yen, B.C., 1984. Advances in open-channel hydraulics after V.T. Chow's
book. In: G.E. Stout and G.H. Davis (Editors), Global Water: Science and Engineering -- The Ven Te Chow Memorial. J. Hydrol., 68: 333--348.
Although Ven Te Chow was more well known for his scholarly contributions in the
field of hydrology and water resources, his book entitled Open-Channel Hydraulics,
published in 1959, has unquestionably been established as a classic book in hydraulics.
In terms of thoroughness and extensiveness in coverage and information, it has not
been surpassed by any of the open-channel hydraulics books published after 1959.
Even today, nearly a quarter of a century after its publication, most of the material
presented in Open-Channel Hydraulics still remains current and fresh.
Nevertheless, within one generation, considerable advances have been made in the
field of open-channel hydraulics. As expected, there have been numerous investigations
into various aspects of open-channel flows, especially through the use of high-speed
digital computers. Some of the significant advances in open-channel flow are briefly
reviewed in this article, including: fundamental derivation of the basic, general openchannel flow equations; flow resistance over rigid boundaries; fluvial hydraulics (alluvial
bed forms and sediment transports); mathematical models for steady and unsteady
gradually varied flows; flood routing for dam breaks; hydraulic jumps; environmental
hydraulics; and secondary currents in open-channel flows.
The purpose of this article is to list some of the advances in open-channel flow,
published since Dr. Chow's text: Open-Channel Hydraulics. This article does not attempt
to comprehensively review all the advances made in this area of study. Although over
150 articles have been listed, the remarkable fact is that the content that comprises
the main theme of Dr. Chow's book has not been surpassed. This clearly indicates that
the great majority of his book still remains current and valid after 23 years of intensive
research. Great advances in the study of fluvial hydraulics and mathematical modeling
through the use of digital computers, the two major areas discussed in this article, have
occurred since the publication of Dr. Chow's book in 1959.
It was certainly a great pleasure for the writers to have known this giant in the field
of water resources, hydrology, and hydraulics.

INTRODUCTION

Although Ven Te Chow was more well k n o w n for his scholarly contributions in the field of hydrology and water resources, his book entitled,

0022-1694/84/$03.00

1984 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

334

Open-Channel Hydraulics, published in 1959, has unquestionably been

established as a classic b o o k in hydraulics. In terms of thoroughness and
extensiveness in coverage and information, it has not been surpassed by
any of the open-channel hydraulics books published after 1959. Even
today, nearly a quarter of a century after its first publication, most of the
material presented in Chow's Open-Channel Hydraulics still remains very
current and fresh.
Nevertheless, within one generation, considerable advances have been
made in the field of open-channel hydraulics. As expected, there have been
numerous investigations on various aspects of open-channel flows, especially
through the use of high-speed digital computers. Some of the significant
advances in selected areas of open-channel flow are briefly reviewed in this
article.
FUNDAMENTAL DERIVATION OF THE BASIC GENERAL OPEN--CHANNEL FLOW
EQUATIONS
Despite the non-uniform distributions of the velocity and pressure in
an open channel (Chow, 1959, pp. 24--35), traditionally, open-channel
flow equations are derived using a one-dimensional approach, with the
exclusion of the effects of the non-uniform distributions or the adjustment
of the relevant terms with the Boussinesq ( m o m e n t u m flux) and Coriolis
(energy) coefficients. On the other hand, engineering students all learn
in their basic fluid mechanics course that the Navier--Stokes equations
are the basic equations describing the motion of fluid at a point. However, usually, many students do n o t clearly understand the assumptions
used for the derivation of the open-channel equations from the Navier-Stokes equations. Thus, this lack of understanding often leads to the use of
incorrect or incomplete equations in solving open-channel flow problems.
In the late 1960's, several researchers a t t e m p t e d to bridge this gap
between open-channel hydraulics and fluid mechanics and to obtain better
fundamental understanding of open-channel flow equations. Conceptually,
the procedure is rather simple: Step 1 -- Integrate the point-form Navier-Stokes equation with the corresponding continuity equation over the crosssection (or over the depth). Step 2 -- The resulting equation from step 1
will be taken through the time averaging process to yield the open-channel
flow equations. C.L. Chen and Chow (1971) presented an integrated result,
w i t h o u t time averaging, for unsteady open-channel flow. Strelkoff (1969)
gave a more comprehensive integration for incompressible homogeneous
fluid. Yen (1971, 1973) performed a more extensive derivation for the
general unsteady open-channel flow of homogeneous as well as nonhomogeneous fluids. Both Strelkoff and Yen pointed out the assumptions
involved in the c o m m o n l y used one-dimensional unsteady open-channel

