Introduction

Self-Esteem
There are different definitions of self-esteem according to different psychologists, such
as:
Self-esteem is the panacea of modern life. It is seen as the key to financial success,
health, and personal fulfillment, and it is regarded as the antidote to underachievement,
crime, and drug abuse (Branden, 1994; Mecca, Smelser, & Vasconcellos, 1989).
Self-esteem is also popular in academic circles. In the fields of personality and social
psychology, it has been implicated in models of conformity (Brockner, 1984)
According to Rosenberg, self-esteem is a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self
(Rosenberg, 1965)
Self-esteem is generally considered the evaluative component of the self-concept, a
broader representation of the self that includes cognitive and behavioral aspects as well as
evaluative or affective ones (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991)
Self is a social product that develops through the experience of interpersonal relation and
is largely dependent on regard from others (Krasner, 2002)

Definition
Self-esteem is a widely used concept both in popular language and in psychology. It
refers to an individual's sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person
values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself (Blascovich & Tomaka,
1991). The most broad and frequently cited definition of self-esteem within psychology is
Rosenberg's (1965), who described it as a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the
self

History
The identification of self-esteem as a distinct psychological construct is thought to have its
origins in the work of philosopher and psychologist, William James (1892). James identified

multiple dimensions of the self. In the mid-1960s, sociologist Morris Rosenberg defined selfesteem as a feeling of self-worth and developed the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), which
became the most-widely used scale to measure self-esteem in the social sciences.

Measurement
Self-esteem is part of everyday language, and at an intuitive level, everyone seems to
know what self-esteem is. It may surprise you then to know that there is less than
perfect agreement within the psychological literature. Part of the problem is that the term
is used in three different ways.

Self-Report Measures of Self-esteem

The Rosenberg (1965) self-esteem scale is one of the most widely used instruments for
measuring self-esteem in research settings. This scale was developed to assess global
self-esteem. It focuses on peoples general feelings toward themselves, without referring
to any specific quality or attribute. Half of the items are worded in a positive direction
and half are worded in a negative direction. Another widely used measure of self-esteem,
the Texas Social Behavior Inventory (Helmreich & Stapp, 1974). This scale is often used
as a measure of global self-esteem, but it actually measures how comfortable and
competent a person feels in social situations. Scores on this scale are related to scores on
the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (r=.65 or so), but the two scales do not measure the same
thing. A person can be uncomfortable in social situations and still like himself in general.
Alternatively, a person can be relaxed and outgoing with others but not like herself in
general. For this reason, the Rosenberg scale is the appropriate one to use for measuring
global self-esteem.

Types of self-esteem
High self-esteem
The person loves themselves and accepts who they are.

Low self-esteem
The person doesnt love themselves, doesnt accept who they are and doesnt value their
qualities.

Inflated self-esteem
The person loves themselves more than others and they exaggerate their qualities.

Theories of self-esteem
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Maslows hierarchy of need is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in
1943. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the

largest, most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom and the need for selfactualization and self-transcendence at the top. All humans have a need to feel respected;
this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical
human desire to be accepted and valued by others. Maslow noted two versions of esteem
needs: a "lower" version and a "higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the
need for respect from others. This may include a need for status, recognition, fame,
prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as the need for self-respect.
For example, the person may have a need for strength, competence, mastery, selfconfidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes precedence over the
"lower" version because it relies on an inner competence established through experience.
Deprivation of these needs may lead to an inferiority complex, weakness, and
helplessness. In Maslows hierarchy of needs first come self-actualization then selfesteem then love/belongingness then safety and then psychological needs.

