Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

f(n) = O(g(n))

Denitions
i 9 positive c; n such that
0  f(n)  cg(n) 8n  n .
i 9 positive c; n such that
f(n)  cg(n)  0 8n  n .
i f(n) = O(g(n)) and
f(n) =
(g(n)).
i limn!1 f(n)=g(n) = 0.
i 8 2 R, 9n such that
jan , aj < , 8n  n .
least b 2 R such that b  s,
8s 2 S.
greatest b 2 R such that b 
s, 8s 2 S.
lim inf fai j i  n; i 2 Ng.
n!1

n
X

f(n) =
(g(n))

=1

In general:

f(n) = o(g(n))
lim a = a
n!1 n
sup S
inf S
lim
inf a
n!1 n

n
X
i

=1

n
X

+ 1) ;
i = n(n + 1)(2n
6

i = n (n4+ 1) :
i

n ,
X

+1

=1

=1

+1

+1

+1

=1

=0

+1

n
X

=0

ici =

ncn

+2

=0

+1

(c , 1)

=0

Harmonic series:
n
X
Hn = 1i ;

n!1

, (n + 1)cn

+ c ; c 6= 1;

1
X

=1

=0

n
X

ici = (1 ,c c) ; c < 1:

iHi = n(n2+ 1) Hn , n(n4, 1) :

=1

n i
X

=1

+1

=1

=0

=0

25.
28.

=0

=0

31.

=0

=0

=0

34.

=0

36.

 n + 1 
Combinations: Size k subHi = (n + 1)Hn , n;
Hi = m + 1 Hn , m 1+ 1 :
m
sets of a size n set.
i
i
 n


n  n 
n n
X
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
n
n!
k
n
1. k = (n , k)!k! ;
2.
3. k = n , k ;
Arrangements of an n elek =2 ;
k





 n , 1


ment set into k cycles.
n
,
1
n
n
,
1
n
n
 n
4. k = k k , 1 ;
5. k = k + k , 1 ;
Stirling numbers (2nd kind):
k
    

Partitions of an n element
X r + k r + n + 1
6. mn mk = nk mn ,, kk ;
7.
;
set into k non-empty sets.
k =
n

n
k

n
1st order Eulerian numbers:
n  k  n + 1
n r  s  r + s
k
X
X
Permutations   : : :n on
8.
=
;
9.
m+1
k n,k = n ;
f1; 2; : : :; ng with k ascents.
k  m
k
n n

n
n = (,1)k k , n , 1;
10.
11.
2nd
order
Eulerian
numbers.
k
k
k
1 = n = 1;
n
n n , 1 n , 1
Cn
Catlan Numbers: Binary
n
,
trees with n + 1 vertices.
12. 2 = 2 , 1;
13. k = k k + k , 1 ;
n
n
n
n n
=
(n
,
1)!;
15.
=
(n
,
1)!H
;
16.
=
1;
17.
 k ;
n,
1
2
n
k
n
n , 1 n , 1
 n   n  n
 
n n
X
1 2n ;
=
(n
,
1)
+
;
19.
=
=
;
20.
=
n!;
21.
C
=
n n+1 n
k,1
2
kn   n  k
 n  n, 1 n n, 1
 n k k  n , 1 
n , 1
=
=
1;
23.
=
;
24.
=
(k
+
1)
+
(n
,
k)
;
0
n
,
1
k
n
,
1
,
k
k
k
k
,
1
0 n
n
 n
 
1 if k = 0,
n , n , 1;
n , (n + 1)2n + n + 1 ;
=
26.
=
2
27.
=
3
k
0 otherwise
1
2  
2
n X
n  n x + k
m n + 1
n  n  k 
X
X
n
xn =
;
29. m =
(m + 1 , k)n(,1)k ;
30. m! m =
k
n
k
k n,m ;
k
k
k
n X
 n 
 n 
n  n n , k
n
,
k
,
m
k!;
32. 0 = 1;
33. n = 0 for n 6= 0;
m =k k
m (,1)
 n 
 n , 1 
 n , 1 
n  n  (2n)n
X
=
(k
+
1)
+
(2n
,
1
,
k)
;
35.
k
k
k,1
k = 2n ;
k
 x  X
 n + 1  X n k  X
n  n x + n , 1 , k
n k
;
37. m + 1 =
=
(m + 1)n,k ;
x,n = k
k
2n
k
m
m
k
k
n
X

=0

22.



=1

=1

18.

n!1
,n

k

14.

i = m 1+ 1 (n + 1)m , 1 ,
(i + 1)m , im , (m + 1)im
i
i


m
nX
,
X m+1
Bk nm ,k :
im = m 1+ 1
k
i
k
Geometric series:
1
1
n
n
X
X
X
ci = 1 ,1 c ;
ci = 1 ,c c ; c < 1;
ci = c c ,,1 1 ; c 6= 1;

lim supfai j i  n; i 2 Ng.

lim sup an

n
X
m

f(n) = (g(n))

i = n(n2+ 1) ;

Series

=0

=0

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Identities Cont.
 n + 1  X  n  k  X
n k
n  
n,k = n! X 1 k ;
38. m + 1 =
=
n
k m k m
k k! m
 n  X k n

k+1
=0

=0

40. m =
(,1)n,k ;
k
m
+
1
 m + n +k1  X
m n + k
42.
=
k k ;
m

Trees
 x  X
n  n x + k
tree with n
39. x , n =
; Every
vertices
has n , 1
k
2n
 n  X  n +k 1  k 
edges.
=0