335
flow equations, the Saint-Vbnant equations. Both also stressed the differences between m o m e n t u m equations and energy equations. In order to
demonstrate that the various commonly used open-channel flow equations
were simplified, special cases of the unified general open-channel equations,
Yen (1975a, b) derived the appropriate continuity, m o m e n t u m , and energy
equations for a number of special cases and showed clearly the assumptions
involved in many commonly used equations. Furthermore, he extended
the basic equations to include compressible fluids which would be applicable
to atmospheric flows in addition to stratified flows. He also demonstrated
the significance of coordinate systems used in the derivation of the
equations. He suggested the use of either the vertical (gravity) - - h o r i z o n t a l
coordinate system or the "natural coordinate system" of the channel bed
and normal (nonvertical) directions. Nonorthogonal coordinate systems
should be avoided.
These investigations bridge the gap between fluid mechanics and openchannel hydraulics, and clarify many of the past confusion and misunderstanding. They also provide a set of unified general o p e n ~ h a n n e l flow
equations suitable for simplification for solving specified open-channel
flow problems.

FLOW RESISTANCE OVER RIGID BOUNDARY

Dr. Chow gave excellent discussions on Manning's roughness factor
and the variations of vertical flow velocity with the friction velocity (or
the shear velocity) (Chow, 1959, pp. 8--12, 94--123, 179--186 and 194-214). However, it was Rouse (1965) who gave a unified comprehensive
view of the composition and factors affecting open-channel resistance.
Yen (1975a, b) further studied the range of applicability of Manning's n.
In open channels, the flow resistance is often expressed as slope. Yen (1971,
1973, 1975a, b) demonstrated theoretically that the friction slope can
be different from the energy slope, and these two slopes are, in general,
different from the water surface slope, the total head slope, and the channel
slope.
Yen et al. (1972) investigated the resistance of flow with lateral mass
transfer, particularly with rainfall. Shen and Li (1973) proposed a relationship between the Darcy--Weisbach resistance coefficient and the rainfall
intensity for laminar flows. For turbulent flows, this resistance coefficient
is much less dependent on the rainfall intensity than for laminar cases.
When the sediment size on the stream bed exceeds one-tenth of the flow
depth, the sediment cannot be treated as b o u n d a r y roughness; entirely
new sets of analyses and equations are needed. Peterson and Mohanty
(1960), Herbich and Shulits (1964), Ashida and Bayazit {1973),
Scheuerlein (1973), Bayazit (1976), and Bathurst (1978) have analyzed
this problem. From his British river data, Bathurst found that the

336

Darcy--Weisbach coefficient of friction can be expressed as a function

of: ( 1 ) t h e ratio between the hydraulic radius and the bed material size
of which 84% is finer; and (2) the flow w i d t h / d e p t h ratio.
K o u w e n and Unny (1973), Li and Shen (1973), Ilo (1975), Petryk and
Bosmajian (1975), and C.L. Chen (1976) analyzed the resistance of flow
over different heights of vegetation. Generally, all the analyses are based
on an equivalent height of vegetation to be inserted into either a Darcy-Weisbach coefficient of friction or a Manning n-value. The equivalent height
is usually equal to the height of that portion of the vegetation that is unbent
by the flow. Li and Shen's (1973) analysis was based on a m o m e n t u m
approach and on experiments conducted by Petryk (1969). C.L. Chen's
(1976) results should perhaps be noted here because he found that in "laminar flow", the Darcy--Weisbach coefficient of friction is a function not
only of the flow's Reynolds number, b u t also of the channel slope.