Terror Management Theory

Terror Management Theory (TMT) was developed in 1986 by social psychologists Jeff
Greenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, and Sheldon Solomon based upon Ernest Beckers ideas.
TMT posits that while humans share with all life-forms a biological predisposition
toward self-preservation in the service of reproduction, we are unique in our capacity for
symbolic thought, which fosters self-awareness and the ability to reflect on the past and
ponder the future. This spawns the realization that death is inevitable and can occur at
any time for reasons that cannot be anticipated or controlled.
Three lines of research provide empirical support for TMT:
The anxiety-buffering function of self-esteem is established by studies
where momentarily elevated self-esteem results in lower self-reported anxiety and
physiological arousal.
Making death salient by asking people to think about themselves dying (or viewing
graphic depictions of death, being interviewed in front of a funeral parlor, or subliminal
exposure to the word dead or death) intensifies strivings to defend their cultural
worldviews by increasing positive reactions to similar others, and negative reactions
toward those who are different.
Research verifies the existential function of cultural worldviews and self-esteem by
demonstrating that non-conscious death thoughts come more readily to mind when
cherished cultural beliefs or self-esteem is threatened.

TMT has generated empirical research (currently more than 500 studies) examining a
host of other forms of human social behavior, including aggression, stereotyping, needs
for structure and meaning, depression and psychopathology, political preferences,
creativity, sexuality, romantic and interpersonal attachment, self-awareness, unconscious
cognition, martyrdom, religion, group identification, disgust, human-nature relations,
physical health, risk taking, and legal judgments.
In 2015, Greenberg, Pyszczynski and Solomon published The Worm at the Core, which
reviews this vast body of research supporting Beckers central claim that the fear of death
is the mainspring of human activity.

Sociometer Theory of Self-esteem

Sociometer theory is a theory of self-esteem from an evolutionary
psychological perspective that proposes that state self-esteem is a gauge (or sociometer)
of interpersonal relationships. This theoretical perspective was first introduced by Mark
Leary and colleagues in 1995 and later expanded on by Kirkpatrick and Ellis. In Learys
research, the idea of self-esteem as a sociometer is discussed in depth. This theory was
created as a response to psychological phenomenon i.e. social emotions, inter- and intrapersonal behaviors, self-serving biases, and reactions to rejection. Based on this theory,
self-esteem is a measure of effectiveness in social relations and interactions that monitors
acceptance and/or rejection from others.

The Sociometer Hypothesis

The sociometer hypothesis assumes that self esteem evolved to alert individuals as to
whether or not they might be rejected or excluded from some social group (Leary,
Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995). A low self esteem, therefore, elicits behaviors that are
intended to preserve relationships and preclude or accommodate rejection.
The sociometer hypothesis is consistent with belonginess theory (Baumeister and Leary
(1995). According to this theory, individuals have evolved to experience a robust need for
closeness and social belonging. Natural selection favored individuals who maintained
close bonds with groups, because this attachment provided security and facilitated
reproduction. Individuals, thus, who are ostracized, experience intense psychological
distress (Sommer, Williams, Ciarroco & Baumeister, 2001& Williams, Shore, & Grahe,
1998).

Models of Self-Esteem

Affective Models of Self-esteem

Affective approaches to understanding self-esteem make the following points:
Unconditional feelings of belonging and a sense of mastery comprise the essence of high
self-esteem, and these feelings typically develop early in life, largely as a result of
parentchild interactions. This emphasis on early childhood experiences does not mean
that self-esteem can never change. It simply means that early experiences lay the
foundation for high self-esteem or low self-esteem. Later experiences in life may also
affect self-esteem, although none is apt to be as important as the parentchild
relationship.
One reason that latter experiences are less consequential is that they are always viewed
through the prism or schema that is established earlier. Once high or low self-esteem
develops, it guides the way we view ourselves, other people, and the experiences and
events we confront. Often, this guiding process occurs at an automatic or preconscious
level (Epstein, 1990), making it difficult to detect and even harder to correct. For this
reason, self-esteem tends to persist.

Cognitive Models of Self-esteem

Cognitive models offer a different perspective on the nature and origins of self-esteem.
They view self-esteem as a more or less conscious decision people make regarding their
worth as a person. If you think you possess many socially desirable qualities, then you
will have high self-esteem. Cognitive models emphasize that how we evaluate ourselves
in various domains determines our overall level of self-esteem.