41. m =
(,1)m,k ; Kraft inequalk
+
1
m
 m + n + 1k X
 n + k  ity: If the depths
m
43.
= k(n + k) k ; of the leaves of
m

a binary tree are

 n  X  n +k 1  k 
 n  X  n + 1  k  k
:n: :; dn:
m,k ; 45. (n , m)!
m,k ; for n  m, d ;X
44. m =
(
,
1)
=
(
,
1)
k+1 m
m
2,di  1;
 n k X
m , nm + n m + k 
 n k  k +X1 mm, nm + n m + k 
i
=0

=0

46. n , m =
+k
k ;
 n ` +kmm +Xk  kn


n
,
k
n
48. ` + m
` =
`
m
k ;

47. n , m =
k ; and equality holds
 n k` + mm+ k X n k+k n , k 
 only if every inn
49. ` + m
` =
` m
k : ternal node has 2
=1

Master method:
T(n) = aT(n=b) + f(n); a  1; b > 1
If 9 > 0 such that f(n) = O(n b a, )
then
T (n) = (n b a ):
If f(n) = (n b a ) then
T(n) = (n b a log n):
If 9 > 0 such that f(n) =
(n b a  ),
and 9c < 1 such that af(n=b)  cf(n)
for large n, then
T(n) = (f(n)):
Substitution (example): Consider the
following recurrence
Ti = 2 i
Ti ; T = 2:
Note that Ti is always a power of two.
Let ti = log Ti . Then we have
ti = 2i + 2ti; t = 1:
Let ui = ti =2i. Dividing both sides of
the previous equation by 2i we get
ti = 2i + ti :
2i
2i
2i
log

log

log

log

log

+1

log

+1

+1

+1

Substituting we nd
ui = + ui ; u = 12;
which is simply ui = i=2. So we nd
that Ti has the closed form Ti = 2i i,1 .
Summing factors (example): Consider
the following recurrence
Ti = 3Tn= + n; T = n:
Rewrite so that all terms involving T
are on the left side
Ti , 3Tn= = n:
Now expand the recurrence, and choose
a factor which makes the left side \telescope"
+1

log

log

=0

Let c = andm = log n.

Then we have
m
m , 1
X
c
n ci = n c , 1
3

+1

=0

= 2n(c
c 2 n , 1)
= 2n(c
ck c n , 1)
= 2nk , 2n  2n :
log

+1

1 58496

Note that

=0

Ti = 1 +
+1

, 2n;

where k = (log ), . Full history recurrences can often be changed to limited history ones (example): Consider the following recurrence
i,
X
Ti = 1 + Tj ; T = 1:
3
2 2

Xi
j

Tj :

=0

Subtracting we nd
i,
Xi
X
Ti , Ti = 1 + Tj , 1 , Tj
1

+1

=0

= Ti :
And so Ti = 2Ti = 2i .
+1

+1

Generating functions:
1. Multiply both sides of the equation by xi .
2. Sum both sides over all i for
which the equation is valid.
3. Choose a generatingPfunction
i
G(x). Usually G(x) = 1
i x.
3. Rewrite the equation in terms of
the generating function G(x).
4. Solve for G(x).
5. The coecient of xi in G(x) is gi .
Example:
gi = 2gi + 1; g = 0:
Multiply
X andi sum:
X
X
gi x = 2gi xi + xi:
=0

+1

i

+1

i

i

P
We choose G(x) = i xi. Rewrite
in terms of G(x):
X i
G(x) , g
0

log

+1

1 T(n) , 3T(n=2) = n
,


3 T(n=2) , 3T(n=4) = n=2
.. .. ..
. . .
,T(2) , 3T(1) = 2

n
,
2
3
,


3 2 n T(1) , 0 = 1
Summing the left side we get T (n). Summing the right side we get
X2 n n i
i3 :
i 2

+1

Recurrences

sons.

=0

= 2G(x) +

x:

i

Simplify:
G(x) = 2G(x) + 1 :
x
1,x
Solve for G(x):
x
G(x) = (1 , x)(1
, 2x) :
Expand this 
using partial fractions:

G(x) = x 1 ,2 2x , 1 ,1 x

0
1
X
X
= x @2 2i xi , xi A
i
X ii
i
0

(2

i

So gi = 2i , 1.

+1

, 1)x :
+1

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

p
e  2:71828,
 0:57721,
=
 1:61803,

  3:14159,
i
2i
pi
General
1
2
2
Bernoulli Numbers (Bi = 0, odd i 6= 1):
2
4
3
B = 1, B = , , B = , B = , ,
B = ,B =, ,B = .
3
8
5
Change of base, quadratic formula:
4
16
7
p
b , 4ac :
log
x
,
b

5
32
11
a
logb x = log b ;
2a
6
64
13
a
Euler's
number
e:
7
128
17
+
e
=
1
+
8
256
19
 +x n+ x +



9
512
23
lim 1 + n = e :
n!1
,1 +
n < e < ,1 +
n :
10
1,024
29
n
n  
11
2,048
31
,


e
11e
n
1 + n = e , 2n + 24n , O n1 :
12
4,096
37
13
8,192
41
Harmonic numbers:
14
16,384
43
1, , , , , , , , ; : : :
15
32,768
47
16
65,536
53
lnn < Hn < ln n + 1;
17
131,072
59
Hn = ln n + + O n1 :
18
262,144
61
Factorial, Stirling's approximation:
19
524,288
67
:::
20
1,048,576
71
 1 
21
2,097,152
73
p  n n
n!
=
2n
1
+