FLUVIAL HYDRAULICS (ALLUVIAL BED FORMS AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORTS)

Traditionally, text books on open-channel hydraulics describe flows

only through rigid boundaries; however, a great majority of natural streams
have movable boundaries. Ven Te Chow (1959, pp. 157--176) gave a reasonable analysis of the criterion to separate erodible channels from nonerodible channels, b u t he provided no discussion on the hydraulics of natural
streams.
Numerous books have been written on various aspects of fluvial hydraulics
since 1959; Leopold et al. (1964), Graf (1971), Shen (1971, 1979), Yalin
(1972), Vanoni (1975), Raudkivi (1976), Gregory (1977), Schumm (1977),
Simons and Senturk (1977), Miall (1978), and Jansen et al. (1979}.
When fluid flows over a movable bed, the bed surface is normally
deformed into various configurations; however, the different bed forms
do exert a strong resistance to the flow. Knowledge of alluvial bed resistance
is critical to the calculation of the water surface profile because the large
form roughness resulting from the bed forms can cause the water level
to rise significantly. The change of bed-form resistance can also cause shifting of the stage--discharge curve; this will create a problem in correlating
river-stage readings to flow discharges. The variation of the alluvial bed
form is an important problem in river navigation since ships must be able
to clear the tops of sand dunes.
Ashida and Tanaka (1967), Hino (1968), Nordin (1971), Annambhotla
et al. (1972), Cheong and Shen (1973, 1976), Jain and Kennedy (1974),
Willis (1976), and Shen and Cheong (1977) all analyzed the statistical
properties of sediment bed profiles. Frequency analyses of longitudinal
and chronological traces of the bed elevations over a range of Froude numbers showed that the propagating bed forms may be approximately represented by a Gaussian random function. Physical dimension of dunes

337
have been analyzed by Kennedy (1963), Yalin and Karahan (1979), Richards
(1980), Davies (1982), Fredsoe {1982), and others.
Einstein and Barbarossa {1952) divided alluvial bed resistance into skin
roughness and form roughness. By assuming that the skin roughness on
the dune bed is the same as the skin roughness in closed-conduit flows,
they found that the form roughness due to the different bed configurations
is a function of the sediment transport rate. Shen (1962) modified Einstein
and Barbarossa's curve for different sediment sizes. From a similarity consideration, Engelund (1966, 1967) determined that the dimensionless skin
shear stress is a function of the dimensionless total shear stress. Lovera
and Kennedy (1969) developed a modified Moody diagram to describe
the skin roughness for a movable flat bed. Alam and Kennedy (1969) found
the form roughness varied with the Froude number of the flow as well
as with the relative roughness. Simons and Richardson (1971) suggested
different methods to obtain the skin and form roughnesses. Garde and
Ranga Raju (1966), Parker and Anderson (1977), and Brownlie (1981)
all presented unified graphical solutions for the flow resistance based on
previous data. Based on data collected from the Missouri River near Omaha,
U.S.A., Shen et al. (1978) determined that temperature has a pronounced
influence on alluvial bed form and flow resistance.
Until now, the most comprehensive development in sediment transport
has been the analysis presented by Einstein (1950). As Shen (1975) pointed
out, several deficiencies exist in Einstein's model, and an enormous amount
of work still lies ahead.
The movements of bed-load particles have been analyzed by Crickmore
and Lean (1962), Sayre and Hubbell (1965), Sayre and Conover (1967),
Shen and Todorovic (1971), Yang and Sayre (1971), Cheong and Shen
(1976), Hung and Shen (1976), Willis (1976), White and Schultz (1977),
Yalin (1977), Hayashi and Ozaki (1980), Nakagawa (1980), Nakagawa
and Tsujimoto (1980), and others. Most of the stochastic models are still
based on some variations of the Poisson process, and most of the analytical
studies are based on solving the momentum equation for the trajectory
of a single particle.
Many equations have been proposed for the bed-load rate. Chien (1980)
modified bed-load equations by Einstein (1950), Meyer-Peter and MUller
(1948), Bagnold (1966, 1973), Engelund and Hansen (1966), Ackers and
White (1973), and Yalin (1977) into a similar form and found that most
of these equations predict similar bed-load rates in low to medium flow
ranges. For a high flow range, Bagnold's relationship appears to be in better
agreement with the data than the other equations.
The suspended sediment load and, thus, the total sediment load equations
depend heavily on the validity of a correct description of the vertical flow
velocity profile. The validity of the commonly used logarithmic velocity
profile and the constancy of the von Karman h-value have received considerable attention. Vanoni (1946) was perhaps the first to report that this

