CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Concrete is a building material that civil engineering is still have a high demand in the
construction field. Though the use of concrete has been inherited from 6000 years ago,
but until now it is the most important building materials. It is quite obvious that the
concrete is trigger substance to human civilization and progress of a country. Almost
the entire building structure in Malaysia even around the world involving the use of
concrete. It is undeniable that the concrete consumption get a place in the construction
industry from day to day, but the concrete must also be tested for its resistance and
compressive strength.
RF Warner et al. (1998) however, concrete is not immune from changing to
strengthen the capacity particularly in terms of strength, workability and durability.
The concrete benefits of concern is its use easily applied in various forms of the
desired structure.
Concrete is a composite material and made up of four components such as
cement, water, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate. Sometimes additives are mixed
and the concrete should be modified to meet the requirements specification of a
building. The main function to added admixtures is to change the properties of
concrete in a new or crust form.
Civil engineering works are very concerned about the safety of various aspects such as
design and construction of a structure. In addition, another aspect that is considered
important and should be considered is the cost aspect and economy.

1.2 Problem Statement

The general view of problem in achiving the require specification, contractor need to
check the mix designs. Concrete mix designs are submitted for review so that the
reviewer can verify the contractor is interpreting the construction documents correctly.
It is important to get the right mix for concrete and what materials go into a good
concrete mix. That mix could be completely wrong for the application and could even
be inferior concrete. The right concrete mix ratio can solve problems and what does
contractor or consultant really want in a concrete mix is one that is easy to place,
strong enough to meet the needs of the application.
One thing will become very clear is that good concrete is good concrete and
decorative concrete needs to be very good concrete. For decorative concrete we are
seldom looking for high strength, so the wise contractor will focus on low
permeability and low shrinkage. If the contractor get concrete with those attributes, it
would be rare indeed that reviewer would have to worry about strength.
Another common concrete problem is inadequate curing procedure. When
curing process did not done in a correct way, the concrete might having problem with
scaling. Concrete scaling could be avoided, when specify a low slump-air (6 to 7
percent) entrained mix design on exterior flat work and concrete is finished at the right
time, once all water has been evaporated.
Furthermore, curing process took a longer time. Curing is the process in which
the concrete is protected from loss of moisture and kept within a reasonable
temperature range. The result of this process is increased strength and decreased
permeability. Curing is also a key player in mitigating cracks in the concrete, which
severely impacts durability. Normally the process of curing taking a longer time.
A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer, is a
device to measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface
hardness and penetration resistance. Originally, Schmidt hammer is to test the
compressive strength, but only the surface of a concrete cube. The hammer measures
the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting against the surface of the sample. The
test hammer will hit the concrete at a defined energy. Its rebound is dependent on the
hardness of the concrete and is measured by the test equipment. By reference to the
2

conversion chart, the rebound value can be used to determine the compressive
strength. When conducting the test the hammer should be held at right angles to the
surface which in turn should be flat and smooth. The rebound reading will be affected
by the orientation of the hammer, when used in a vertical position (on the underside of
a suspended slab for example) gravity will increase the rebound distance of the mass
and vice versa for a test conducted on a floor slab. The Schmidt hammer is an
arbitrary scale ranging from 10 to 100. Schmidt hammers are available from their
original manufacturers in several different energy ranges.
The test is also sensitive to other factor such local variation in the sample. To
minimize this it is recommended to take a selection of readings and take an average
value. Hence, ater content of the sample, a saturated material will give different results
from a dry one. Prior to testing, the Schmidt hammer should be calibrated using a
calibration test anvil supplied by the manufacturer for that purpose. 12 readings
should be taken, dropping the highest and lowest, and then take the average of the ten
remaining. Using this method of testing is classed as indirect as it does not give a
direct measurement of the strength of the material. It simply gives an indication based
on surface properties, it is only suitable for making comparisons between samples.

1.3 Objective
The overall aim of this study is to utilising piezo vibration sensor to gain better
understanding point grade of the mix designs concrete. Thus, the objectives of this
study are:
i.

To determine the compressive strength of hardened concrete.

ii.

To develop sensing device using Arduino to measure different value of electric

pulse transmitted by the material subject to vibration.