22
4,194,304
79
e
n :
23
8,388,608
83
Ackermann's
8 jfunction and inverse:
24
16,777,216
89
i=1
<2
a(i; j) = : a(i , 1; 2)
j=1
25
33,554,432
97
a(i
,
1;
a(i;
j
,
1))
i; j  2
26
67,108,864
101
(i) = minfj j a(j; j)  ig:
27
134,217,728
103
28
268,435,456
107
Binomial distribution:
n
29
536,870,912
109
Pr[X = k] = k pk qn,k ; q = 1 , p;
30
1,073,741,824
113
n
n
X
31
2,147,483,648
127
[X]
=
k
=
1k
pk qn,k = np:
E
k
32
4,294,967,296
131
Poisson distribution:
Pascal's Triangle
, k
Pr[X = k] = e k! ; E[X] = :
1
11
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
121
p(x) = p 1 e, x, 2 = 2 ; E[X] = :
2
1331
The
\coupon
collector": We are given a
14641
random coupon each day, and there are n
1 5 10 10 5 1
dierent types of coupons. The distribu1 6 15 20 15 6 1
tion of coupons is uniform. The expected
number of days to pass before we to col1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
lect all n types is
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
nHn:
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1+

30

10

30

42

66

24

120

+1

11

25

137

49

363

761

7129

12

60

20

140

280

2520

1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880,

^ = ,  ,:61803
Probability
Continuous distributions:Z If
b
Pr[a < X < b] = p(x) dx;
a
then p is the probability density function of
X. If
Pr[X < a] = P (a);
then P is the distribution function of X. If
P and p both existZthen
a
P(a) =
p(x) dx:
,1
Expectation: If XX
is discrete
E[g(X)] = g(x) Pr[X = x]:
1

If X continuous
Z 1 then
Z1
E[g(X)] = g(x)p(x) dx = g(x) dP(x):
,1
,1
Variance, standard deviation:
VAR[X] = E[X ] , E[X] ;
p
 = VAR[X]:
Basics:
Pr[X _ Y ] = Pr[X] + Pr[Y ] , Pr[X ^ Y ]
Pr[X ^ Y ] = Pr[X]
Pr[Y ];
i X and Y are independent.
^Y]
Pr[X jY ] = Pr[X
Pr[B]
E[X
Y ] = E[X]
E[Y ];
i X and Y are independent.
E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ];
E[cX] = c E[X]:
Bayes' theorem:
jAi] Pr[Ai ]
Pr[AijB] = PnPr[B
Pr[A ] Pr[B jA ] :
2

=1

Inclusion-exclusion:
n
h _n i X
Pr
Xi = Pr[Xi ] +
i

=1

i
n
X

=1

(,1)k

+1

=1

X
ii <


<ik

Pr

h ^k
j

Moment inequalities:


Pr jX j   E[X]  1 ;

=1

h
i

Pr X , E[X]  
  1 :
Geometric distribution:
Pr[X = k] = pk, q; q = 1 , p;
1
X
1
E[X] = kpqk, = p :
k
2

=1

Xij :

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Trigonometry

Multiplication:

C = A
B; ci;j =

(0,1)

(-1,0)

B
Pythagorean theorem:
C =A
Denitions:
sin a = A=C;
csc a = C=A;
sin a = A ;
tan a = cos
a B
2

(cos ; sin )
(1,0)

det A =

=
Permanents:

cos x = sec1 x ;

sin x + cos x = 1;
2

1 + cot x = csc x;
2

,

sin x = cos  , x ;

sin x = sin( , x);

cos x = , cos( , x);

,

tan x = cot  , x ;

cot x = , cot( , x);

csc x = cot x , cot x;

sin(x  y) = sinx cos y  cos x siny;

cos(x  y) = cos x cos y  sin x sin y;
x  tan y ;
tan(x  y) = 1tan
 tan x tany
cot
y1
cot(x  y) = cotxxcot
 cot y ;

sin 2x = 1 +2 tanx
tan x ;

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x;

cos 2x = cos x , sin x;

cos 2x = 2 cos x , 1;
tan x
cos 2x = 1 , 2 sin x;
cos 2x = 11 ,
+ tan x ;
2 tanx ;
x , 1;
tan 2x = 1 ,
cot 2x = cot2 cot
x
tan x
sin(x + y) sin(x , y) = sin x , sin y;
2

cos(x + y) cos(x , y) = cos x , sin y:

Euler's equation:
eix = cos x + i sin x; ei = ,1:
c 1994 by Steve Seiden
2

n
XY

sign()ai; i :

sseiden@ics.uci.edu
http://www.ics.uci.edu/~sseiden

perm A =


b 
e

ai; i :

=1

x ,x
cosh x = e +2e ;
1 ;
csch x = sinh
x
1 :
coth x = tanh
x

Identities:
cosh x , sinh x = 1;
tanh x + sech x = 1;
coth x , csch x = 1;
sinh(,x) = , sinh x;
cosh(,x) = cosh x;
tanh(,x) = , tanh x;
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y;
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y;
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x;
cosh 2x = cosh x + sinh x;
cosh x + sinh x = ex ;
cosh x , sinh x = e,x ;
(cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx; n 2 Z;
2 sinh x = cosh x , 1; 2 cosh x = cosh x + 1:
2

 sin  cos  tan 

0 0
p1
p0




6

3
2

p
p

2
2

2
3

2
2

2
1
2

p
3
1

A = hc;
= ab sin C;
A sin B :
= c sin
2 sin C
Heron's formula:
2
1
2

A = ps
sa
sb
sc ;
s = (a + b + c);
sa = s , a;
sb = s , b;
sc = s , c:
More identities:
r
x
sin = 1 , 2cos x ;
2

