SH5002-7J S Enu

EloTrain: Basic electronic circuits
EloTrain course
"Basic electronic circuits"
Course no.: SH5002-7J version 2.0

Author: Lucas-Nlle authoring team
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Table Of Contents
The EloTrain system
Equipment
Patch panel and jumpers
Plug-in component set
10
Instructions for experimentation
13
Amplifier circuits with bipolar transistors
19
Training objectives and introduction
20
Experiment: Common emitter circuit
24
Experiment: Common collector circuit
28
Basic amplifier circuits using field effect transistors (FETs)
33
34
Experiment: FET
37
Two-stage AC amplifiers
44
45
Experiment: AC amplifier
46
Darlington amplifiers
52
53
Experiment: Darlington amplifier
54
Emitter-coupled amplifiers
59
60
Experiment: Emitter coupling
61
Phase inverter stages
66
67
Experiment: Phase inverter stage
68
Differential amplifiers using transistors
74
75
Experiment: Differential amplifier using transistors
77
Two-stage amplifier circuits
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85
86
Experiment: Amplifier circuit
87
Push-pull end stages
95
96
Experiment: push-pull end stage
97
Positive and negative feedback
104
105
Experiment: Negative feedback
106
Experiment: Positive feedback
112
Schmitt triggers and square-wave generators
117
118
Experiment: Thresholds and square-waves
122
Astable multivibrators
129
130
Experiment: Astable multivibrator
132
Monostable multivibrators
137
138
Experiment: Monostable multivibrator
140
Bistable multivibrators (flip-flops)
145
146
Experiment: Bistable multivibrator
147
Saw-tooth generators (pulse generators)
150
151
Experiment: Saw-tooth generator
152
Sine-wave generator using an LC circuit
157
158
Experiment: Sine-wave generator
159
Amplitude modulators and demodulators
164
165
Experiment: Amplitude modulator
166
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Frequency modulation
172
173
Experiment: Frequency modulation
174
Rectifier circuits
179
180
Experiment: Half-wave rectifier
184
Experiment: Bridge rectifier
191
Experiment: Three-phase bridge rectifier
198
Voltage multipliers
203
204
Experiment: Voltage multipliers
207
Stabilising circuits
214
215
Experiment: Voltage stabilisation
218
Experiment: Adjustable voltage stabilisation
222
Switched-mode voltage regulators
226
227
Experiment: Switched-mode voltage regulator
228
Generating pulses by means of UJTs
234
235
Experiment: Pulse generation
236
DC converters
241
242
Experiment: DC converter
244
Thyristors
250
251
Experiment: DC switching
253
Experiment: Full-wave control
257
Phase control using a thyristor/TRIAC
263
264
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Experiment: Phase control

Operational amplifiers
266
272
273
Experiment: Inverting amplifier
279
Experiment: Non-inverting amplifier
285
Experiment: Differential amplifier using an op-amp
290
Experiment: Dynamic response of op-amps
296
Copyright
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301
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The EloTrain system
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Equipment
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CO3535-5H
EloTrain 4-mm board
CO3538-8N
Multi-power supply
LM6210
Digital storage oscilloscope
LM2332
Multimeter
PS41xx-xx
Various EloTrain components (specified in

detail for individual courses)
SO5146-1M
Connecting leads and jumpers
Patch panel and jumpers
All the experiments are set up on a so-called plug-in board.

This holds the plug-in components firmly in place and creates
good electrical contact between the components and the
nodes on the board. One advantage of such boards is that
they can easily be cascaded.
Each of the nodes consists of one 4-mm socket and four 2-mm
sockets which are all electrically connected. The nodes are
electrically isolated from one another. If they are to be
connected together, a 2-mm jumper (with pin separation of 5.5
mm) is plugged in to join them.
The bus structures are designed in such a way that power can
be supplied to multiple points on the board by plugging in a few
jumpers.
Contact to plug-in components or between components is

made by means of 2-mm jumpers. These can be used to
connect two components or connect a component terminal to a
lead.
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Plug-in component set

A wide variety of plug-in components or modules is available within the EloTrain plug-in system. The
component kit for electrical engineering/electronics courses contains equipment optimised for
conducting numerous experiments.
Electromechanical components
Resistors
Non-linear resistors
Electrolytic capacitors
Coils
LEDs
Diodes
Potentiometers
Capacitors
Speakers
Incandescent lamps
Zener diodes
Inductors
Transistors
SCRs
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Component set for electronic fundamentals course

The following modules are used in this course:
Module number:
Name of module:
PS4123-3B
Diac DB3
PS4122-7C
Diode 1N4007
PS4122-7D
Diode AA118 ,GE
PS4124-2D
Core coil, 300 windings
PS4124-2E
Core coil, 900 windings
PS4122-1S
Capacitor, 10 nF
PS4122-1V
Capacitor, 47 nF
PS4122-1W
Capacitor, 0.1 F
PS4122-1X
Capacitor, 0.22 F
PS4122-2C
Capacitor, 0.47 F
PS4122-2E
Capacitor, 1 F
PS4122-4D
Capacitor, 10 F+
PS4122-4G
Capacitor, 100 F+
PS4122-4J
Capacitor, 470 F+
PS4123-5B
LED, red
PS4123-5E
LED, green
PS4123-2V
Op-amp
PS4121-8A
Potentiometer, 100k
PS4121-8D
Potentiometer, 1k
PS4121-8G
Potentiometer, 10k
PS4123-7G
Switch
PS4124-1E
Coil, 10 mH
PS4124-1F
Coil, 33mH
PS4123-7B
Push-button
PS4123-3F
Thyristor MCR 100-6
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Quantity:
PS4123-2H
Transistor 2N3819
PS4123-1C
Transistor BC547 (base left)
PS4123-1D
Transistor BC547 (base right)
PS4123-1G
Transistor BD237 (base left)
PS4123-1H
Transistor BD237 (base right)
PS4123-1K
Transistor BD238 (base right)
PS4123-3E
Transistor BT33
PS4123-3G
Triac MAC 97A6
PS4121-2A
Resistor, 10
PS4121-2E
Resistor, 22
PS4121-2G
Resistor, 33
PS4121-2N
Resistor, 100
PS4121-2S
Resistor, 220
PS4121-2U
Resistor, 330
PS4121-2W
Resistor, 470
PS4121-3A
Resistor, 680
PS4121-3C
Resistor, 1 k
PS4121-3G
Resistor, 2.2 k
PS4121-3L
Resistor, 4.7 k
PS4121-3Q
Resistor, 10 k
PS4121-3U
Resistor, 22 k
PS4121-4A
Resistor, 47 k
PS4121-4E
Resistor, 100 k
PS4121-4S
Resistor, 1 M
PS4122-8A
Zener diode, 4.7 V
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Instructions for experimentation
Experiment system
In the course experiments you will be helped by various illustrations (circuit diagrams, set-up
diagrams, measuring instruments and a multi-power supply). These provide the following information:
Number and type of component modules, leads and jumpers required
Information regarding modules
Positioning of components for assembly of circuits and carrying out measurements
Necessary power supply for correct execution and appropriate results
Circuit diagrams
The circuit diagrams provide you with detailed information on the various component groups. The
names and values for the individual components are displayed directly.
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Set-up diagrams
Note: The experiment set-ups shown for this course are merely suggestions for how a circuit
or experiment can be implemented. You are, of course, free to design your own set-up.
Here is an example showing how a set-up might look on the board:
The small black connectors are the jumpers
The red connection shows where the power is connected
Components are shown using the same symbols printed on them in the plug-in
component set
Terminals for measuring instruments are indicated using plugs with the relevant labelling
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Measuring instruments
Various measuring instruments are available to help you carry out the experiments:
Multimeter:
A multimeter is an instrument for measuring a variety of
quantities which is used to make general measurements in
electronic circuits or in wiring installations with voltages up to
1000 V.
Note that not all measuring instruments can be operated
simultaneously.
Be aware that the various measuring instruments only

display the correct values if they are connected up
correctly.
Oscilloscope:
An oscilloscope has a number of terminals and can be
set up in a variety of ways. Therefore, for your benefit,
guidelines are offered at the beginning of the instructions
for each experiment as to what is logical for the
experiment in question. You are, however, free to adjust
the settings as you wish.
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Multi-power supply
The multi-supply is a power supply with multiple functions which is used for all experiments involving
the plug-in board. All outputs are protected against overloading and short circuits.
The multi-supply features 5 function groups:

Fixed-voltage power supply
When it is switched on via the main switch 1, a regulated DC voltage is made available at outputs 3.
These outputs are protected against overloading and short circuits.
3: 12 V, after pressing button 2 the outputs will be at 15 V
4: 5 V
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5: Ground for all DC voltages and for the voltage output from the function generator
6: -15 V
Variable DC voltage
Pressing button 7 makes an adjustable, variable voltage of up to 30 V available for your experiments.
7: Button for turning the adjustable DC voltage at 9 on and off
8: Potentiometer for setting voltage at 9
9: Adjustable output voltage
Function generator
The function generator supplies an alternating voltage to two outputs which can be modified in
amplitude, frequency and waveform. The outputs are protected against overloading and short
circuits.
10: Button for turning function generator on and off
11: Button and LED indicator for selecting waveform
12: Button and LED indicator for selecting multiplier (coarse adjustment) for the frequency setting
13: Frequency adjustment for function generator
14: Knob for setting amplitude at outputs 15 and 16
15: Output from function generator
16: Attenuated output from function generator, primarily intended for setting very small voltages
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AC voltage source
For experiments involving AC voltages, an experiment transformer is included, which provides two
different safety extra-low voltage outputs. The outputs are protected by self-resetting thermal circuit
breakers. After an overload, these switch to a high-resistance state and therefore prevent damage to
the transformer. To reset them, rectify the cause of the fault and allow the breakers to cool for a few
minutes. The transformer should be ready for use again. The frequency is in synch with the mains
frequency.
17: 24-V output from transformer
18: 12-V output from centre tap on transformer
19: 0-V output from transformer
Three-phase source
For experiments using three-phase current, there is an electronically protected three-phase
generator. The frequency of the rotating field can be switched between 50 Hz and 1 Hz.
20: On-off switch for three-phase generator, holding the button down for longer causes the frequency
to switch from 50 Hz to 1Hz.
21: Output for phase 1 of three-phase generator
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Here you will learn to understand how bipolar transistors work. A single stage amplifier circuit will be
used to investigate operating points (biasing), gain factors and other parameters.
Training contents
Operating point (biasing)
Common emitter and common collector circuits
Introduction
Since their introduction shortly after the Second World War, transistors have revolutionised the world
of electronics. Their (ever decreasing) size and versatility have made them perhaps the most useful
and important electronic components of all. This course covers two of the possible configurations for
basic transistor circuits.
The original transistors, known as bipolar transistors, feature a thin semiconductor layer sandwiched
between two other layers. One of the key characteristic properties of semiconductor materials is the
fact that impurities can be added to them to increase or decrease the number of electrons available
for conducting electricity. This procedure is called doping and is used to manufacture n-type
materials, which exhibit a relative surfeit of electrons, and p-type, which have a relative deficit of
electrons. The second case gives rise to so-called holes, which can be thought of as gaps where an
electron is missing. These holes act as if they themselves were carriers of positive charge (similar to
the way that electrons carry negative charge).
Both varieties of material can be combined in a single component with p-type material on one side
and n-type material on the other side, thus resulting in a junction between the two types. Such a
design conducts electricity very well as long as the component is connected into a circuit where the
voltage at the p-type end is more positive than that at the n-type end (this is called forward bias).
However, if the n-type end is connected to the positive of the circuit (reverse bias), it becomes very
difficult for any of the charge carriers (electrons or holes) to cross the junction, resulting in the current
flow being cut off. The is the principle for how a diode works. Such components only conduct
electricity in one direction. The PN junction of a diode is illustrated below.
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Bipolar transistors have semiconductor material of the same doping on each of the two sides.
Located in between is a thin layer of the opposite type. The two sides are designated the collector
and emitter regions, the layer in the middle is termed the base region. At first glance, this
arrangement looks like two diodes linked together. You might expect that no current is able to flow
between the collector and the emitter, given that a reverse-biased voltage is always being applied to
one of the two "diode junctions". The secret to this arrangement lies in the thinness of the base zone.
Charge carriers are always able to bridge a small distance extending beyond the junction. If the base
zone is supplied with additional charge carriers by applying a voltage to it, sufficient charge carriers
are present at any particular point to, as it were, bridge over the gap, and current begins to flow.
Because of the fact that the current flow between the collector and the emitter is only "switched on"
when a sufficient voltage and current supply is present at the base, transistors can be used as
electronic switches which can be switched on and off depending on the current fed to the base.
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Just how much current flows between the collector and the emitter depends on the number of charge
carriers in the base region, which means that changes in the voltage and current at the base can lead
to a stronger or weaker current flow between the collector and emitter. Even a slight change at the
base results in a substantial change to the voltage between the collector and the emitter. This
relationship remains linear over a wide range. A change in the voltage signal at the base is
reproduced exactly between the collector and the emitter, but there the change in voltage is
considerably greater. The transistor therefore amplifies the signal. This is the second common area
of application for transistors.
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The experiments performed in this module involve two basic circuit configurations in which transistors
are used. They are referred to as the common emitter circuit and the common collector circuit.
The two circuits are constructed in a very similar fashion. The difference is that in the common
emitter circuit the input is located between the base and the emitter and the output is between the
collector and the emitter (i.e. the emitter is the common reference point for the input and output
signals). In contrast, the common collector configuration employs the collector as the common
reference point for the input and output signals, with the output being connected to the emitter.
The voltage properties of both circuits can be improved by incorporating a feedback loop, which takes
the output signal and adds it to the input signal at the base. A feedback loop can be implemented
with the help of a resistor (resistive feedback) or with capacitors (capacitive feedback). The effects of
the two types of feedback are investigated in the following experiments.
Common emitter circuit
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Common collector circuit
Experiment: Common emitter circuit
Circuit diagram
This experiment is based on the following circuit:
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Equipment
The following equipment is needed for this experiment and should be configured as shown:
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
200
mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
1 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
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1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
Experiment procedure and exercises

The circuit is turned on with a supply voltage VB = +15 V but no control voltage. Set up the
operating point (bias) of the transistor with the potentiometer such that the voltage at the
collector is about half the supply voltage.
What is the voltage at the collector?
Collector voltage = ______________________ V
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Use the
multimeter to set
the operating
point.
Copy the input voltage Vin and output voltage Vout to the oscilloscope grid below.
What are the input voltage Vin and output voltage Vout?
Input voltage Vin =
______________________ VPP
Output voltage Vout =
______________________ VPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Apply a sinusoidal alternating voltage of 1 VPP at a frequency of 1 kHz to the input Vin.
Determine the voltage gain of the circuit.

Voltage gain = ____
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GainV=Vout/Vin
Experiment: Common collector circuit
Circuit diagram
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Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
500
mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
2 VPP
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
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1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
Initially turn on the circuit without the function generator but with jumper B1 Load resistor RL
(470 ) should not be in place. Set up the bias of the transistor by turning potentiometer P1
such that the voltage at the emitter of the transistor is about half the supply voltage. What
voltage do you measure at the emitter of the transistor?
Emitter voltage = ______________________ V
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Use the
multimeter, set to
DC mode, to
make the
measurement.
Now set up a sinusoidal AC voltage of 2 VPP with a frequency of 1 kHz on the function
generator and connect it into the circuit. Measure the input and output voltage and copy the
trace into the oscilloscope placeholder below:
Input voltage Vin =
______________________ VPP
Output voltage Vout =
______________________ VPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Calculate the gain of the circuit by dividing the output voltage by the input voltage.
Gain = ______________________
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Gain = Vout / Vin
Now determine the input impedance of the circuit. To do this, remove jumper B1, which
causes the kOhm resistor RV to be connected in series with the input. Measure the input
voltage Vin2 between the two input resistors (Rin1 and Rin2)
Input voltage (Vin2) = ______________________ VPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Now calculate the input resistance using the following formula:
Input resistance = ______________________ k
Which of the following statements about common collector circuits are true?
The output signal is inverted with respect to the input.
The output signal is not inverted with respect to the input.
In a common collector circuit, the collector is connected
directly to the supply voltage.
More than one

answer may be
correct.
In a common collector circuit, the collector is connected

directly to ground.
To complete this measurement exercise, plug load resistor RL (470 ) back in and measure
the output voltage again. Observe how the output voltage and the circuit itself respond to
having a load and discuss the results.
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In this section, you will learn how field effect transistors behave in common source and common drain
circuits.
Training contents
Field effect transistors in common source circuits
Field effect transistors in common drain circuits
Differences and similarities with bipolar transistors
Introduction
The basic type of transistor consists of three n- and p-doped silicon layers with two p-n junctions.
Nowadays, bipolar transistors like this are being replaced in many applications by newer types of
transistors which have only one p-n junction. These components are called field effect transistors or
FETs. Manufacture of field effect transistors is usually cheaper and simpler than the manufacture of
bipolar transistors and the design is better suited to increasing miniaturisation. Most transistors built
into ICs and microprocessors are FETs.
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N-channel FET
A simple field effect transistor consists of a thin block of doped
silicon. In the middle of this block, a region with the opposite
doping is produced. This is achieved by adding suitable
impurities at a single point and allowing them to diffuse
through the silicon. An electrical connection is made to this
region and two more are made at either end of the block. The
connection to the alternatively doped region in the middle is
called the gate and the connections at the ends are called the
source and drain. The size of the differently doped region at
the gate is determined to ensure that a thin silicon channel
with the original doping remains. For instance, if the original
doping was n-type, then the gate will be p-doped and a thin
n-doped channel is left. Such components are therefore called
N-channel FETs. If p-doped material is used with an n-doped
gate, the components are called P-channel FETs. N-channel
FETs are used more often than the P-channel type. This is because their primary current carriers are
electrons, which move more easily than holes, which are the predominant charge carriers in p-type
FETs. It means that N-channel FETs are usually faster than p-channel types.
N-channel FETs normally have a potential at the gate which is more negative than that at the source.
This means that the p-n junction in the FET is reverse-biased. The transistor effect takes place in the
depletion layer, which arises in the reverse-bias direction at the junction. A depletion layer emerges
when electrons in an n-doped material recombine with holes on the surface of the p-doped material,
meaning that on both sides of the junction, there is a relative dearth of the corresponding majority
charge carriers. N-doped material near the junction loses electrons while the p-doped material loses
holes.
If a voltage which is polarised in the reverse-bias direction is applied across the junction, the
corresponding minority charge carriers, electrons in p-doped material and holes in n-doped material,
are drawn away from the junction, causing even more recombination in the vicinity of the junction and
making the depletion layer wider.
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In a field effect transistor, any increase in the size of the depletion layer leads to narrowing of the
conductive channel. The depletion layer itself is less conductive since it contains comparatively fewer
charge carriers. Widening of the depletion layer due to negative voltage at the gate leads to
narrowing of the conducting channel and therefore a lessening of current flow between drain and
source. By the same token, the depletion layer decreases in size when a more positive voltage is
applied at the gate. This widens the conductive channel and more current flows between the drain
and source. Small changes in the gate voltage can therefore lead to large variations in the drainsource current and therefore in the drain voltage itself. This means that field effect transistors can be
used for amplifying current and voltage just as bipolar transistors can.
As with bipolar transistors, there are standard configurations for FET amplifier circuits. The most
widespread are called common source, which corresponds to the common emitter circuit built with
bipolar transistors, and common drain, which largely corresponds to a common collector circuit. Both
these circuits are explored in the subsequent experiments.
The illustration shows characteristics for i) the output and ii) the input voltage for a typical field effect
transistor in a common source circuit.
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Experiment: FET
Circuit diagram
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Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
200
mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
1 VPP
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
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1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
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1. Common source circuit
This experiment investigates amplification of signals by a field effect transistor in a common source
circuit.
Turn on the circuit without jumpers B1 and B2 and without the function generator connected.
Use potentiometer R3 to set the operating voltage at the drain of the FET to about half the
supply voltage VB.
Determine the voltage VGS between the gate and the source. Switch the voltmeter to AV.
VGS = ______________________ V
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Use the
multimeter to
make the
measurement.
Now apply a sinusoidal signal with a frequency of 1 kHz and amplitude of 800 mVPP to the
input Vin. Copy the input voltage (Vin) and output voltage (Vout1) to the oscilloscope grid
below.
GainV = ______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Insert jumper B1 so that the source is connected to ground via capacitor C4. Apply the same
sinusoidal signal with a frequency of 1 kHz and amplitude of 800 mVPP to the input Vin. Copy
the input voltage (Vin) and output voltage (Vout1) to the oscilloscope grid below.
Determine the voltage gain of the circuit with the capacitor connected to the source.
Voltage gain VV-CSource = ______________________
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Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
2. Common drain circuit