1.4 Scope of Study

The purpose of this study is to determine compressive strength of hardened concrete
material usually conducted by using destructive test under fully compression load of
universal testing machine. The density of materials relates to its capability to transfer
and absorb sound wave and vibration. This study is aimed to utilising piezo vibration
sensor to determine the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The mix design
concrete quality parameters are based on the Slump Test, Cube Test, Curing and
Compression Test tested in the laboratory. Sampling points were predetermined for
field and laboratory testing. Based on the quality concrete tested in the lab, the
classification and identification types concrete grade could be established.
This scope of study describes an analysis which was carried out to determine
concrete grade when impact was applied to the concrete block. The scopes of this
research are;
i.

the specimens will be targeted in different values of Mpa for the quality of
concrete based on multiple specimen which are from low grade and high grade

ii.
iii.

concrete (e.g 20, 25, 30, 40Mpa).

to see the behavior and performance of the mix designs.
the size of aggregates used were from 4.75mm to 14mm for fine and coarse

iv.
v.

aggregates.
cubes were tested at the age of 7, 14 and 28 days.
to determine compressive strength of hardened concrete and to fulfil the
requirement grade of concrete according to British Standards and American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

CHAPTER II
4

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concrete
Cement, water, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are the four basic components of a
concrete. Concrete is a composite material that results from the mixing aggregates,
sand, cement and water with a certain ratio. Mixture ratio must be determined
according to the power that is needed for a construction purpose. The strength of
concrete depends on the mix ratio.
Concrete is the most widely used as a material in construction. It is obtained by
mixing cement, aggregates, water and sometime admixtures in required proportions.
The strength, durability and other characteristics of the concrete depend to the
properties of its ingredients, the proportions of mix, the method of compaction and
other controls of placing and curing.

2.2 Grade of concrete

There are various grades of concrete selling in the market. Typically, the grade
concrete symbolizes the strength of the concrete. Mat Lazim Zakaria (1997), specified
in Table 1.1, nine grades of concrete which is labelled with a number that is equal to
each characteristic strength and is expressed in units N/mm2 with a view to minimize
the confusion that may occur due to discrepancies label numbers the grade and
strength.
Grade

Characteristic of strength (fcu)

N/mm2

7
10

7
10

lb/in2
1000
1450

The lowest grade is

suitable for a specific
use
Solid concrete (mass)
Reinforced concrete

15
20

15
20

2200
2900

with light aggregates

Reinforced concrete
5

25

25

3600

with hard aggregates

Pre - stressed concrete

30
40
50
60

30
40
50
60

4350
3800
7250
8700

for post-tension
Pre - stressed concrete
for pre-tension

Table 1.1: Recommended Concrete Grade

Based on the above grade, it can be categorized into two, namely, medium strength
concrete (normal) and high strength concrete. Typically, medium strength concrete
labelled as grade 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 N/mm2, whereas high strength concrete is
between 50 N/mm2 to 100 N/mm2. There is a new term that is ultra-high strength
concrete if the power compression exceeding 200 N/mm2.
Although concrete has its own properties of strength and durability, but it more
focused on the compressive strength. Concrete is very good in compression but weak
in tension, between 3 MPa to 5 MPa only.

2.3 Workability
D.C Teychenne et al. (1998) workability of concrete is usually associated with
pleasure poured into in the mold without the occurrence of isolation. Usually the
workability of concrete describe the concrete situation in wet conditions. In other
words, concrete which has high workability easily compressed, movability, cohesive
and reliability in good finishing.
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold
properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality.
Workability test plays an important role in helping to maintain concreting standards.
Among the tests conducted in site are Slump Test, Vebe Test and Compacting Factor
Test. Each test is performed specifications and must be guided by a prescribed
method. Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simplistic measure
of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 123502 test standards.