Hyperbolic Functions

Denitions:
x ,x
sinh x = e ,2 e ;
x e,x
tanh x = eex ,
+ e,x ;
1 ;
sech x = cosh
x

( )

 i

A
c
B
Law of cosines:
c = a +b ,2ab cos C:
Area:
1

aei + bfg + cdh

, ceg , fha , ibd:
n
XY

b h

( )

 i

 a b c      
 d e f  = g  b c  , h  a c  + i  a
 g h i   e f   d f   d

cos a = B=C;
sec a = C=B;
a B
cot a = cos
sin a = A :

ai;k bk;j :

=1

2  2 and 3  3 determinant:
 a b 
 c d  = ad , bc;

Area, radius of inscribed circle:

AB; A +AB
B +C:

=1

+B :

Identities:
sin x = csc1 x ;
tan x = cot1 x ;
1 + tan x = sec x;

n
X

More Trig.
C

Determinants: det A = 0 i A is non-singular.

det A
B = det A
det B;

(0,-1)

Matrices

: : : in mathematics
you don't understand things, you
just get used to
them.
{ J. von Neumann

= 1 + 2cos x ;
r 1 , cos x
x
tan = 1 + cos x ;
x;
= 1 ,sincos
x
sin
= 1 + cosx x ;
r 1 + cos x
x
cot = 1 , cos x ;
= 1 +sincosx x ;
x ;
= 1 ,sincos
x
ix , e,ix
e
sin x =
2i ;
ix ,ix
cos x = e +2 e ;
ix e,ix
tan x = ,i eeix ,
+ e,ix ;
ix 1
= ,i ee ix ,
+ 1;
sin x = sinhi ix ;
cos x = cosh ix;
tan x = tanhi ix :
cos x
2

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Number Theory
The Chinese remainder theorem: There exists a number C such that:
C  r mod m
.. .. ..
. . .
C  rn mod mn
if mi and mj are relatively prime for i 6= j.
Euler's function: (x) is the number of
positive integersQnless than x relatively
prime to x. If i pei i is the prime factorization of x then
n
Y
(x) = pei i , (pi , 1):
1

=1

=1

Euler's theorem: If a and b are relatively

prime then
1  a b mod b:
Fermat's theorem:
1  ap, mod p:
The Euclidean algorithm: if a > b are integers then
gcd(a; b) = gcd(a mod b; b):
Q
If ni pei i is the prime factorization of x
then
n ei
X Y
S(x) = d = pip ,,1 1 :
( )

=1

+1

djx

=1

Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect number i x = 2n, (2n , 1) and 2n , 1 is prime.

Wilson's theorem: n is a prime i
(n , 1)!  ,1 mod n:
Mobius 8
inversion:
if i = 1.
>
< 10
square-free.
(i) = > (,1)r ifif ii isis not
the
product
of
:
r distinct primes.
If
X
G(a) = F(d);
1

then

F(a) =

X
dja

dja

a

Prime numbers:
n
pn = n ln n + n lnln n , n + n lnln
ln
n
n
+ O ln n ;
2!n
(n) = lnnn + (lnnn) + (lnn)


+ O (lnnn) :
4

(d)G d :

Graph Theory
Notation:
Denitions:
E(G) Edge set
Loop
An edge connecting a verV (G) Vertex set
tex to itself.
c(G) Number of components
Directed
Each edge has a direction.
G[S] Induced subgraph
Simple
Graph with no loops or
deg(v) Degree of v
multi-edges.

(G) Maximum degree
Walk
A sequence v e v : : :e` v` .
(G) Minimum degree
Trail
A walk with distinct edges.
(G) Chromatic number
Path
A trail with distinct
E (G) Edge chromatic number
vertices.
Gc
Complement graph
Connected A graph where there exists
K
Complete graph
n
a path between any two
K
Complete bipartite graph
n
;n
1
2
vertices.
r(k;
`)
Ramsey number
Component A maximal connected
subgraph.
Geometry
Tree
A connected acyclic graph.
Projective coordinates: triples
Free tree
A tree with no root.
(x; y; z), not all x, y and z zero.
DAG
Directed acyclic graph.
(x; y; z) = (cx; cy; cz) 8c 6= 0:
Eulerian
Graph with a trail visiting
Cartesian
Projective
each edge exactly once.
Hamiltonian Graph with a path visiting
(x; y)
(x; y; 1)
each vertex exactly once.
y = mx + b (m; ,1; b)
Cut
A set of edges whose rex=c
(1; 0; ,c)
moval increases the numDistance formula, Lp and L1
ber of components.
metric:
p
Cut-set
A minimal cut.
(x , x ) + (x , x ) ;
Cut edge
A size 1 cut.
jx , x jp + jx , x jp =p;
k-Connected A graph connected with
jx , x jp + jx , x jp =p:
the removal of any k , 1
lim
p
!1
vertices.
k-Tough
8S  V; S 6= ; we have Area of triangle (x ; y ), (x ; y )
and (x ; y ):
k
c(G , S)  jS j.