This experiment investigates amplification of signals by a field effect transistor in a common drain
circuit.
Turn on the circuit with only jumper B2 inserted (B1 removed). Use potentiometer R3 to set
the operating voltage at the drain of the FET to about half the supply voltage VB. Turn the
function generator off while you do this.
Determine the voltage VGS between the gate and the source.
VGS = ______________________ V
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Use the
multimeter to
make the
measurement.
Now apply a sinusoidal signal with a frequency of 1 kHz and amplitude of 2 VPP (amplitude
on function generator 10%) to the input Vin. Set the sensitivity of channels A and B to
500mV/div. Copy the input voltage (Vin) and output voltage (Vout2) to the oscilloscope grid
below.
Gain V = ______________________
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Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
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Here you will learn how two-stage AC amplifiers work. In this case, the output of the first stage is
connected to the input of the second stage via a capacitor.
Training contents
Investigation of a two-stage amplifier with capacitive coupling
Coupling of transistor stages by means of RC circuits
Multiplication of the gain from a sequence of amplifier stages
Introduction
In cases where the gain of a single amplifier stage is deemed insufficient, it is possible to couple
together two or more transistor stages in series. In such cases the gain factors of each stage are
multiplied together. When the stages are connected, care must be taken to join the two stages
together in such a way that they do not adversely affect one another. In multi-stage AC amplifiers,
one of the ways this is done is by means of RC resonant circuits.
The individual transistor stages are constructed as common emitter circuits and the outputs are
connected to the subsequent inputs via RC loops. This ensures no DC component can be transmitted
between stages, which would alter the operating points of the following stage. Only AC voltages are
passed on.
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Experiment: AC amplifier
Circuit diagram
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Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
100
mV/div
100
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
0,2 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
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200 s/div
1k
1 kHz
Experiment set-up
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In the following experiments it will be necessary to consistently change the voltage resolution of the
oscilloscope (volts/div).
A sinusoidal AC voltage of 200 mVPP with a frequency of 1 kHz is applied to the input Vin.
Measure the input voltage Vin and the output voltage of the first stage Vout1 and calculate the
voltage gain.
Vin =
Vout1 =
Voltage gain Gstage 1 =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
mVPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
______________________
Now remove capacitor C2. Measure the input voltage Vin once again, as well as the output
voltage Vout1 of the first stage, in order to determine the voltage gain of the first stage without
AC current feedback.
Vin =
Vout1 =
Voltage gain Gstage 1-minus C2 =
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______________________
mVP
______________________
mVPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Next, put the capacitor C2 back. Now determine the voltage gain of the second stage by
measuring the input voltage for stage 2 = Vout1 and the output voltage for stage 2 = Vout2.
Vout1 =
______________________ mV
PP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
Voltage gain Gstage 2 =
______________________
Calculate the total voltage for the circuit by two different means:
1. The ratio of the overall output voltage to the input voltage.
2. By multiplying the individual gain factors of the separate stages.
Method 1: Voltage gain Gtotal = ______________________

Method 2: Voltage gain Gtotal = ______________________
Select the appropriate set of leads for the measurement.
50/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Now change the frequency of the function generators from 1 kHz to 200 Hz, keeping the
voltage the same at 200 mVPP and alter the oscilloscope time base from 200 s/div to 1
ms/div in order to display two periods (two full waves).
Measure the input voltage Vin and the output voltage of the first stage Vout1, then calculate
the voltage gain.
Vin-200Hz =
Vout1-200Hz =
Voltage gain Gstage 1-200Hz =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
mVPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
______________________
Now determine the voltage gain of the second stage at f= 200 Hz by measuring the input to
stage 2 = Vout1 and the output voltage of stage 2 = Vout2.
Vin-200Hz =
______________________
mVPP
Vout1-200Hz =
______________________ VPP
Voltage gain Gstage 2-200Hz =
______________________
Calculate the total voltage for the circuit at f = 200 Hz by two different means:
1. The ratio of the overall output voltage to the input voltage.
2. By multiplying the individual gain factors of the separate stages.
Method 1: Voltage gain Gtotal-200Hz = ______________________
Method 2: Voltage gain Gtotal-200Hz = ______________________
51/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
52/301

Darlington amplifiers provide for high current gain and are therefore commonly used as impedance
converters. Here you will learn how two transistors can be coupled together to combine their current
gains and multiply it.
Training contents
In carrying out this experiment, students will learn the following:
How to assemble a Darlington amplifier with two discrete transistors
How to determine the input and output resistance by measuring a change in voltage
How to determine the voltage gain by measurement and calculate the current gain
Introduction
A Darlington amplifier consists of two or more transistors directly coupled together. The coupling is
between the emitter of the first transistor and the base of the second. The collectors of both
transistors are connected together, The whole circuit only has three external connections and can be
operated in common emitter, common base or common collector configurations. The common
collector amplifier set-up has a very high input resistance and a low output resistance. Current gain is
very high and is given by the equation
total = 1 * 2
With regard to measurement of input and output resistance, refer to the method explained in the
"Common emitter circuit" experiment. Essentially, this involves measuring the open-circuit voltage,
then the current with a load connected and then calculating the input resistance.
To calculate the current gain, use the peak-to-peak value of the alternating input voltage and the
alternating output voltage.
53/301
Experiment: Darlington amplifier
Circuit diagram
54/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
500
mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
2 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
55/301
200 s/div
1k
1 kHz
Experiment set-up

Set up the circuit without the function generator and turn on the power. First adjust the bias
resistor Rx to set up an operating point where the DC voltage at the emitter is approximately
half the operating voltage (7.5V).
56/301
With jumper B1 plugged in and jumper B2 omitted, use an oscilloscope to measure the
voltages Vin1 and Vout, then calculate the voltage gain (G=Vout/Vin1).
Vin =
______________________ VPP
Vout =
______________________ VPP
Voltage gain =
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Jumper B2 should remain absent. With jumper B1 plugged in, measure the input voltage Vin1,
then remove B1 and measure the input voltage Vin2 so that you can calculate the difference
between the two voltages.
Vin1 =
______________________ VPP
Vin2 =
______________________ VPP
Vin =
______________________ VPP
Vin = Vin1 - Vin2
Calculate the input resistance using the following formula:
Enter the input resistance you have calculated here:
Rin = ____________ k
57/301
Use the formula

provided to
calculate the
input resistance.
Calculate the peak-to-peak value of the alternating input current with jumper B1 plugged in.
The peak-to-peak
value of the
alternating input
current can be
calculated using
Ohm's law.
Iin = ____________ APP
Leave jumper B1 plugged in for the next part of the experiment. Measure the output voltage
with jumper B2 omitted (Vout1) and then with it plugged in (Vout2). Enter the values below and
then calculate the output resistance using the formula provided below.
Vout1 =
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
Rout =
______________________
Calculate the alternating output current (peak-to-peak value) flowing through the resistor at
the emitter (R6) without the load resistor R7.
Iin = ______________________ mA
IE = Vin / Rin Use

the oscilloscope
to measure the
voltage.
Calculate the current gain.