Relationship to SES
Perhaps the most famous investigation into the relationship of self-esteem to SES is
Rosenberg and Pearlin's (1978) assessment of social class and self-esteem among
children and adults. In an effort to clarify decades of inconclusive work on what many
thought would be an obvious connection between one's social status or prestige and one's
personal sense of worth, Rosenberg and Pearlin suggested that age was a critical factor in
teasing apart this relationship.
Perhaps the most famous investigation into the relationship of self-esteem to SES is
Rosenberg and Pearlin's (1978) assessment of social class and self-esteem among
children and adults. In an effort to clarify decades of inconclusive work on what many
thought would be an obvious connection between one's social status or prestige and one's

personal sense of worth, Rosenberg and Pearlin suggested that age was a critical factor in
teasing apart this relationship.
Since the work by Rosenberg and Pearlin (1978) and Coopersmith (1967), others have
explored the relationship of self-esteem to SES, especially among adolescents. With some
exceptions, Rosenberg and Pearlin's results have been replicated (though it appears that
more people have studied adolescents than adults).

Relationship to Health
Much of the research about the relationship between self-esteem and health appears to
have been done in terms of the influence of self-esteem on health-related behaviors. Selfesteem has been related to such health practices as the use of birth control (Herold,
Goodwin, & Lero, 1979), doing breast self-exam (Hallal, 1982), and exercise (e.g., LihMei Liao, Hunter, & Weinman, 1995; Vingerhoets, Croon, Jeninga, & Menges, 1990).
Self-efficacy has been related to smoking cessation, pain management, weight control,
and adherence to health prevention programs (Pervin, 1993)..

Importance
Abraham Maslow states that psychological health is not possible unless the essential core
of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by her or his
self. Self-esteem allows people to face life with more confidence, benevolence and
optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self-actualize.
Self-esteem may make people convinced they deserve happiness. Understanding this is
fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the development of positive self-esteem
increases the capacity to treat other people with respect, benevolence and goodwill, thus
favoring rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding destructive ones. For Erich Fromm
love of others and love of us are not alternatives. Freud also claimed that the depressive
has suffered "an extraordinary diminution in his self-regard, an impoverishment of his
ego on a grand scale....He has lost his self-respect"
The Yogyakarta Principles, a document on international human rights law addresses the
discriminatory attitude toward LGBT peoples that makes their self-esteem low to be
subject to human rights violation including human trafficking and World Health
Organization recommends in "Preventing Suicide" published in 2000 that strengthening
students' self-esteem is important to protect children and adolescents against mental
distress and despondency, enabling them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful
life situations.

Neuroscience
In a 2014 research conducted by Robert S. Chavez and Todd F. Heatherton, it was found
that self-esteem is related to the connectivity of frontostriatal circuits. Frontostriatal
pathway connects medial prefrontal cortex, which deals with self-knowledge, to
the ventral striatum, which deals with feelings of motivation and reward. Stronger
anatomical pathways correlated with higher long-term self-esteem, while stronger
functional connectivity correlated with higher short-term self-esteem.

Criticism
The American psychologist Albert Ellis criticized on numerous occasions the concept of
self-esteem as essentially self-defeating and ultimately destructive. Although
acknowledging the human propensity and tendency to ego rating as innate, he has
critiqued the philosophy of self-esteem as unrealistic, illogical and self- and socially
destructive often doing more harm than good. Questioning the foundations and
usefulness of generalized ego strength, he has claimed that self-esteem is based on
arbitrary definitional premises, and over-generalized, perfectionistic and grandiose
thinking. Acknowledging that rating and valuing behaviors and characteristics is
functional and even necessary, he sees rating and valuing human beings' totality and total
selves as irrational and unethical. The healthier alternative to self-esteem according to
him is unconditional self-acceptance and unconditional other-acceptance. Rational
Emotive Behavior Therapy is a psychotherapy based on this approach.
"There seem to be only two clearly demonstrated benefits of high self-esteem....First; it
increases initiative, probably because it lends confidence. People with high self-esteem
are more willing to act on their beliefs, to stand up for what they believe in, to approach
others, to risk new undertakings. (This unfortunately includes being extra willing to do
stupid or destructive things, even when everyone else advises against them.)...It can also
lead people to ignore sensible advice as they stubbornly keep wasting time and money on
hopeless causes