k-Regular A graph where all vertices
x
,
x
y
,
y

abs  x , x y , y  :
have degree k.
k-Factor
A k-regular spanning
Angle formed by three points:
subgraph.
Matching A set of edges, no two of
(x ; y )
which are adjacent.
`
Clique
A set of vertices, all of

which are adjacent.
(0; 0) ` (x ; y )
Ind. set
A set of vertices, none of
which are adjacent.
cos  = (x ; y `)
`(x ; y ) :
Vertex cover A set of vertices which
cover all edges.
Line through two points (x ; y )
Planar graph A graph which can be emand (x ;y ):
beded in the plane.
 x y 1 
Plane graph An embedding of a planar
 x y 1  = 0:
graph.
x y 1
X
Area of circle, volume of sphere:
deg(v) = 2m:
v2V
A = r ; V = r :
If G is planar then n , m + f = 2, so
If I have seen farther than others,
f  2n , 4; m  3n , 6:
it is because I have stood on the
Any planar graph has a vertex with de- shoulders of giants.
gree  5.
{ Issac Newton
1

4
3

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Wallis' identity:
 = 2
21

23

43

45

65

67

Brouncker's continued fraction expansion:

1
 =1+
2
2+
52
2

2+

2+ 2+72

Gregrory's series:
 = 1, + , + ,



Newton's series:
1 + 1
3 +



=1+
2 2
3
2 2
4
5
2
Sharp's series:


 = p1 1 , 1 + 1 , 1 +



3
3 3
5 3
7
3
Euler's series:
4

2

=
=
2
 =
6

+
2+

+
2+
2, 2+
2

2

12

+
2+

+
2+
2, 2+
2

1
3

1
5

1
3

+



2 +



2

1
5

1
9

,

Partial Fractions
Let N(x) and D(x) be polynomial functions of x. We can break down
N(x)=D(x) using partial fraction expansion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide
N by D, obtaining
N(x) = Q(x) + N 0(x) ;
D(x)
D(x)

where the degree of N 0 is less than that of

D. Second, factor D(x). Use the following rules: For a non-repeated factor:
N(x) = A + N 0 (x) ;
(x , a)D(x) x , a D(x)
where

 N(x) 

A = D(x)
:
x a
For a repeated factor:
mX
,
N(x)
Ak + N 0 (x) ;
=
m
(x , a) D(x)
(x , a)m,k D(x)

Calculus

Derivatives:
du
dv
d(uv)
dv du
2. d(udx+ v) = du
1. d(cu)
dx = c dx ;
dx, +
dx ; ,
3. dx = u dx + v dx ;
du
dv
n)
d(ecu ) = cecu du ;
n, du ; 5. d(u=v) = v dx , u dx ;
4. d(u
=
nu
6.
dx
dx
dx
v
dx
dx
u
u) 1 du
7. d(cdx ) = (ln c)cu du
8. d(ln
dx ;
dx = u dx ;
d(cos u) = , sin u du ;
u) = cos u du ;
10.
9. d(sin
dx
dx
dx
dx
d(tan
u)
du
d(cot
u)
12. dx = csc u du
11. dx = sec u dx ;
dx ;
du
u)
du
u)
14. d(csc
13. d(sec
dx = tan u sec u dx ;
dx = , cot u csc u dx ;
u)
1 du
u) = p ,1 du ;
15. d(arcsin
16. d(arccos
dx = p1 , u dx ;
dx
1 , u dx
u) = 1 du ;
d(arccot u) = ,1 du ;
17. d(arctan
18.
dx
1 , u dx
dx
1 , u dx
1

where

=0

 dk  N(x) 
Ak = k!1 dx
:
k D(x)
x a
=

The reasonable man adapts himself to the

world; the unreasonable persists in trying
to adapt the world to himself. Therefore
all progress depends on the unreasonable.
{ George Bernard Shaw

u) = p,1 du ;
20. d(arccsc
dx
u 1 , u dx
u)
du
22. d(cosh
dx = sinh u dx ;

u) = p 1 du ;
19. d(arcsec
dx
u 1 , u dx
u)
du
21. d(sinh
dx = cosh u dx ;
2

u)
du
23. d(tanh
dx = sech u dx ;

u)
du
24. d(coth
dx = , csch u dx ;

u)
du
25. d(sech
dx = , sech u tanh u dx ;
u) = p 1
27. d(arcsinh
dx

u)
du
26. d(csch
dx = , csch u coth u dx ;

du ;
1 + u dx
d(arctanh
u)
1 du ;
29.
=
dx
1 , u dx
u) = p,1 du ;
31. d(arcsech
dx
u 1 , u dx
Integrals:

u) = p 1
28. d(arccosh
dx

du ;
u , 1 dx
d(arccoth
u)
1 du ;
30.
=
dx
u , 1 dx
u) = p,1 du :
32. d(arccsch
dx
juj 1 + u dx

1.
3.

6.
8.

xn dx =

Z 1
4. x dx = ln x;
Z dv

1 n
n + 1 x ; n 6= ,1;
+1

Z dx
1 + x = arctan x;
Z

10.
12.
14.

7.

Z
Z
Z

2. (u + v) dx = u dx + v dx;

cu dx = c u dx;

5.

9.

13.

sec x dx = ln j sec x + tan xj;

arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa + a , x ; a > 0;

2

ex dx = ex ;

Z
u dx dx = uv , v du
dx dx;

sin x dx = , cos x;

tan x dx = , ln j cos xj;

11.

cos x dx = sin x;

cot x dx = ln j cos xj;

csc x dx = ln j csc x + cot xj;

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

15.
17.
19.
21.
23.
25.
26.
29.
33.
36.

Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z

Calculus Cont.

arccos xa dx = arccos xa ,

16.

a , x ; a > 0;

arctan xa dx = x arctan ax , a ln(a + x ); a > 0;

2

18.

sin (ax)dx = a ax , sin(ax) cos(ax) ;

2

39.