2.3.1 Type of slump

There are three types of slump which true, shear and collapsed. A good type of
concrete slump required for construction actually is true slump. Table 2.1 shows the
relationship between the workability of concrete with slump. Workability of concrete
is influenced by two factors, which are water content and the type of cement used. The
water content is the weight of water per unit volume of concrete.
Slump
Workability
Zero slump
Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very high

mm

ln

0
5-10
15-30
35-75
80-155
160 until collapse

1
1 - 3
3 - 6
6 until collapse

Table 2.1: The relationship between the workability of concrete with the type of slump
(A.M Neville, 2002)
For each type and maximum aggregate size are different, the higher amount of
water content the greater slump would be. Raising the water content or adding
chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to
increased segregation of aggregates especially when the cement and aggregates start
to separate, with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an
aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a
very low slump, which cannot readily be made more workable by addition of
reasonable amounts of water.
Another factor that affects the workability of concrete is cement used in the
mix. Each type of cement has a specific function and are used for specific purposes
based on its chemical content. Thus, each type of cement will use different water
content and indirectly affect the workability of the concrete produced.

2.4 Compressive strength of concrete

7

Concrete compressive strength is the strength of concrete at 28 days. The compressive

strength of concrete is influenced by several factors;

2.4.1 Concrete age and curing

The strength of concrete is constantly increasing from day to day. However, in most
concrete strength specification taken at day 28. Typically, the strength of concrete is
dependent on temperature and moisture conditions during the curing process is carried
out. High temperatures will increase the chemical reactions that occur in the concrete
caused the increased strength but lose excess water or moisture should be avoided so
that the hydration of cement are not affected.
Peter C. Taylor (2013), curing is the hydration process that occurs after the concrete
has been placed. In chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to
form. To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time. In around 4
weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached, although strengthening may
continue for decades.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and
avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to
avoid freezing or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper
curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
2.4.2 Type of cement
There are various types of Portland cement available in the market such as Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC), Rapid Harden Portland Cement (RHPC), Ultra Hardening
Portland Cement, Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC), Low Heat Portland
Cement and White Portland Cement. The use of different types of cement will produce
concrete of different strength. This is due to the chemical content in each type of
cement is different. The strength of the different cement used is intended for a
particular job based on the state of the construction site and time spent in a
construction project.

2.4.3 Type and grade of aggregates

D.C Teychenne et al. (1998) type and source of aggregates used to produce concrete
mix will affect compressive strength. Generally, uncrushed coarse aggregate would a
smooth surface and round and this will result in low strength concrete when compared
with the use of crusher coarse aggregate. Other factors that affect the strength of
concrete is a type of fine aggregate, maximum aggregate size, overall grade
aggregates used and the shape and texture aggregates.

2.4.4 Water/cement ratio

Water is added during the process of mixing cement and it will runs two functions,
which are to form concrete mix and allow the concrete to undergo hydration. Thus, the
water content should be mixed according to the measure as it has been designed so
that excess water is at minimum level. The water content too much will formed melt
cement and tend to not stick to the surface of the aggregates. This will result in
damage to the new concrete.
In addition, the excess water has the potential to rise to the surface of a new
concrete. This phenomenon is known as concrete 'bleeding'. Bleed will form a smooth
channels that remain open after the concrete hardens and can reduce the durability of
concrete. In addition, the evaporation of excess water leaving a pore in the structure of
the dough. The low amount of pore will produce a quality concrete that guarantees in
terms of strength, scratch resistance, non permeable and durable.

2.4.5 Concrete mixing method

There are two concrete mixing methods practiced in the construction industry such as
using concrete mixer or manually mix by hand. A typical concrete mixer uses a
revolving drum to mix the components. However, the concrete which is mixed by
hand tends to produce a low-strength concrete compared to using the mixer due to the
uniformity factor and effectiveness of mixing.

2.5 Durability
A.M Neville (2002), the durability of concrete is the ability of concrete to maintain the
strength of its design and the lifetime serviceability. Factors that affect the durability
of concrete can be categorized into three namely the physical, mechanical and
chemical. Physical factors are often caused by high temperatures and there is a
difference in thermal expansion in aggregates with cement paste. Mechanical defects
are usually associated with cumulative effects such as abrasion, corrosion and
cavitation. While chemical factors also caused by alkaline-silica reaction and
carbonation process that occurs in concrete.
Among the characteristics of a good durability concrete is that concrete can withstand
compression better than any other stresses. It also has a high resistance to weather
such as frost next to withstand attack sulphate contained in the soil and ground water,
sea water resistance and resistance to chemicals.