338
k-value decreases with the increase of fine-suspended concentration. Einstein
and Chien (1955) derived an expression between the k-value and sediment
concentration and suggested that a large-suspended sediment concentration
can reduce the turbulence to decrease the k-value. Elata and Ippen (1961)
reported that the value of k is a function of the suspended sediment concentration at a location rather close to the stream bed. Coleman (1981)
suggested modification of the simple logarithmic flow velocity distribution
by adding a channel roughness velocity reduction function and a wake
region velocity augmentation function. The empirical graphical solutions,
relating total sediment transport load with flow, as developed by Colby
(1964) for shallow streams (flow depth ~ 1.5 m) and the more comprehensive analysis by Toffaleti (1969) based on data collected from large rivers
appear to be more acceptable than other equations to American river engineers.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR STEADY AND UNSTEADY GRADUALLYVARIED

FLOWS
The greatest achievements in the study of open-channel flow after Dr.
Chow's classic text have been accomplished through the use of high-speed
and large-capacity digital computers. Many clear graphical solutions and
effective methods producing approximate solutions (see Chow, 1959,
pp. 249--284 and pp. 341--349) for gradually varied flows have been
discarded in favor of computer solutions. The computers are particularly
suited to provide trial-and-error solutions. The well-known HEC-2 model
was developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers. This model is aimed at solving many different cases and, thus,
may be too cumbersome to use for streams with a complex hydraulic structure. Numerous simple models have been developed by consulting firms
and governmental agencies. Croley {1977) provides some excellent smallcalculator programs for different hydrologic and hydraulic computations.
In addition, several textbooks are available which summarize computation
procedures for both steady and unsteady open-channel flows: Mahmood
and Yevjevich (1975), W.A. Miller and Yevjevich (1975), Abbott (1979),
and Cunge et al. (1981). Some notable contributions have been made by
Liggett and Woolhiser {1967), Baltzer and Lai (1968), Strelkoff (1969,
1970), Amein and Fang {1970), Wylie (1970), Amorocho and de Vries
(1971), Becker and Yeh (1972, 1973), Contractor and Wiggert (1972),
Fread (1973, 1974, 1976), Sevuk and Yen (1973), Yen (1973, 1975, 1979),
Yeh and Becker (1973), Price (1974), Bennett (1975), Grijsen and
Vreugdenhil (1976), Rao et al. (1976), Ponce and Simons (1977), Fread
and Smith (1978), Ponce et al. (1978), Sivaloganathan {1978), and Zovne
and Martin (1979).
Mathematical models for movable bed have received increasing attention

339
in the past decade. Without lateral inflow, the mathematical model actually
involves two equations: t h e flow momentum equation and the sediment
continuity equation. The flow resistance equation is considered in the flow
momentum equation, and the sediment transport equation is considered
in the sediment continuity equation. The implicit method is to simultaneously solve the flow momentum equation and the sediment continuity
equation. This method is stable but requires complex programming. The
explicit method is to first solve the flow momentum equation for a small
time step and to then solve the sediment continuity equation. A well-known
HEC-6 model has been developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. H.Y. Chen (1979) and Li (1979) have also
developed models for the dynamic wave equation and the kinematic wave
equation, respectively. The major problems involved are: (1)the changes
of the river regime, including the changes of the stream width as well as
the river's alignment; and ( 2 ) t h e longitudinal and lateral distributions of
sediment. Use of a complete two-dimensional model is both complex and
expensive. The pseudo-two-dimensional models are still unverified by physical evidence. Perhaps a physical model is needed to improve our basic
understanding of the three-dimensional morphological process before any
reliable two- or three-dimensional mathematical models can be founded.