40.

Z
Z

43.
46.
48.
50.
52.

Z
Z
Z
Z

20.

csc x dx = , cot x;
2

Z
n,
n, x sinx n , 1 Z
1 Z sinn, x dx;
n x dx = cos
sinn x dx = , sin nx cos x + n ,
22.
cos
+ n
cosn, x dx;
n
n
Z
n, x Z
n, x Z
tan
cot
n
n
,
n
24. cot x dx = , n , 1 , cotn, x dx; n 6= 1;
tan x dx = n , 1 , tan x dx; n 6= 1;
n, x n , 2 Z
n,
sec n x dx = tan xnsec
, 1 + n , 1 sec x dx; n 6= 1;
Z
Z
n, x n , 2 Z
n, x dx; n 6= 1; 27. sinh x dx = cosh x; 28. cosh x dx = sinh x;
+
csc
csc n x dx = , cot xncsc
,1
n,1
1

tanh x dx = ln j cosh xj; 30.

coth x dx = ln j sinh xj; 31.

arcsinh xa dx = x arcsinh xa ,

34.

sinh x dx = sinh(2x) , x;
2

sech x dx = arctan sinh x; 32.

1

37.

x + a ; a > 0;
2

= ln x + a + x ; a > 0;
a +x
dx
x
a + x = a arctan a ; a > 0;
2

41.

2 3 2

a4 arcsin x ;
a

a > 0;

Zp

51.

x x  a dx = (x  a ) ;
2

1
3

2 3 2

arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa + a ln ja , x j;

sech x dx = tanh x;

a , x dx = x a , x + a2 arcsin ax ; a > 0;

dx = 1 ln  x  ;
ax + bx a  a + bx 
p
a + bx dx = 2pa + bx + a Z p 1 dx;
x a +pbx

p x
a , x dx = pa , x , a ln  a + a , x  ;


x
x
2

Z
1 ln  a + x  ;
p dx = arcsin ax ; a > 0;
44. a dx
=
, x 2a  a , x 
a ,x


p
p
p
a  x dx = x a  x  a2 ln x + a  x  ;
47.
8

csch x dx = ln tanh x  ;

35.

cosh x dx = sinh(2x) + x;
2

Z p
p
54. x a , x dx = x (2x , a ) a , x + a4 arcsin xa ; a > 0;
Z
Z x dx
p
56. pa , x = , a , x ;
57.


p
p
Z a +x
Z
 a + a + x 
p
58.
dx
=
a
+
x
,
a
ln
;
59.




x
Z px
=
60.

sec x dx = tan x;

42. (a , x ) = dx = x (5a , 2x ) a , x +

cos (ax)dx = a ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ;

2

p
8
<
x arccosh xa , x + a ; if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
38. arccosh xa dx = :
p
x arccosh xa + x + a ; if arccosh xa < 0 and a > 0,
Z dx

 p
Z

49.

45.

p dx
Z xp , a
2

dx
x
p
;
=
=
(a , x )
a a ,x
 p

= ln x + x , a  ; a > 0;
2

3 2

+ bx) ;
x a + bxdx = 2(3bx , 2a)(a
15b
3 2

pa 

x
1
a
+
bx
,

 ; a > 0;
p
dx = p ln  p
a + bx
a + bx + pa 
2
Z p
53. x a , x dx = , (a , x ) = ;
2

2 3 2



55. p dx = , a ln  a + ax , x  ;
a ,x
p
x
dx
p
= , x a , x + a2 arcsin a;x a > 0;
pa , x
x , a dx = px , a , a arccos a ; a > 0;
jxj
x
2

61.

p dx

x x +a
2

= a ln 


;
a+ a +x 
px

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

62.
64.
66.

Z
Z

Calculus Cont.

p dx = a arccos jaxj ; a > 0;

p dx
63.
=  xa x a ;
x x ,a
Z pxx  ax  a (x + a ) =
p
x
dx
p
65.
dx =  3a x ;
= x a ;
x a

8
p x 
>
+ b , pb , 4ac  ; if b > 4ac,
>
< pb ,1 4ac ln  2ax
dx
2ax + b + b , 4ac 
=
ax + bx + c >
>
: p 2 arctan p2ax + b ;
if b < 4ac,
4ac , b
4ac , b
8 1 
papax + bx + c ; if a > 0,
>
p
ln
2ax
+
b
+
2


<
a
p dx
=
ax + bx + c >
: p1,a arcsin p,b2ax, ,4acb ;
if a < 0,
Z
p
p
ax + bx + c dx = 2ax + b ax + bx + c + 4ax , b p dx
;
1

3 2

Finite Calculus
Dierence, shift operators:

f(x) = f(x + 1) , f(x);
E f(x) = f(x + 1):
Fundamental Theorem:
X
f(x) =
F(x) , f(x)x = F (x) + C:
b
X

67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.