= ____________
58/301
Current gain =
IE/Iin
59/301

Here you can learn how an emitter-coupled (differential) amplifier can be set up as a phase inverter
stage.
Training contents
How to set-up an emitter-coupled amplifier as a phase inverter stage
How to set up the operating point of the amplifier correctly
How to measure the voltage for the two stages separately
How to identify the phase shift in the voltage at the outputs
How to measure the overall voltage gain for an ordinary emitter-coupled circuit
Introduction
Normally in emitter-coupled amplifier circuits, the resistor at the collector of the first transistor is
normally shorted out for alternating current purposes, i.e. the whole circuit is effectively a common
emitter circuit. Neither stage exhibits any phase shift in the voltage, meaning the output voltage is in
phase with the input. The circuit as a whole has high input resistance and high output resistance.
If, as shown here, an operational resistor is inserted into the collector branch of the first transistor,
which has the same resistance as that in the output of the second transistor, a voltage can then also
be tapped at the collector of the first resistor, but this will be phase-shifted by 180 from that at the
collector of the second transistor. The first stage is then being operated in common emitter and
common collector configuration at the same time.
The following experiment seeks to determine the amplifying properties of the resistors in the various
basic circuit configurations.
60/301
Experiment: Emitter coupling
Circuit diagram
61/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
20 mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
0,44 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
62/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
63/301
First turn on the circuit without capacitor Cin at the emitter and without the function generator.
Measure the voltage between the collectors of the transistors and use the potentiometer to
set up a voltage of about 0 V. Once the transistors are thus matched, measure the collector
voltage for each and enter the results below.
Vcollector T1 =
____________ V
Vcollector T2 =
____________ V
Use the
multimeter to
measure DC
voltage.
Apply an alternating voltage with a frequency of about 1 kHz and a peak-to-peak amplitude
of some 440 mV across the input resistor (R8). Note that the voltage divider results in the
input voltage to be measured at the point Vin being much smaller than this. If the output
voltage is distorted, the input voltage will be reduced. Measure the voltages at both outputs
and observe the phase shift between the two of them.
Vout1 =
____________ VPP
Vout2 =
____________ VPP
Phase shift between Vout1 and Vin

=
=
____________
Measure the
voltages with the
oscilloscope.
____________
Determine the voltage gain of the first transistor.

Voltage gain G = ____________
64/301
G=Vout1/Vin
Measure the alternating voltage at the emitter of the first transistor (which is also the input
voltage for the second transistor) and calculate the gain of the second transistor.
Vemitter T1 =
Gain T2 =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
An electrolytic capacitor of 100 F is now connected in parallel with the emitter resistor. This
now turns the stage with the first transistor into a pure common emitter amplifier. Measure its
voltage gain in this configuration.
Gain G = ____________
Remove the 100-uF electrolytic capacitor from the emitter circuit and connect it in parallel
with the collector resistor (R2 = 10 k) of the first transistor. Measure the overall gain
between input 1 and output 2.
Gain G= ____________
65/301
66/301

Here you will learn how two output signals phase shifted by 180 from one another can be obtained
from a single input signal.
Training contents
How to build a phase inverter stage using just one transistor
How to measure the phase shift between two voltages
How to measure the output resistance of the various outputs
Introduction
Phase inverter or phase splitter stages are needed to control push-pull circuits. They produce two
outputs of the same amplitude but phase-shifted by 180 from a single input. The simplest
configuration for such a circuit is a sort of cross between a common emitter and common collector
circuit which allows a single transistor to output both voltages. The first output is tapped as if the
circuit were common emitter and the second as if it were common collector.
67/301
Experiment: Phase inverter stage
Circuit diagram
68/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
500
mV/div
500
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
2 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
69/301
200 s/div
1k
1 kHz
Experiment set-up
70/301
71/301
For the following measurements, the load resistors should not be connected. Apply a
sinusoidal alternating voltage with an amplitude of 2 VPP and frequency 1 kHz to input Vin.
Set the potentiometer in such a way that the operating point of the transistor is in the middle
of the linear part of the characteristic and the highest possible undistorted sinusoidal voltage
is exhibited at outputs Vout1 and Vout2. Copy the voltages into the oscilloscope grid below and
determine the phase shifts from the input voltage Vin.
Vout1 =
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP

=
=
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
______________________
Calculate the output resistance values Rout1 and Rout2. This time connect a 100- load
resistor to ground parallel to the outputs. Compare the voltages measured with and without a
load. If the output voltages are distorted, adjust the operating voltage with the potentiometer
in such a way that the largest possible undistorted sine waves are displayed.
72/301
Vout1-no load =
______________________ VPP
Vout2-no load =
______________________ VPP
Vout1-with load =
______________________ VPP
Vout2-with load =
______________________ VPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Calculate the output resistance values with the help of the following formula:
Enter the results here.

Rout1 =
______________________
Rout2 =
______________________
Calculate the voltage gain of both outputs with load according to the following formula:
Enter the results here:
73/301
V1 =
______________________
V2 =
______________________
Differential amplifiers using transistors
74/301

Differential amplifiers
Here you will learn how the difference between two voltages can be amplified.
Training contents
How to correctly build a differential amplifier to be controlled by an alternating voltage
How to set up a voltage divider at the input for differential control
How to set up even symmetry
How to measure the differential gain
How to measure common-mode gain
How to measure the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
To state how the common-mode rejection ratio depends on the emitter resistance
75/301
Introduction
A differential amplifier is in principle an emitter-coupled circuit with two inputs and two outputs. If the
same signal is applied to both inputs and the transistors are identical, the voltages cancel out. The
output voltage is then zero (common mode gain) if the common resistor connected to the emitters is
very large.
If the circuit is fed with differing voltages at the two inputs (differential mode) and both transistors are
identical, the output signals at both outputs will have the same voltage but opposing phases. The
differential gain is calculated as the ratio of the output voltage to the difference between the input
voltages.
The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differential gain Gdiff to the common
mode gain Gcomm. The result can also be expressed expressed in decibels (dB), as in the second
equation below.
76/301
Experiment: Differential amplifier using transistors
Circuit diagram
77/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
500
mV/div
200
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V/-15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
1 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
78/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
79/301
Initially, set up the circuit with an emitter resistor RE = 22 k and apply a supply voltage of
15 V. Measure the output voltages Vout1 and Vout2 for the situation when there is no
saturation. Use the symmetry potentiometer P2 to calibrate the DC output from both outputs
to the same value.
What do you measure for the two voltages?
Vout1 =
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Use a multimeter
to make the
measurement.
Set up the AC output from the generator to a frequency f = 1 kHz and amplitude approximately
1 VPP. Set potentiometer P1 in such a way that Vin2 = 0 and measure the differential gain at
output 1 when Vin1PP = 0.2 V (measurement A). Check for comparative purposes the voltage at
output 2 and calculate the differential gain there.
Set up the AC output from the generator to a frequency f = 1 kHz and amplitude
approximately 1 VPP. Set potentiometer P1 in such a way that Vin2 = 0 and measure the
differential gain at output 1 when Vin1PP = 0.2 V (measurement A).
Check for comparative purposes the voltage at output 2 and calculate the differential gain
there.
80/301
Vout1 =
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Differential gain GD =
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage. GD =
Vout/Vin
Use potentiometer P1 to set voltage Vin2 to about half the value of Vin1 and measure the
differential gain at the outputs.
Vout1 =
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Set the voltages Vin1 and Vin2 to the same value (P1 full on) and measure the common-mode
gain.
Vout1 =
______________________
VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Common mode gain Gc =
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Repeat the measurements and calculations with emitter resistors of 10 k and 4.7 k and
compare all the results.
Swap the resistor at the emitter RE = 22 k for one where RE = 10 k. Use two multimeters
to measure the unsaturated DC voltages at the outputs Vout1 and Vout2. Use the symmetry
pot P2 to adjust the outputs to the same value.
What do you measure for the two voltages?
81/301
Vout1 =
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Use the
multimeter to
make the
measurement.
approximately 1 VPP. Adjust potentiometer P1 such that Vin2 = 0 and Vin1pp = 0.2 V and
measure the differential gain at output 1. Check for comparative purposes the voltage at
Vout1 =
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Set voltage Vin2 to about half the value of Vin1 and measure the differential gain at the
outputs.
Vout1 =
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
gain.
Vout1 =
82/301
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Common-mode gain GC =
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Swap the resistor at the emitter RE = 10 k for one where RE = 4.7 k. Use two multimeters
to measure the unsaturated DC voltages at the outputs Vout1 and Vout2. Use the symmetry
pot P2 to adjust the outputs to the same value. What do you measure for the two voltages?
Vout1 =
______________________ V
Vout2 =
______________________ V
Use a multimeter
to make the
measurement.
approximately 1 VPP. Adjust potentiometer P1 such that Vin2 = 0 and Vin1pp = 0.2 V and
measure the differential gain at output 1. Check for comparative purposes the voltage at
Vout1 =
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Set voltage Vin2 to about half the value of Vin1 and measure the differential gain at the
outputs.
Vout1 =
83/301
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
gain.
Vout1 =
84/301
______________________ VPP
Vout2 =
______________________ VPP
Common-mode gain GC =
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Two-stage amplifier circuits
85/301