2.6 Piezo vibrator sensor

Huang S. et al. (2009), new ultrasonic transducers with piezo patches as transmitting
and sensing element were fabricated and used as embedded ultrasonic transducers for
concrete property diagnosis. The ultrasonic transmitter was designed and
manufactured to generate both longitudinal and transverse wave simultaneously
according to the polarization and electric field direction. The current research focused
on the velocity measurement of the longitudinal and transverse waves. Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio of concrete could be calculated using the measured wave
velocity. The Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio obtained by test results of newly
developed embedded transducers were compared with the values obtained from
impact test for same batch of concrete and good agreement was observed. The
advantages of this method were that it could generate both longitudinal and transverse
10

wave and had a stable coupling between concrete matrix and ultrasonic transducers.
This method showed a good potential for application in concrete health monitoring.

2.6.1 Primary sensor consideration

Two of the main parameters of a piezoelectric sensor are the sensitivity and the
frequency range. In general, most thigh frequency sensors have low sensitivities and,
conversely, most high sensitivity sensors have low frequency ranges.

Figure 1: Typical frequency response curves

The dependence of inertia on mass governs this relationship. As the mass
increases the sensitivity is also increased; however, the usable frequency range is
reduced since the sensor more quickly approaches its resonance frequency, shown in
Figure 1. It is therefore necessary to compromise between the sensitivity and the
frequency response.

2.6.2 Velocity sensor

Velocity sensors are used for low to medium frequency measurements. They are useful
for vibration monitoring and balancing operations on rotating machinery. As
compared to accelerometers, velocity sensors have lower sensitivity to high frequency
vibrations. The mechanical design of the velocity sensor; an iron core moving within a
coil in a limited magnetic field, no clipping of the generated signal occurs, but smooth
saturation. In an accelerometer with ICP electronics, sensor resonance excitation can
11

cause saturation and clipping of the electronic circuit generating false low frequency
components. Integrating to velocity from the acceleration signal leads to large low
frequency components. Resonance damping circuits between sensor element and
amplifier can minimize that effect.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Info and data collection

This chapter will focus on the methodologies of determining the compressive strength
of hardened concrete and the development of sensing device using arduino to measure
different value of electric pulse transmitted by the material subject to vibration. The
steps and the procedures that need to be carry out in order to achieve the aim of this
project will be fully describe in this chapter.
12

In the early stage of methodology, research have been made throughout

studies, reports, journal articles and books to figure out the type of test and procedure
that were best to conduct to evaluate the properties of the concrete as stated in
previous chapter. After consulted with lecturers, the selected test procedures were
referred to British Standard (BS) Code and American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
Besides that, this chapter will cover the laboratory test of compressive strength
test to assess the properties of hardened concrete. It is also important to understand the
behaviour of the design concrete in hardened state.

3.2 Hardened concrete process

Concrete is a composite material that results from the mixing aggregates, sand, cement
and water with a certain ratio. Mixture ratio must be determined according to the
power that is needed for a construction purpose. In this study, preparation of materials
is essential to launch the process of production of hardened concrete.

3.2.1 Raw material preparation

The materials used in this experimental work were the same for conventional
concrete, in order to be able to get a clear of the behaviour types of concrete and be
able to define their hardened state properties. The materials used in this experimental
work are as given;
3.2.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
Cement powder is the binding agent for the water and aggregate mixture that hardens
into concrete. The cement used in this study is Ordinary Portland Cement (Type I)
where this type of cement is available in local market and it is good for all general
concrete construction works. OPC was used as cementitious materials in the concrete.
This cement have been tested for its specific gravity, normal consistency, initial and
13

final setting time and the fineness modulus and all of these parameters were
conformed with the ASTM C150 BIS: 8112 -1989 standards requirements and
specifications.
3.2.1.2 Aggregates
There are two types of aggregates were used in this research:
i.

The control fine aggregates (natural river sand) with 4.75mm

maximum size are used. This fine aggregate is conformed to the Indian
Standard specifications BIS: 383-1970 and ASTM C33. The
parameters that had satisfy the BIS standard requirements are the
aggregates specific gravity, aggregates water absorption, aggregates
fineness modulus and last but not least the aggregate bulk density

ii.