4a

8a

Z
x
dx
ax
+
bx
+
c
b
p
=
, 2a p dx
;
a
ax + bx + c
ax + bx + c
p

ax + bx + c

8 ,1  2pcpax + bx + c + bx + 2c 
>
 ; if c > 0,
>
< pc ln 

x
dx
p
=>
x ax + bx + c > 1
: p,c arcsin jxjpbxb+,2c4ac ;
if c < 0,
p
x x + a dx = ( x , a )(x + a ) = ;
Z
2

Z
Z
Z
Z

2 3 2

xn sin(ax) dx = , a xn cos(ax) + na xn, cos(ax) dx;

xneax dx =

sin(ax) dx;

+1

 ln(ax)

+1

=
=
=
=
=

x
x
x
x
x

=
x
=
x +x
=
x + 3x + 2x
=
x + 6x + 11x + 6x
= x + 10x + 35x + 50x + 24x

2
3
4
5

1
2
3
4
5

x
x +x
x + 3x + x
x + 6x + 7x + x
x + 15x + 25x + 10x + x

=
=
=
=
=

x
x
x
x
x

+1

x ,x
x , 3x + x
x , 6x + 7x , x
x , 15x + 25x , 10x + x
2

=
x
=
x ,x
=
x , 3x + 2x
=
x , 6x + 11x , 6x
= x , 10x + 35x , 50x + 24x
1

=1

xn m = xm (x + m)n :
Conversion:
xn = (,1)n (,x)n = (x , m + 1)n
= 1=(x + 1),n ;
xn = (,1)n (,x)n = (x + m , 1)n
= 1=(x , 1),n ;
n n
n  
X
k = X n (,1)n,k xk ;
xn =
x
k
k
k
k


n
X n
xn =
(,1)n,k xk ;
k
k
n n
X
n
x =
xk :
k
k
+

x
x
x
x
x

xn ln(ax) dx = xn

Dierences:

(cu) = c
u;

(u + v) =
u +
v;

(uv) = u
v + E v
u;

(xn) = nxn, ;

(Hx ) = x, ;

(2x ) = 2x ;
,

,


(cx ) = (c , 1)cx ;

mx = mx, :
Sums:
P cu x = c P u x;
P(u + v) x = P u x + P v x;
P u
v x = uv , P E v
u x;
P x, x = H ;
P xn x = xn+1 ;
x
m
P, x
x = , x
:
P cx x = cx ;
c,
m
m
Falling Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x , 1)


(x , m + 1); n > 0;
x = 1;
xn = (x + 1)

1
(x + jnj) ; n < 0;
xn m = xm (x , m)n :
Rising Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x + 1)


(x + m , 1); n > 0;
x = 1;
xn = (x , 1)

1
(x , jnj) ; n < 0;

1
,
n + 1 (n + 1) ;
Z
Z
n
76. xn(ln ax)m dx = nx + 1 (ln ax)m , n m+ 1 xn(ln ax)m, dx:

75.

f(i):

n
n,
n
a x sin(ax) , a x
xn eax , n Z xn, eax dx;
a
a

xn cos(ax) dx =

i a

15

b,
X

+1

f(x)x =

=1

=1

=1

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Series

Taylor's series:
1
i
X
f(x) = f(a) + (x , a)f 0 (a) + (x ,2 a) f 00 (a) +


= (x ,i! a) f i (a):
i
Expansions:
1
X
1
=
1
+
x
+
x
+
x
+
x
+






=
xi ;
1,x

Ordinary power series:

A(x) =

( )

=0

=0

1
X

= 1 + cx + c x + c x +

1 , cx
1
1 , xn
x
(1 , x)
 1 
dn
xk dx
n 1,x

ci xi ;

1
X

=0

=0

= 1 + xn + x n + x n +



2

= x + 2x + 3x + 4x +



2

=
=

xni;

1
X

=1

=0

ixi ;

1
X
n
=0

= x + 2n x + 3nx + 4n x +


=
2

i xi ;

= 1+x+ x + x +



1

1 xi
X
i

=0

= x, x + x , x ,

ln(1 + x)

ln 1 ,1 x

= x+ x + x + x +

sin x

= x, x + x , x +

cos x

= 1, x + x , x +

3!

5!

7!

=
=

xn , yn = (x , y)

i! ;

1
X

(,1)i

+1

xi

i;

1 xi
X
i

=1

1
X
=1

i;

2!

4!

6!

i
= (,1)i (2ix + 1)! ;
i
1
X
xi;
= (,1)i (2i)!
i1
X
xi ;
= (,1)i (2i
i   + 1)
1 n
X
=
xi ;
i
i 
1 i + n
X
=
xi ;
i
i
1
i
X
= Bi!i x ;
i
1 1 2i
X
= i + 1 i xi ;
i  
1 2i
X
=
xi ;
i
i 
1 2i + n
X
=
xi ;
i
i
2 +1

=0

tan, x

= x, x + x , x +

= 1 + nx + n n, x +



(

,

= 1 + (n + 1)x + n x +



+2

+1

2 +1

A(x) + B(x) =
xk A(x) =

= 1, x+ x ,
1

12

720

x +



4

=0

= 1 + x + 2x + 5x +



2

=0

= 1 + x + 2x + 6x +



2

= 1 + (2 + n)x +

, n
x +



4+

=0

1
X
=0

= x+ x + x + x +


=
3

11

25

12

Hi xi ;

1 H xi
X
i,
=1

= x + x + x +



1

11

24

1
X
=2

= x + x + 2x + 3x +



2

1
X

Fi xi;

=0

= Fnx + F nx + F nx +


=
2

=0

xn, ,kyk :
1

=0

1
X

(ai + bi )xi ;

1
X

Fnixi :

ai,k xi;

i
P
1
k
,
i
A(x) , i aix = X
ai,k xi ;
xk
1 i
X
i i
=0

=0

=0

A(cx) =

c ai x ;

1
X
=0

A0 (x) =

(i + 1)ai xi;
+1

1
X
=0

=0

=0

1 (1 , p1 , 4x)
2x
p 1
1 , 4x
p

n
1
1
,
1
,
4x
p
2x
1 , 4x
1
1
1 , x ln 1 , x
1 ln 1 
2 1,x
x
1,x,x
Fn x
1 , (Fn, + Fn )x , (,1)n x
+1