CERTAIN SELECTED SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Flood routing for dam breaks

Dam safety programs have received increasing attention, particularly
after the failure of the Teton Dam, Idaho, U.S.A. Fread (1977) edited
a proceeding from a workshop on "Dam Breaking and Flow Routing
Models". Detailed discussions of some of the models are included in these
proceedings. Some noted contributions on flood routing for dam-breaking
problems have been given by Chervet and Dalleves (1970), Zanobetti et al.
(1970), Benoist et al. (1973), Fread and Harbaugh (1973), Sakkas and
Strelkoff (1973), Balloffet (1974), Keefer and McQuivey (1976), Sakkas
and Strelkoff (1976), Rajar (1977, 1978), Wiggert and Martin (1978) and
C.L. Chen and Armbruster (1980).

Hydraulic jumps
Although the solving of hydraulic jumps by a combination of the continuity, momentum, and energy equations is well established and is given in
any elementary fluid mechanics text, the turbulence characteristics and
the fluctuation of pressures within the hydraulic jump have been studied
by Rouse et al. (1958), Bowers and Tsai (1963), Rajaratnam (1965),
Betchov and Criminale (1967), Vasiliev and Bukreyev (1967), Wisner (1967),

340
Gartshore and Newman (1969), Keir et al. (1969), Narayanan and Reynolds
(1972), Abdul Khader and Elango (1974), Narasimhan and Bhargava (1976),
and Narayanan (1978). As a general rule, the intensity of pressure fluctuations can be several times (four to six) greater than that existing in a normal
turbulent boundary layer; these pressure fluctuations can persist over a
long distance downstream.
Radial hydraulic jumps have been studied by Koloseus and Ahmad
(1969), and Khalifa and McCorquodale (1979). The relative energy loss
in a radial hydraulic jump is ~ 15% greater than that in a rectangular
hydraulic jump. The length of the radial hydraulic jump is ~ 30% less than
the rectangular jump, but its volume is the same. Mehrotra (1976) studied
the length of a rectangular hydraulic jump; Nece and Mahmood (1976)
studied the boundary shear stress as an index of hydraulic jump performance; Song (1977) investigated the interfacial boundary conditions in
transient flows; and Smith (1976) discussed the hydraulic design for an
outlet structure.

Environmental hydraulics
Significant advances have also been made in the mixing, diffusion, and
dispersion of scalar quantities in open-channel flows. Fischer et al. (1979)
published an excellent book on this subject; in addition, information on
water-quality modeling can be found in Shen (1979). Knowledge of this
subject can be directly applied to pollution and other environmental studies,
and thus, the term environmental hydraulics has been used to describe
this area of study. Actually, the movements of suspended sediment particles
can also be analyzed by a dispersion process.
Some noted contributions in environmental hydraulics are by Fick
(1855), Taylor (1954), Elder (1959), Fischer (1968), Fischer and Holley
(1971), Yotsukura and Cobb (1972), Bennett {1974), Holley and Abraham
(1974), A.C. Miller and Richardson (1974), Crank (1975), Csanady (1976),
Hou and Christensen (1976), Yotsukura and Sayre (1976), Sayre and CaroCordero (1979), and Valentine and Wood (1979).

Secondary currents in open-channel flows

Most people recognize the importance of three-dimensional variation
of the flow distribution in even a straight channel, but experimental data
are extremely difficult to collect because of the small magnitude of these
velocities in the transverse directions. Liggett et al. (1965), Chiu and
McSparran (1966), Chiu (1967, 1968), Chiu and Lee (1971a, b), Chiu
et al. (1976, 1978), and Chiu and Isu (1978) have published their results
from analyses of secondary currents from both deterministic and stochastic
approaches. Other authors such as Shen and Komura (1968), Launder and
Ying (1972), and Naot and Rodi (1982) have also explored this problem.

341
CONCLUDING COMMENTS

The purpose of this article is to list some of the advances in open-channel

flow, published after Dr. Chow's text, Open-Channel Hydraulics. In this
article, no a t t e m p t has been made to comprehensively review all the
advances in this area of study. Although over 150 articles have been listed,
the remarkable fact is that the content which comprises the main theme
of Dr. Chow's book has not been surpassed. This clearly indicates that the
great majority of his book remains current and valid after 23 years of intensive research. The major points discussed in this article are: (1)fluvial
hydraulics, and (2) mathematical modeling through the use of digital computers. Great advances in the study of these two areas have occurred since
the publication of Dr. Chow's book in 1959. It was certainly a great pleasure
for the writers to have known this giant in the field of water resources,
hydrology and hydraulics.

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