DC-coupled amplifiers with complementary transistors
Here you will learn the functioning principle of two-stage amplifiers where the second stage is
galvanically linked to the output of the first.
Training contents
Investigation of a two-stage amplifier with galvanic connection
Direct coupling of transistor stages
Multiplication of gain factors for each stage
Introduction
In cases where the gain of a single amplifier stage is deemed insufficient, it is possible to couple
together two or more transistor stages in series. In such cases the gain factors of each stage are
multiplied together. When the stages are connected, care must be taken to join the two stages
together in such a way that they do not adversely affect one another.
The separate transistor stages are set up in common-emitter mode and the input of the second stage
is connected to the output of the first by means of a galvanic link. This allows DC components to pass
from one stage to the next.
86/301
Experiment: Amplifier circuit
Circuit diagram
87/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
100
mV/div
200
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
0,2 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
88/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V~ (AC)
Experiment set-up
89/301
Insert jumper B1 between the emitter of T1 and R3 (jumpers B2 and B3 not plugged in). Apply
a sinusoidal alternating voltage with an amplitude of 200 mVPP and frequency 1 kHz to input
Vin. Use the potentiometer to set the operating point of transistor T1 in such a way that the
output from the circuit at Vout2 is as large as possible and equally limited on both sides. If the
signal is not yet distorted, increase the input Vin1 until the output does distort and use the
potentiometer to make sure the limiting is equal for both half-waves. Then decrease Vin1
back to 200 mVPP. Copy the input and output voltages from the oscilloscope into the grid
below.
Which of the following answers are correct?
The phases of Vin1 and Vout2 are different.
The amplitudes of Vin2 and Vout2 are identical.
The amplitudes of Vin1 and Vout2 are different.
The phases of Vin1 and Vout2 are identical.
The amplitudes of Vin2 and Vout2 are different.
The amplitudes of Vin1 and Vout2 are identical.
90/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Use voltmeters to measure the input and output voltages of the first stage.
Use these values to calculate the gain of the first stage.
Vin1 =
Vin1 =
Gain factor Gstage 1 =
______________________
mVrms
______________________
mVrms
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Use voltmeters to measure the input and output voltages of the second stage.
Use these values to calculate the gain of the second stage.
Vin2 =
______________________ Vrms
Vout2 =
______________________ Vrms
Gain factor Gstage 2 =
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Calculate the gain for the whole circuit.
Gain Gtotal = ______________________
91/301
Multiply the
individual gains
together or divide
the output
voltage by the
input.
Now remove jumper B1 and insert jumper B2 between the emitter von T1 and resistor R4
(jumpers B1 and B3 not plugged in).
Use these values to calculate the gain of the first stage when RE=R4.
Vin1 =
Vout1 =
Gain factor Gstage1 RE=R4 =
______________________
mVrms
______________________
mVrms
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Use these values to calculate the gain of the second stage when RE=R4.
Vin2 =
Vout2 =
Gain factor Vstage2 RE=R4 =
92/301
______________________
mVrms
______________________
mVrms
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Calculate the gain for the whole circuit when RE=R4.
Gain Gtotal RE=R4 = ______________________
Multiply the
individual gains
together or divide
the output
voltage by the
input.
Now remove jumper B2. Insert jumper B3 between the emitter of T1 and the positive pole of
C2 (jumpers B1 and B2 not plugged in).
Use these values to calculate the gain of the first stage when RE=C2+R5.
Vin1 =
Vout1 =
Gain factor Vstage1 RE=C2+R5 =
93/301
______________________
mVrms
______________________
mVrms
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Use these values to calculate the gain of the second stage when RE=C2+R5.
Vin2 =
Vout2 =
Gain Gstage2 RE=C2+R5 =
______________________
mVrms
______________________
mVrms
______________________
For these
measurements
use the
voltmeters in AC
mode, in which
mode they
measure the root
mean square
value of the
voltage (0.707
times the
amplitude of the
positive halfwave).
Calculate the gain for the whole circuit when RE=C2+R5.
Gain Gtotal RE=C2+R5 = ______________________
Multiply the
individual gains
together or divide
the output
voltage by the
input.
What differences emerge when the size of the emitter resistor in the first stage is changed?
The gain of the second stage increases.
The operating point of the first stage shifts.
Nothing of note changes.
The feedback changes the gain.
94/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
95/301

Here you will learn how push-pull end stages work.
Training contents
How to build a complementary push-pull end stage from a circuit diagram
To view crossover distortion on an oscilloscope
How to measure output power using an oscilloscope
Introduction
Push-pull amplifiers are amps in which two amplifying components (transistors) are used in each
stage to amplify the positive and negative half-waves separately. If complementary transistors (one
NPN and one PNP) are used for such a push-pull amp, both of them can be controlled by a signal of
the same phase. In DC terms, the transistors are connected together in series. For the positive halfwave, the top transistor T1 conducts, whereas during the negative half-wave the bottom transistor T2
switches on. Thus the transistors operate in alternation (push-pull). However, the current through the
load resistor remains close to sinusoidal.
96/301
Experiment: push-pull end stage
Circuit diagram
97/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
500
mV/div
2 V/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Variable DC power
supply
25 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
2 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
98/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
Start the circuit running without a load resistor RL and without the function generator. Use
potentiometer P1 to set the operating point of transistor T1 such that the voltage at the
collector is about half the supply voltage.
What is the voltage at the collector of T1 ?
Collector voltage T1 = ______________________
99/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode for the
measurement.
Set up the function generator to supply a sinusoidal AC voltage of 2 VPP at a frequency f = 1

kHz and turn it on.
Measure the input and output voltage Vin and Vout of the circuit on the oscilloscope and copy the trace
into the grid below.
Now switch the oscilloscope to X/Y mode. Copy the trace into the oscilloscope grid.
100/301
Which of the following statements are applicable to the trace in X/Y mode?
The line shows the rise and fall of the supply voltage as it is
switched on.
The line shows the rise and fall of the applied input voltage.
The line shows how the voltages rise and fall with respect to
one another.
The trace is non-linear as the whole of the supply voltage is
not switched through.
More than one

answer may be
correct.
The trace is non-linear as the input voltage is sinusoidal.

The trace is linear as the applied voltages remain the same
for short periods.
Now insert the load resistor RL into the circuit and switch the oscilloscope to X/T mode. Measure the
input and output voltage Vin and Vout for the circuit on the oscilloscope and copy the trace into the grid
below.
101/301
What do you observe?

The output transistors cannot switch through the necessary
current when there is a load.
The output transistors cannot conduct when there is a load
because of the saturation voltage of the path between
collector and emitter (VCE).
The output transistors cannot conduct when there is a load
because of the voltage difference between the base and the
emitter (VBE).
Distortion due to overdriving can be seen because the
current gain is too low.
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage. More
than one answer
may be correct.
Crossover distortion can be seen because of the voltage

difference between the base and the emitter (VBE ).
Now switch the oscilloscope to X/Y mode. Copy the oscilloscope trace to the grid below.
102/301
Which of the following statements are applicable to the trace in X/Y mode?
The trace is linear in the middle but not at the ends.
The trace is non-linear due to limiting of current at saturation.
The trace is linear and also displays the crossover distortion
caused by the complementary transistors.
103/301
Only one answer

is correct!
104/301

Here you will learn the advantages and disadvantages that feeding back an output signal can have
on the input to a circuit.
Training contents
Advantages of feeding back a signal
Negative feedback of a phase-inverted signal
Positive feedback of an in-phase signal
Introduction
Feedback is a method which involves "feeding back" part of an output signal to the input.
A distinction is made between negative feedback and positive feedback. Negative feedback involves
feeding back a signal which is 180 out of phase with the input signal. Since the polarity of the output
then opposes the input signal, this has the effect of weakening the input signal. This causes a
reduction in gain but reduces distortion and increases the band width and stability of the circuit as a
whole with respect to the operating point and the gain. The input and output resistance of the circuit
are also changed.
By contrast, positive feedback means that the signal fed back is in phase with the input. Since the
polarity is therefore the same, the signals are added together, thus increasing the gain but also
changing the properties of the circuit in the opposite way to negative feedback. Distortion is
increased, the band width is reduced and the circuit becomes less stable.
There is also a distinction between current feedback and voltage feedback. Current feedback is
accomplished by means of resistors at the emitter, whereas voltage feedback is achieved by feeding
the actual output voltage back to the input.
105/301
Experiment: Negative feedback
Circuit diagram
106/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
20 mV/div
200
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
20 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
107/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
108/301
Set up the circuit as described but leave out the feedback resistor R7. Use potentiometers P1
and P2 to set up the operating point of the transistor in such a way that the DC voltage at the
respective collector is half the supply voltage. Now a sinusoidal AC voltage of 20 VPP and
frequency of 1 kHz is to be applied via the function generator. The voltage divider formed by
R1= 100 k and R2= 10 (in the ratio of 10001:1) at the output of the function generator
means the effective input to the circuit via input capacitor C1 is just 2 mVPP. This is the
output which is relevant for the subsequent experiments. What are the input and output
voltages Vin and Vout for the circuit?
Vin =
Vout =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
mVPP
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to set up
the operating
point and the
oscilloscope to
measure the
signal voltages.
Calculate the gain of the circuit.

Gain = ______________________
109/301
Gain = Vout / Vin
Now insert resistor R7 (2.2 k), which is responsible for negative voltage feedback. The
input voltage to the circuit should remain at 2 mVPP (20 VPP on the function generator).
Measure the output voltage and enter both it and the input voltage of the circuit into the
relevant boxes.
Vin =
Vout =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
mVPP
Calculate the gain of the circuit with negative voltage feedback.

Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Remove 2.2-k resistor R7 again, the resistor responsible for the negative voltage feedback.
Also remove 470-F capacitor C5, which bridges emitter resistor R11 for the sake of
alternating current. Without C5, R11 acts as a negative current feedback resistor for the
second stage of the circuit. The input voltage to the circuit should remain at 2 mVPP (20 VPP
on the function generator).
relevant boxes.
Vin =
Vout =
110/301
______________________
mVPP
______________________
mVPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.

Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Now connect up 2.2-k resistor R7 again. This provides for negative voltage feedback in
addition to the negative current feedback for the second stage. The input voltage to the
circuit should remain at 2 mVPP (20 VPP on the function generator).
relevant boxes.
Vin =
Vout =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
mVPP

Gain = ______________________
111/301
Gain = Vout / Vin
Experiment: Positive feedback
Circuit diagram
112/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
20 mV/div
100
mV/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
10 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
113/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
114/301
Set up the circuit as described. Potentiometer P2 in the feedback loop should be set to its
maximum resistance of 10 k (all the way to the left). Use potentiometer P1 to set the
operating point of transistors T1 such that the voltage at the collector is half the supply
voltage. Now apply a sinusoidal AC voltage of 10 VPP and frequency 1 kHz to the input Vin.
The voltage divider formed by R1= 22 k and R2= 22 (a ratio of 1001:1) at the output of
the function generator means the effective input to the circuit via input capacitor C1 is just 10
mVPP. This is the input voltage which is applicable to all the subsequent experiments. What
are the input and output voltages of the circuit (Vin and Vout)?
Vin =
Vout =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
mVPP
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to set up
the operating
point and the
oscilloscope to
measure the
signal voltage.

Gain = ______________________
115/301
Gain = Vout / Vin
Potentiometer P2 in the feedback loop should be set to its minimum resistance of 0 (only
resistor R7= 680 is an active part of the feedback loop).
Measure the output voltage and enter both it and the input voltage into the relevant boxes.
Vin =
Vout =
______________________
mVPP
______________________
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
mVPP

Gain = ______________________
116/301
Gain = Vout / Vin
Schmitt triggers and square-wave generators
117/301

Schmitt triggers
Training contents
Triggering at given thresholds
Generating square-wave signals
Introduction to comparators/Schmitt triggers

Comparators represent a link between analog and digital technology. In principle, they are
operational amplifiers with analog signals applied to the inputs. The output is then a logical signal, a
voltage level representing either high or low.
Any operational amplifier can be used as a comparator. In practice, though, it is common to use
special comparators which directly output a TTL level or which use "open-collector technology" to
make it possible to very easily modify levels. Such "dedicated" comparators are also characterised by
very high switching speeds in comparison to normal op-amps.
Whereas operational amplifiers by definition amplify voltage, so that any voltage can be present at
the output, the output of a comparator, although constructed from an ordinary op-amp, will only
output levels at the saturated voltage limits of the component, which are roughly equal to the positive
and negative levels of the supply voltage.
Comparators use no feedback, so that the inputs are only "compared" to one another, hence the
name.
If the inverting input is more positive than the non-inverting input, then the output will be
approximately equal to the negative of the supply voltage. If the non-inverting input is more positive,
then the output will be positive.
In practice, comparators are never used without some sort of external feedback, since otherwise
problems such as oscillation could arise. Normally comparators are connected with positive
feedback, which gives rise to additional switching hysteresis. Such a comparator with hysteresis is
called a Schmitt trigger.
Due to the hysteresis there are two limits to the switching response. Between these two limits, the
Schmitt trigger will maintain its state, that is the output voltage will not change.
118/301
Figure 1:
Operational
amplifiers/comparators
come in various
casing formats,
although they mostly
come in DIL (dual inline) casings.
In this age of
miniaturisation,
though, many more
are being supplied in
the newer SMD
(surface mount
device) format.
Comparator circuits
Circuit diagram
Transfer characteristic
The illustration shows the circuit symbol and the characteristic for a comparator.
119/301
Circuit for inverting Schmitt trigger
Circuit diagram
The illustration shows the circuit diagram and transfer characteristic for an inverting Schmitt trigger.
"Inverting" means that this version of the circuit has a negative output for a large positive input and a
positive output for a large negative input.
Circuit for non-inverting Schmitt trigger
Circuit diagram
120/301
The illustration shows the circuit diagram and transfer characteristic for a non-inverting Schmitt
trigger. "Non-inverting" means that this version of the circuit has a positive output for a large positive
input and a negative output for a large negative input.
Both circuits, inverting and non-inverting Schmitt triggers, have the common feature that the feedback
is connected via the non-inverting input. This results in positive feedback (in contrast to the negative
feedback used in amplifier circuits).
121/301
Experiment: Thresholds and square-waves
Circuit diagram
122/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
5 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
200 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V/ -15 V
Waveform
Triangle
Amplitude
20 Vpp
Frequency factor
1k
Frequency
123/301
1 kHz
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

During this experiment, the jumpers must always be inserted or removed exactly as described
in the instructions. To make the first measurement, as follows, insert jumpers B1 and B2.
Jumpers B3 and B4 should be absent. Set potentiometer P2 all the way to the left
(=maximum). Use potentiometer P1 to gradually lower the input voltage at the non-inverting
positive input (+) of the op-amp until the output from the amp just turns negative.AAA
124/301
Measure the input voltage jumper B1 with the voltmeter and enter the result into the
appropriate box.
Input voltage Vin-meas1 = ______________________ V
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gradually turn up the input voltage at the non-inverting positive input of the op-amp (+) using
potentiometer P1 until the output just turns positive. Measure the input voltage at jumper B1
with the voltmeter and enter the result into the appropriate box.
Input voltage Vin-meas2 = ______________________ V
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Compare results 1 and 2. What is the magnitude of the switching hysteresis (difference
between the two saturation voltages)?
Switching hysteresis = ______________________ V
TAKE CARE - On all accounts observe the following sequence since the moving contact of
potentiometer P1 must never be shorted to ground.
1. First remove jumper B2 connecting the earth terminal (0 V) to the inverting (-) input of
the op-amp.
2. Now remove jumper B1 and insert jumper B4 to connect the moving contact of
potentiometer P1 to the inverting (-) input of the op-amp.
3. Now add jumper B3 between the function generator output and the non-inverting ( )
input of the op-amp.
Set potentiometer P1 such that the voltage at its moving contact (jumper B4) is -3 V. Then set
the function generator to its maximum output voltage (20 Vpp and a frequency f = 1kHz.
Choose the "Triangle" waveform and turn on the function generator.
Copy the voltage signals into the oscilloscope grid.
125/301
What is the pulse width?
Pulse width at -3 V = ______________________ us
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
pulse width.
Now set potentiometer P1 such that the voltage at its moving contact (jumper B4) is 3 V. Copy
the voltage signals into the oscilloscope grid.AAA
126/301
What is the pulse width?
Pulse width at +3 V = ______________________ us
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
pulse width.
How does adjustment of P1 and the associated voltage affect the inverting input of the opamp? What do you observe?
The gain factor changes.
The duty cycle changes.
Changing the offset voltage at the non-inverting (+) input
changes the ratio between the switch-on and switch-off
voltages.
Changing the offset voltage at the inverting (-) input changes
the ratio between the switch-on and switch-off voltages.
The ratio between the input and output voltages changes.
127/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Now adjust potentiometer P2 and observe the effect. What do you observe?
The duty cycle changes.
The duty cycle does not change.
The gain of the differential voltage increases.
The gain of the differential voltage decreases.
The phase is shifted.
128/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
129/301

Training contents
Investigation of astable multivibrators
Understanding how the time constant determined by the components used affects the
output
Introduction
Multivibrators can generate pulses, store binary numbers or delay pulses for a limited period.
Multivibrator circuits form the basis for flip-flops and latches, which are very commonly used in
computer memory.
Multivibrators involve two transistors, both connected in common emitter configuration, which are
connected together in such a way that the output (collector) of each transistor controls the input
(base) of the other. The way they are set up means that when one transistor turns on, it causes the
other one to turn off. Therefore multivibrators exhibit two states, one in which the first transistor is
switched on and one in which the second transistor is switched on. The stability of each state, i.e. the
length of time for which it lasts, depends on the way the circuit is constructed. For the astable
multivibrator on this card, both outputs are connected via capacitors to the respective inputs. In
conjunction with the input resistors at the base of each transistors, these then form an RC timing
circuit at both inputs. The circuit operates as follows:
1. When one transistor turns on, its output voltage drops to 0 V. The capacitor connected to the
output, though, still stores charge, which would have been built up while the output was
connected to the full supply voltage.
2. One side of the capacitor therefore drops from 12 V to 0 V, but the stored charge means that
the voltage difference across the capacitor is initially maintained, which causes the voltage
on the other side to drop down to -12 V.
3. However, the other side is connected to the base of the second transistor. The negative
voltage at its base ensures that this transistor immediately turns off.
4. The same point, though, is also connected to the positive of the supply voltage via the input
resistor. The capacitor now starts discharging through the resistor, during which time the
voltage at the base rises until it reaches the supply voltage.
5. When the voltage exceeds the threshold voltage of the transistor, it turns back on again. Its
output is connected by a capacitor to the base of the other transistor, which is immediately
turned off. The process is then repeated at the base of that transistor until it too turns back
on.
130/301
The circuit therefore exhibits two states, both of which are unstable, and switches continuously
between one state and the other. The length of time for which the circuit remains in each state
depends on the amount of time it takes the capacitors to discharge through the input resistors until
the threshold voltage of the respective transistor is reached. This, in turn, is dependent on the time
constant of the respective RC circuit formed in this way. If identical components are used for both
sides of the circuit, then the states should both last the same length of time. The output of both
transistors should be then something very close to a square wave. The two outputs reverse polarity
according to an even duty cycle. When differing components are used, the outputs are rectangular
waves and the states last for different lengths of time.
Since the duration of each state can be established by means of the components employed, such
circuits are highly suitable for use as timing circuits. They can be used to generate well defined clock
pulses or as square wave generators.
131/301
Experiment: Astable multivibrator
Circuit diagram
132/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
5 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
133/301
400 ms/div
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Experiment set-up
134/301
Turn on the circuit as described. Record the output voltages Vout1 and Vout2 and copy the
trace to the oscilloscope grid. How long is the period of the circuit?
Period T = ______________________ ms
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage and
period.
Calculate the frequency of the multivibrator.