1
(1 , x)n
x
ex , 1

1)

For ordinary power series:

=0

(1 + x)n

nX
,

=0

=0

=0

Dierence of like powers:

=0

ex

aixi :

Exponential power series:

1
i
X
A(x) = ai xi! :
i
Dirichlet power series:
1
X
A(x) = iaxi :
i
Binomial theorem: 
n n
X
n,k k
(x + y)n =
k x y:

=0

1
X

xA0 (x) =

iai xi;

1 a
X
i,
=1

A(x) dx =

i
i x;
1

1
A(x) + A(,x) = X
a ix i;
2
i
X
A(x) , A(,x) 1
i
=1

=0

= ai x :
2
i
P
Summation: If bi = ij ai then
B(x) = 1 ,1 x A(x):
Convolution: 0
1
2 +1

2 +1

=0

=0

A(x)B(x) =

1 X
i
X
@
i

=0

aj bi,j A xi:

=0

God made the natural numbers;

all the rest is the work of man.
{ Leopold Kronecker

Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet

Series

Expansions:
n + i
1
X
1
1
i
(1 , x)n ln 1 , x = (Hn i , Hn) i x ;
+1

 1 ,n

1 n
X
=
xi ;
i
i  
1 i n!xi
X
=0

xn

n
1
ln 1 , x

n i! ;
1
iB ix i
X
= (,4)(2i)!
;
i
1 1
X
= ix ;
i
1
X
= (i)
ix ;
i
=

=0

=0

=0

=1

=1

(x)(x , 1)

=1

1 S(i)
X
=1

P
where S(n) = djn d;

xi
n, jB nj
= 2 (2n)!
 n; n 2 N;
1
i 2)B ix i
X
= (,1)i, (4 ,(2i)!
;
i
1
X
= n(2ii!(n+ +n ,i)!1)! xi ;
i
1 2i= sin i
X
=
xi ;
i!
i
i

=1
2

(2n)
x
sin x
 1 , p1 , 4x n
2x

Z b,

Zb
Zb


G(x) + H(x) dF(x) = G(x) dF(x) + H(x) dF (x);
a
a
Zb
Zab
,

Zb

=0

Zb
a

1
X

p (4i)!
=
xi ;
i
16
2(2i)!(2i
+
1)!
i
1
X
4i i!
= (i + 1)(2i
x i:
+
1)!
i
Crammer's Rule
If we have equations:
a ; x + a ; x +


+ a ;nxn = b
a ; x + a ; x +


+ a ;nxn = b
..
..
..
.
.
.
an; x + an; x +


+ an;nxn = bn
Let A = (ai;j ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then
there is a unique solution i det A 6= 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
Ai
xi = det
det A :
=0

Zb
a

=0

1 2

2 1

2 2

Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked

roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius.
{ William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell)

G(x) dF(x) +

G(x) d c
F(x) = c

Z ab
a
b

G(x) dH(x);

G(x) dF(x);

G(x) dF(x) = G(b)F(b) , G(a)F (a) , F (x) dG(x):

a
If the integrals involved exist, and F possesses a derivative F 0 at every
point in [a; b] then

Zb

1 1

c
G(x) dF(x) =

Zb

1, 1,x
x
 arcsin x 
x

G(x) d F(x) + H(x) =

=0

=1

exists. If a  b  c then
Zc
Zb
Zc
G(x) dF(x) = G(x) dF(x) + G(x) dF (x):
a
a
b
If the integrals involved exist

ex sin x

x cot x
n i! ;
i
1
i i 1)B i x i,
X
= (,1)i, 2 (2 ,(2i)!
; (x)
i
1
X
(x , 1)
= (i)
;
x
i
(x)
i
Y
1
= 1 , p,x ;
Stieltjes Integration
p
If G is continuous in the interval [a; b] and F is nondecreasing then
1 d(i)
X
Zb
P
=
G(x) dF(x)
xi where d(n) = djn 1;
1

 (x)

=0

=1

1
(x)
(x)

=0

(ex , 1)n

tanx

1 i
X
=
xi ;
n
i  
1 i n!xi
X

Escher's Knot

G(x) dF(x) =

47

18

76

29

93

85

34

61

52

86

11

57

28

70

39

94

95

80

22

67

38

71

49

45

63

56

13

59

96

81

33

48

73

69

90

82

44

17

72

60

24

15

58

35

68

74

91

83

55

26

27

12

46

30

37

75

19

92

84

66

23

50

41

14

25

36

40

51

62

77

88

99

21

32

43

54

65

10

89

97

78

42

53

64

16

20

31

98

79

87

The Fibonacci number system:

Every integer n has a unique
representation
n = Fk1 + Fk2 +


+ Fkm ;
where ki  ki + 2 for all i,
1  i < m and km  2.
+1

Zb
a

G(x)F 0(x) dx:

Fibonacci Numbers

1; 1; 2; 3; 5;8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; : : :

Denitions:
Fi = Fi, +Fi, ; F = F = 1;
i,
F,i = (,
 1)i ^Fii;
Fi = p  ,  ;
Cassini's identity: for i > 0:
Fi Fi, , Fi = (,1)i :
Additive rule:
Fn k = Fk Fn + Fk, Fn;
F n = FnFn + Fn, Fn:
Calculation
 F F by matrices:
 n
n,
n, = 0 1 :
F
F
1 1
1

+1

+1

+1

n,