Mental Well-being
Mental well-being or mental health is a level of psychological well-being, or an absence
or mental illness. It is the "psychological state of someone who is functioning at a
satisfactory level of emotional and behavioral adjustment"
The World Health Organization defines as:

"Mental health is not just the absence of mental disorder. It is defined as a state of wellbeing in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the
normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to her or his community."
The WHO further states that the well-being of an individual is encompassed in the
realization of their abilities, coping with normal stresses of life, productive work and
contribution to their community. Cultural differences, subjective assessments, and
competing professional theories all affect how "mental health" is defined. A widely
accepted definition of health by mental health specialists is psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud's definition: the capacity "to work and to love".

History
In the mid-19th century, William Sweetser was the first to coin the term "mental
hygiene", which can be seen as the precursor to contemporary approaches to work on
promoting positive mental health. Isaac Ray, one of the thirteen founders of
the American Psychiatric Association, further defined mental hygiene as "the art of
preserving the mind against all incidents and influences calculated to deteriorate its
qualities, impair its energies, or derange its movements."
Dorothea Dix (18021887) was an important figure in the development of "mental
hygiene" movement. Dix was a school teacher who endeavored throughout her life to
help people with mental disorders, and to bring to light the deplorable conditions into
which they were put. This was known as the "mental hygiene movement". Before this
movement, it was not uncommon that people affected by mental illness in the 19th
century would be considerably neglected, often left alone in deplorable conditions, barely
even having sufficient clothing.
Emil Kraepelin in 1896 developed the taxonomy mental disorders which have dominated
the field for nearly 80 years. Later the proposed disease model of abnormality was
subjected to analysis and considered normality to be relative to the physical, geographical
and cultural aspects of the defining group.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Clifford Beers founded the Mental Health America National Committee for Mental Hygiene after publication of his accounts from lived
experience in lunatic asylums "A mind that found itself" in 1908 and opened the first
outpatient mental health clinic in the United States

Perspectives

Mental wellness
Mental wellness is generally viewed as a positive attribute, even if the person does not
have any diagnosed mental health condition. This definition of mental health
highlights emotional well-being, the capacity to live a full and creative life, and the
flexibility to deal with life's inevitable challenges. Some discussions are formulated in
terms of contentment or happiness.
An example of a wellness model includes one developed by Myers, Sweeney and
Witmer. It includes five life tasksessence or spirituality, work and leisure, friendship,
love and self-directionand twelve sub taskssense of worth, sense of control, realistic
beliefs, emotional awareness and coping, problem solving and creativity, sense of
humor, nutrition, exercise, self care, stress management, gender identity, and cultural
identitywhich are identified as characteristics of healthy functioning and a major
component of wellness. The components provide a means of responding to the
circumstances of life in a manner that promotes healthy functioning.

Prevention
Mental health is conventionally defined as a hybrid of absence of a mental disorder and
presence of well-being. Focus is increasing on preventing mental disorders. Prevention is
beginning to appear in mental health strategies, including the 2004 WHO report
"Prevention of Mental Disorders", the 2008 EU "Pact for Mental Health" and the 2011
US National Prevention Strategy. Prevention of a disorder at a young age may
significantly decrease the chances that a child will suffer from a disorder later in life, and
shall be the most efficient and effective measure from a public health
perspective. Prevention may require the regular consultation of a physician for at least
twice a year to detect any signs that reveal any mental health concerns.

Culture and religious consideration

Mental health is a socially constructed and socially defined concept; that is, different
societies, groups, cultures, institutions and professions have very different ways of
conceptualizing its nature and causes, determining what is mentally healthy, and deciding
what interventions, if any, are appropriate. Thus, different professionals will have
different cultural, class, political and religious backgrounds, which will impact
the methodology applied during treatment.
Research has shown that there is stigma attached to mental illness. In the United
Kingdom, the Royal College of Psychiatrists organized the campaign Changing

Minds (19982003) to help reduce stigma. Due to this stigma, responses to a positive
diagnosis may be a display of denialism.