Frequency f = ______________________ Hz
135/301
f=1/T
Measure the voltage at the positive pole of capacitor C1 (pad 39) on Channel B of the
oscilloscope and copy the resulting trace to the oscilloscope grid. Under what conditions
does one of the transistors turn off and what is the explanation for the negative voltage at
one end of the capacitor?
One of the transistors will turn off when its own capacitor has
been charged and there is therefore no more difference in
potential.
One of the transistors will turn off when the other transistor's
capacitor has been charged and there is therefore no more
difference in potential.
One of the transistors will turn off when the charge on the
other transistor's capacitor has changed polarity causing a
negative voltage at that transistor's base.
The negative voltage at the capacitor terminal is caused by
the rapid discharge, causing the voltage to overshoot into the
negative region.
The negative at the capacitor terminal is caused after it has
been charged up with a positive charge, but when the
polarity changes that charge still remains stored.
136/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
137/301

Training contents
Investigation of dynamic control of a monostable multivibrator by means of a button.
Introduction
computer memory.
length of time for which it lasts, depends on the way the circuit is constructed.
In a monostable multivibrator, the output of only one transistor is connected via a capacitor to the
input of the other and that input is also held at a positive potential by a resistor, so that this transistor
usually remains on. Its base voltage does not exceed the 0.7 volt threshold of the transistor since
current generally flows between the base and emitter of the transistor. This means that there is a
difference in voltage across the capacitor which causes it to charge up. The output of that transistor is
connected to the input of the second directly via a resistor only. Since the output of the first transistor
is usually low while the transistor is on, the input to the second transistor is also low. This has the
effect of ensuring that the second resistor remains off, which means that this state is entirely stable.
However, if a positive pulse is applied to the base of the second transistor, it causes the transistor to
turn on. In that case, the output voltage at the collector immediately drops to zero. The voltage on
that side of the capacitor rapidly drops from 12 V to 0 V. Since charge has been stored in the
capacitor, the voltage across initially remains the same, resulting in a negative voltage being
measurable at the side of the capacitor connected to the base of the first transistor. This negative
voltage at the base causes that transistor to turn off. However, the base is still connected to the
positive supply voltage via the input resistor. Now the capacitor starts discharging through the input
resistor and the base voltage increases. Eventually it rises high enough to turn on the first transistor
again, whereby the circuit returns to its previous stable state.
The second state exists for only as long as it takes for the capacitor to discharge sufficiently to turn
the transistor back on, meaning that this state is unstable. The fact that only one of the states is
stable gives the circuit its name.
138/301
The duration of the unstable state depends on the time constant of the RC circuit formed by the
capacitor and the input resistor. That duration can be calculated using the following formula:
ti = R C ln(2)
In this case ti is the duration of the pulse, while R and C are the ratings of the resistor and the capacitor
ln(2) is the natural logarithm of 2 = 0.69 approx.
This duration can be determined by the choice of components. A monostable multivibrator can thus
be used to generate a square pulse of a fixed duration in response to a random trigger pulse. Some
applications for this include pulse shaping or setting up fixed delays.
139/301
Experiment: Monostable multivibrator
Circuit diagram
140/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
5 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
141/301
400 ms/div
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Experiment set-up

Turn on the circuit as described.
Which state does the circuit assume?

Transistor 1 turns on and output Vout1 is connected to
ground.
Transistor 2 turns on and output Vout2 is connected to
ground.
Both transistors turn on alternately.
142/301
Now press the button (LED 1 turns on, LED 2 goes out) and wait for the circuit to return to its
initial state (LED 2 lights up). You may want to repeat the experiment multiple times.
Press or click the Signal Stop button on the oscilloscope and copy the oscilloscope trace of
the output voltages Vout1 and Vout2 to the oscilloscope grid below. Approximately how long is
the average pulse duration at Vout2?
Pulse duration Vout2 = ______________________ s
143/301
Measure the
voltages and
pulse duration
using the
oscilloscope.
Which of the following statements about the circuit's state are true?
C1 charges up and T2 turns on via R2.
C1 discharges because the voltage at the base of T2
gradually decreases.
C1 only charges up while Button 1 is shorted to ground.
T2 is switched on, causing the base of T1 to be connected to
ground via R4.
T1 stays turned on until C1 has charged up.
144/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Bistable multivibrators (flip-flops)
145/301

Bistable multivibrator (flip-flop)
Training contents
Investigation of how a bistable multivibrator responds to input pulses generated by two
push buttons.
Introduction
computer memory.
length of time for which it lasts, depends on the way the circuit is constructed.
Bistable multivibrators switch between two stable states. When they have been switched into either of
these two states (one transistor on, the other off), the outputs remain in that state until a pulse is
applied at the input which swaps the state over. For this reason, such circuits are ideal for use in
memory circuits. Each bit remains saved until a change is brought about.
Another term often used for this type of circuit is a "flip-flop", the name referring to the ability to
change from one state to another and then back again. There are various different designs of flipflop. The simplest type is probably the RS flip-flop (reset/set). Like a simple bistable multivibrator, this
set-up has an input which is normally designated as the S or set input. This switches the circuit into a
state in which it remains until the other input, known as the R or reset input is triggered, upon which
the circuit swaps into its opposite state.
Flip-flops normally respond to fixed logic levels rather than the pulses used to control the simple
bistable multivibrator in the following experiment. They change over when the logic level changes at
the input. One other type of flip-flop is commonly known as a latch, which resembles an ordinary flipflop except that it responds to actual levels rather than the edges caused by changes in level. There
are also more complex flip-flop and latch circuits with additional inputs such as clocking and enable
inputs.
146/301
Experiment: Bistable multivibrator
Circuit diagram
147/301
Experiment set-up

First set up the circuit without jumpers B1 and B2 and turn it on.
148/301
Which state does the circuit assume?

Neither of the two transistors conducts and neither of the
LEDs lights up.
Since the circuit is symmetrical, the initial state cannot be
determined in advance due to its dependence on component
tolerances.
Both transistors conduct and both LEDs light up.
Either T1 or T2 conducts, depending on component
tolerances, and the corresponding LED comes on.
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Both LEDs shine, but one of them more brightly because its
transistor conducts, while the other LED only receives
residual current.
Now insert jumper B1 and observe what happens. Then insert jumper B2 and observe what
happens then.
Which of the following statements are correct?

The circuit remains in its given state if no external impetus is
provided.
The circuit remains in its given state even if an external
impetus is provided.
The circuit switches between two states if no external
The circuit switches between two states if an external
"Impetus" in this
case refers to
briefly plugging in
either jumper B1
or B2. More than one answer may
be correct.
As an alternative, jumpers B1 and B2 can be replaced with push buttons. This enables the
states to be changed easily and the way the circuit works, swapping between its two states,
can be seen even more clearly.
149/301
Saw-tooth generators (pulse generators)
150/301

Saw-tooth generator (pulse generator)
Here you can learn how to generate a saw-tooth voltage waveform or short pulses.
Training contents
Generation of signal voltages
Generation of pulse spikes
Introduction
Saw-tooth voltages represent a kind of signal where the voltage continually rises until it reaches a
point where it rapidly, indeed almost immediately, drops back to its starting point. One way of
generating such signals is to charge up a capacitor via a resistor and then discharge it very quickly by
means of a switch or electronic switching component. The component used in this experiment is a
diac (also called a two-way diode). The current produced by the discharge of the capacitor can be
used to generate very short pulses (pulse spikes or transients). These can then be used by other
circuits as triggers, in order to control thyristors for example.
151/301
Experiment: Saw-tooth generator
Circuit diagram
152/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
100
mV/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
4 ms/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
AC power supply
153/301
Positive
24 V
Experiment set-up
154/301

Set the circuit running with a supply voltage of 24 V. Record the output voltages Vout1 and Vout2
on the oscilloscope and copy the trace into the oscilloscope grid below.
Determine the period T of the saw-tooth signal at Vout1 and use that to calculate the
frequency.
Period T =
______________________ ms
Frequency f =
______________________ Hz
f=1/T
Which components can be used to change the frequency of the circuit?

R1, since this determines the charging period of the
capacitor.
Decreasing R2 increases the discharge period of the
capacitor.
Increasing R2 reduces the discharge period of the capacitor.
C1, since this affects the time constant.
155/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
What is the response of the circuit to an increase in R2?