(loose and compacted).

Basically, the aggregates that could be conveniently used for normal
concrete making is also suitable for concrete mixes. However, the
maximum size of aggregates should be as large as possible and it must
within the specified limits and for the conventional concrete, the
particle size up to 20mm and below have been used.

3.2.1.3 Water
Water required to increase concrete workability thus to wet the surface area of the
aggregates. Generally, the mixing water for concrete can be from many ways such as
batch water, ice, water added by truck operator, free moisture on the aggregates, and
water introduced in the form of admixtures. Even though, in this experimental works,
the mixing water used was the potable water conformed to ASTM D1129 for mixing
the concrete and curing of the reaction as potable and non-potable water is permitted
to be used as mixing water in concrete provided that the water clean and free from any
impurities that can harm the concrete.

3.3 Laboratory test

14

3.3.1 Sieving test

D.D. Bui et al. (2005) particle size often determines crucial quality attributes that
relate to the processability of intermediates and the quality of the final product, for
example the strength of concrete or the bioavailability of dosage forms.
Before carrying any other test, is important for the aggregates undergo sieve
analysis test (grading). It is also known as particle size distribution. Sieve analysis test
is divided into two, namely dry and wet sieving. In this study, the dry sieve used and it
does not need to be washed after the sample was removed from the oven. Aggregates
will be poured into a sieve set according to different sieve sizes (M1). Samples will be
shaken with the vibrator for a few minutes according to the schedule. Then sieve the
sample retained on a particular sieve will be removed and collected in a separate
container. Then retained samples will be weighed separately (M2).
Below is the calculation formula of the study, and the results are plotted in the log
graph.
Percent sieve analysis = Mass (M1)/Mass (M2) X 100%

Figure 3.3: Example graph of percentage passing versus sieve size

(BS812:Part103.1:1985)

3.3.2 Slump test

15

Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh
batch of concrete. Slump Test always do your slump test before making your cubes
to ensure the concrete is usable. If the slump test fails to meet the range limit as
dictated by the British Standard (shown in the table below) then the load should be
rejected.
The damp slump cone is placed on a flat, hard surface. The cone filled up with
the concrete sample in three stages. Once each stage is filled, tamp the mix with the
tamping rod 25 times. After the third tamping the excess concrete shall be struck off
flush to the top of the cone. Lift the mould carefully upwards, to minimise disturbance
of the concrete inside. The concrete will slump. Place the cone next to the concrete
slump and measure the difference in height in mm between the top of the cone and the
top of the highest point of the concrete. The slump must be measured and data will be
recorded for further research.

Figure 3.2: Type of concrete slump (BS EN 12350-2:2009)

3.3.3 Cube test

Concrete cube test is one of the test conducted on the concrete mix when arriving at
the construction site. Preparation of concrete cube specimens was conducted before
the compression test is started. Preparation of equipment are important as maintaining
16

good work procedures. Laboratory equipment were checked for any defect and
conformed to standard code of practice.
i.

Mould In this project square mould in shape will be used with nonabsorbent material and substantial enough to hold their form during the
moulding of test specimen. The size of this mould were conforming
standard mould size of 100mm in both side. It was important that
mould shall be water tight and the base plate or bottom shall be right

ii.

angles to the axis of concrete cube.

Sampling equipment Scoop or shovel, trowel, containers, saran wrap

iii.

and tape were used in the sampling stage.

Curing equipment Moist storage cabinet or room capable of
maintaining specimens at a temperature within 1C of 23C and
capable of maintaining a moist condition in which free water is
maintained on the surface of the specimens are required for curing the
concrete cube.