Major theories about mental well-being

There are a number of major or grand theories relating to understanding mental health:

Analytical/ Developmental theories

"Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,
development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought
and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and
society." (Cherry, 2014) Theorists: Freud, Jung, Eriksson, Kohlberg.

Behavioral theories
"Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the
idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous
psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated
psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are
still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors."
(Cherry, 2014) Theorists: Watson, Skinner, Pavlov

Cognitive theories
"Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including
how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive
science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience,
philosophy, and linguistics." (Cherry, 2014) Theorists: Tolman, Piaget, Chomsky

Social theories
"Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics, including group behavior, social
perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice. It is
important to note that social psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social

perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behavior." (Cherry,
2014) Theorists: Bandura, Lewin, Festinge

Difference between mental health and mental illness

According to the U.S. surgeon general (1999), mental health is the successful
performance of mental function, resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships
with other people, and providing the ability to adapt to change and cope with adversity.
The term mental illness refers collectively to all diagnosable mental disordershealth
conditions characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior associated with
distress or impaired functioning.
A person struggling with his or her mental health may experience
stress, depression, anxiety, relationship problems, grief, addiction, ADHD or learning
disabilities, mood disorders, or other mental illnesses of varying
degrees. Therapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurse
practitioners or physicians can help manage mental illness with treatments such as
therapy, counseling, or medication.
One way of categorizing mental illnesses is as follows

Neurosis
Also known as psychoneuroses, neuroses are minor mental illnesses
like phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and anxiety disorders, among others.

Psychosis
Psychoses are major mental illnesses in which the mental state impairs thoughts,
perception and judgment. Delusions and hallucinations are marked symptoms. This may
require the use of anti-psychotic drugs as well as counseling techniques in order to treat
them.

Emotional improvement due to mental well-being

Unemployment has been shown to have a negative impact on an individual's emotional
well-being, self-esteem and more broadly their mental health. Increasing unemployment has
been show to have a significant impact on mental health, predominantly depressive
disorders. This is an important consideration when reviewing the triggers for mental health
disorders in any population survey. In order to improve your emotional mental health, the root of

the issue has to be resolved. "Prevention emphasizes the avoidance of risk factors; promotion
aims to enhance an individual's ability to achieve a positive sense of self-esteem, mastery, wellbeing, and social inclusion." It is very important to improve your emotional mental health by
surrounding yourself with positive relationships. We as humans, feed off companionships and
interaction with other people. Another way to improve your emotional mental health is
participating in activities that can allow you to relax and take time for yourself. Yoga is a great
example of an activity that calms your entire body and nerves. According to a study on wellbeing by Richards, Campania and Muse-Burke, "mindfulness is considered to be a purposeful
state, it may be that those who practice it believe in its importance and value being mindful, so
that valuing of self-care activities may influence the intentional component of mindfulness.

Social work in mental well-being

Social work in mental health, also called psychiatric social work, is a process where an
individual in a setting is helped to attain freedom from overlapping internal and external
problems (social and economic situations, family and other relationships, the physical and
organizational environment, psychiatric symptoms, etc.). It aims for harmony, quality of life,
self-actualization and personal adaptation across all systems. Psychiatric social workers
are mental health professionals that can assist patients and their family members in coping with
both mental health issues and various economic or social problems caused by mental illness or
psychiatric dysfunctions and to attain improved mental health and well-being. They are vital
members of the treatment teams in Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences in
hospitals. They are employed in both outpatient and inpatient settings of a hospital, nursing
homes, state and local governments, substance abuse clinics, correctional facilities, health care
services...etc.

Rolls and functions

Social workers play many roles in mental health settings, including those of case manager,
advocate, administrator, and therapist. The major functions of a psychiatric social worker are
promotion and prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. Social workers may also practice:
Counseling and psychotherapy

Case management and support services

Crisis intervention
Psychoeducation
Psychiatric rehabilitation and recovery
Care coordination and monitoring
Program management/administration
Program, policy and resource development
Research and evaluation