The work starts by place the mould on a firm, level surface. This conventional
concrete are going to undergo the compaction procedures using tamping rod. Then,
the specimen is placed inside the mould. The scoop is moved around the top edge of
the mould to ensure a uniform distribution of the concrete within the mould as well as
the top layer surface is being levelled off before it is covered with damp cloth or
plastic sheet to prevent evaporation.
3.3.3.1 Curing and storage
The cubes should be covered with a damp cloth and a plastic sheet and stored in dry
environment at a temperature range of 20 5 degrees. The concrete cubes are
removed from the moulds between 16 to 72 hours, usually this done after 24 hours.
Once the cubes are removed from the mould, it will have a process of labelling or
tracking the cubes and make sure record it properly before placing into a curing tank.
The curing tank needs to operate at a temperature between 20 2 degrees and
provides a moist environment that allows the cubes to hydrate properly. Ensure the
cubes are fully submersed at all times and record the tank water temperature at least
daily.

17

3.3.3.2 Compressive strength

Compressive strength test is an important laboratory test that is required in
determining the ability of mix design cube to withstand the maximum failure load
applied. The result of the test will enable further analysis hence provide the
characteristics of designs mixture that might affect the performance of concrete. In
this project, this test was performed on the concrete cube specimens at 7, 14, and 28
days of curing period.
In order to deliver maximum load to the concrete cube specimens, a machine of
adequate capacity able to apply a load continuously without shock within a range of
0.140 to 0.350 MPa per second is used. The testing machine shall be equipped with
two bearing blocks with hardened faces. One bearing block shall be spherically seated
and the other rigidly mounted. The testing machine shall be accurate within a
tolerance of 1.0 % of the compressive strength of the specimen. The procedure in
preparing specimens for compression test and during compressive test is as suggested
by ASTM.

Figure 3.1: Satisfactory failures of the cube specimens (BS EN 12390-3:2009)

18

Figure 3.2: Unsatisfactory failures of the cube specimens (BS EN 12390-3:2009)

3.4 Vibration sensor device

In the development of the sensing device, an Arduino tools will be used to create the
vibrator sensor. The device will be tested on the hardened concrete to measure the
different value of electric pulse transmitted by the material subject to vibration.

3.4.1 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform based on easy-to-use hardware and
software. There are many types of Arduino. Among these are UNO model to be
adopted in creating vibrator sensing device. Arduino provides an open-source and
easy-to-use programming tool, for writing code and uploading it to the board. It is
often referred to as the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment). The
19

Arduino boards are able to read inputs-light, proximity or air quality on a sensor, or a
Short Message Service (SMS) or Twitter message, and turn it into an output-activating
a motor, turning on a light, publishing content online or trigger external events.

3.4.2 Programming and Output

It can be done by writing code and uploading it to the microcontroller on it using the
Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE),
based on Processing. The main objective of both projects is to make the process of
working with technology and electronics easier. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux.

3.5 Analysis on the design

Based on laboratory test results have been obtained concrete, different concrete grades
will be tested using a new piezo vibrator sensors. From the values of electric pulse
transmitted by the material subject to vibration, a new formula will be established
which converts frequency to megapascals. Comparisons will be made to identify the
design of sensors that are most effective in terms of concrete compressive strength as
compared with the example of a hammer schmit only get readings on concrete
surfaces only. The piezo sensor is tested on all the surface of the cube and also at
different angles. The analysis also aims to determine the characteristic strength of the
concrete can give good results in terms of design, economical and portable devices.

20

Reference
[1] RF Warner, BV Rangan, AS Hall, KA Faulkes, (1998). Concrete Structure.
Longman.
[2] Z. Li, L. Qin, L. and Huang S. (2009). "Embedded Piezo-Transducer in
Concrete for Property Diagnosis." J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)08991561(2009)21:11(643), 643-647.
[3] Mat Lazim Zakaria, (1997). Bahan Dan Binaan. Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka
[4] D.C Teychenne, R E Franklin, H C Erntroy, (1988), Design of Normal
Concrete Mixes, Department of the Environment, Building Research
Establishment.
[5] A.M Neville (2002), Properties Of Concrete, Fourth and Final Edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall.
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[6] Peter C. Taylor CRC, "Curing Concrete", Press 2013. ISBN 978-0-415-779524.eBook ISBN 978-0-203-86613-9
[7] D.D. Bui, J. Hu, P. Stroeven, Particle size effect on the strength of rice husk
ash blended gap-graded Portland cement concrete Cem. Concr. Compos.,27
(2005)

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