The circuit response is unchanged.
The duration of the pulse at Vout2 gets shorter.
The duration of the pulse at Vout2 gets longer.
The falling edge of the saw-tooth signal gets steeper.
The falling edge of the saw-tooth signal gets shallower,
resulting in a triangular waveform.
156/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
157/301

Here you can learn how a combination of an inductor (a coil) and a capacitor can generate a sinewave signal.
Training contents
Oscillating behaviour of LC circuits
Calculation of resonance frequency
Positive feedback for signals
Introduction
Sine-wave generators or oscillators which use LC circuits are set-ups involving a coil and a capacitor
which are capable of oscillating at a specific frequency (so-called resonant/resonance circuits) the
output of which can then be fed through an amplifier stage. They are characterised by the fact that
they are able to produce a sustained oscillation as long as certain conditions are fulfilled:
- The loop gain must be at least 1 (otherwise the signal is attenuated until the oscillation stops).
- The phase shift in the fed-back signal has to be 0 or a multiple of 360 (otherwise the gain is
reduced).
The quality of a resonant circuit depends largely on its frequency stability, since this is derived from
the resonant frequency itself. At resonance, the impedance attains its maximum value, at which the
voltage and current in the LC circuit itself are of opposing phases.
158/301
Experiment: Sine-wave generator
Circuit diagram
159/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
1 V/div
Coupling
AC
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
160/301
10 s/div
X/T
A
Positive
Experiment set-up

Before starting this practical experiment, the frequency of the resonance circuit should be
calculated from the component values. This requires the value of the inductor and the total
capacitance of the capacitors C1 and C2.
161/301
Calculate the frequency of a resonance circuit with an inductance of 10 mH according to the

following formula:
Calculated frequency f= ______________________ Hz
The total
capacitance of
capacitors
connected in
series is
calculated in a
similar way to the
total resistance of
resistors in
parallel, i.e. by
adding the
inverse of the
values: 1/Ctotal =
1/C1 + 1/C2
The LC resonance circuit is to be set up as a Colpitts oscillator circuit as described in the setup, using an inductor of 10 mH.
162/301
Now determine the period of oscillation and calculate the oscillation frequency from that.
Period of oscillation T =
______________________ s
Frequency of oscillation f =
______________________ kHz
f=1/T
Now swap the 10-mH inductor L1 for one of L= 33 mH.
Measure the output Vout with the oscilloscope again. In order to make the reading easier, you
can modify the amplitude sensitivity and the time base. Copy the traces into the oscilloscope
grid.
Now determine the period of oscillation and calculate the oscillation frequency from that.
Period of oscillation T =
______________________ s
Frequency of oscillation f =
______________________ kHz
163/301
f=1/T
164/301

Here you will learn how the amplitude of a high frequency oscillation can be modulated by means of a
superimposed low-frequency signal.
Training contents
Addition of voltages
Operation of a diode as a differential resistor
Modulation of AC voltage
Demodulation of signals
Introduction
Amplitude modulation is a method of changing the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier signal by
superimposing on top of it a low-frequency signal, which is to be recovered for use later, One way
this can be achieved is by using a simple diode, operating in the non-linear part of its characteristic.
The diode then acts as a differential resistor with a resistance that changes as the current being
conducted is modified.
In practice, the low-frequency signal to be be used later is added via a resistor to a high-frequency
carrier frequency generated by an HF oscillator. In order to set up the operating point of the diode (in
the non-linear region of its characteristic at the threshold point when it is just starting to conduct), it is
also necessary to have a DC voltage source. The signal from this is also added via a resistor to the
overall mix in order keep the diode operating in the lower part of its characteristic close to the
threshold point. The alternating current flow resulting from the payload signal modifies the resistance
of the diode, causing a varying voltage drop in the overall mix of signals. Afterwards the modulated
signal is passed through a band-pass filter to eliminate any unwanted distortions and separate out
the DC component. Ideally, all that remains at the output would then be the modulated carrier signal.
Demodulation is also carried out with the aid of a diode, which cuts out either the positive or negative
half-wave depending on polarity. The resulting signal corresponds to the way the original modulating
voltage changed over time. It only needs tidying up by filtering out the carrier component using a
band-pass filter.
165/301
Experiment: Amplitude modulator
Circuit diagram
166/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
1 V/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
20 Vpp
Frequency factor
167/301
4 ms/div
1k
Frequency
1 kHz
AC voltage
7V
Frequency
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

Turn potentiometer P2 all the way to the left and potentiometer P1 all the way to the right (so
that the moving contact is at ground potential). Jumper B1 should be removed. Supply the
circuit with a fixed voltage of +5 V and set up the function generator to output a sine-wave
signal as the carrier with a voltage of VC= 20 VPP and a frequency f = 1 kHz. Now turn
potentiometer P1 until the modulation reaches its maximum. Now shift the position of the y-axis
on Channel A of the oscilloscope in such a way such that the top peak of the modulating signal
is at the same height as the top peak of the carrier signal. Then set potentiometers P1 and P2
in such a way that the peak point of the envelope of the modulated carrier wave signal at
output Vout1 coincides with the peaks of the modulating voltage VM.
168/301
Copy the output signal into the oscilloscope grid (it is sufficient to be merely indicative of the
higher carrier frequency). Enter the voltage at output Vout1.
Output voltage Vout1 = ______ mVPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Now change the applied DC voltage VDC (+5V) by turning potentiometer P2.

Changing the DC voltage VDC sets the diode to operate in
the linear part of its characteristic, where it simply acts like a
linear resistor.
Changing the DC voltage VDC sets the diode to operate in
the non-linear part of its characteristic where it acts like a
differential resistor
Changing the DC voltage VDC sets the gain of the diode so
that it acts as a linear amplifier.
Changing the DC voltage VDC sets the gain of the diode so
that it acts as a differential amplifier.
169/301
Only one answer

is correct.
Configure the circuit using the values from the previous AM modulator experiment (pot P2 all
the way anti-clockwise, Vdc = +5V). Now insert jumper B1 to connect the demodulation stage.
The following measurements are carried out using the set of leads numbered 2 in the
experiment set-up illustration to connect Channel B of the oscilloscope.
Measure the voltage of the demodulated signal at Vout2. Change the sensitivity of the
oscilloscope accordingly.
Demodulated signal voltage = ______ mVPP
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
What observations do you make regarding the signal quality and what are the reasons?
The signal quality is fine and there are no problems because
the demodulation is good.
The signal quality is too poor to recognise the original
modulating signal because the demodulation is bad.
The signal quality is adequate but there are still some
components of the carrier wave, since the band pass filter is
not filtering out enough.
Now set up the function generator such that the carrier frequency f = 10 kHz.
170/301
Only one answer

is correct.

The demodulated signal disappears because the low-pass
filter lets everything pass through.
The demodulated signal is distorted due to the low-pass filter
causing asymmetries.
The demodulated signal is much "cleaner" (sine-wave), since
the low-pass filter filters out the much higher carrier
frequencies.
The signal voltage is increased because the frequencydependent AC impedance of the capacitor C1 falls and that
of C2 rises.
The signal voltage is decreased because the frequencydependent AC impedance of the capacitor C1 rises and that
of C2 falls.
171/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
172/301

Here you can learn how a high-frequency carrier oscillation can be frequency modulated by a lowfrequency payload signal.
Training contents
Changes of frequency in tuned resonance circuits
Modulation of AC voltages
Introduction
Frequency modulation refers to a method of using a modulating signal to change the frequency of a
carrier wave, whereby the amplitude of the carrier signal is unaltered. The frequency changes are
dependent on the amplitude of the modulating signal. The higher the voltage of the modulation, the
higher the magnitude of the frequency change will be. The frequency of the modulated voltage is
thereby proportional to how often the frequency changes.
The most use of frequency modulation is in VHF (FM) radio. The outstanding feature of this
procedure is that the volume does not drop on account of the dependency on amplitude as the
strength of the signal decrease, since the volume is determined by the change in frequency.
173/301
Experiment: Frequency modulation
Circuit diagram
174/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
1 V/div
2 V/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
X/T
A
Trigger edge
Positive
Power supply
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
1 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
175/301
400 s/div
10
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

Set up the circuit as shown in the experiment set-up with switch S1 open and turn it on. Use
potentiometer P1 to change the applied modulating voltage. Use the oscilloscope with the
trigger set to Channel B.
176/301
What effect do changes in the modulating voltage have on the output?

The amplitude of the output signal changes.
The waveform of the output signal changes.
The frequency of the output signal changes.
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage. Only one
answer is correct.
Use potentiometer P1 to change the applied modulating voltage such that the lowest possible
frequency (corresponding to the longest possible period) appears at the output.
Copy the output voltage to the oscilloscope grid below.
Now use the function generator to set a sinusoidal AC voltage of 2 VPP and frequency 50 Hz at
the output. Turn on switch S1. Swap the oscilloscope trigger to Channel A.
Copy the input and output voltages to the oscilloscope grid below.
177/301

The amplitude of the output signal changes.
The frequency of the output signal changes.
The frequency of the output signal changes in a way that
does not depend on the modulating input voltage.
The frequency of the output signal changes in a way that
does depend on the modulating input voltage.
The waveform of the output signal changes.
The waveform of the output signal does not change.
178/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage. More
than one answer
my be correct.
Rectifier circuits
179/301

Rectifiers
In this experiment you will learn about a group of semiconductor components which are capable of
"rectifying" current. The response of simple half-wave and bridge rectifiers is investigated and
characterised by measuring under various loads.
Training contents
Half-wave rectifiers
Bridge rectifiers
Smoothing and residual ripple
Load resistance
Introduction
Mains voltages are generally unsuitable for supplying electricity directly to electronic equipment. It is
usually necessary to convert the mains into a suitable voltage, which needs rectification and
smoothing. An additional voltage regulator maintains the voltage at a constant level irrespective of
the load.
This description and the experiments that follow cover the rectifiers themselves and the
accompanying smoothing circuits.
With the semiconductor diodes available nowadays, it has become particular easy to implement
rectifiers for all ranges of power. Among the numerous types of rectifier circuits which may be
conceived, two of them are of particular importance since they are so widely used.
In addition to the actual rectifier circuit, it is nearly always necessary to have a separate smoothing
network to smooth out "pulsating" voltage or suppress current peaks where necessary.
180/301
Bridge rectifiers
Smoothing with
capacitors
Smoothing with
capacitors and
inductors
Due to the way the diode works as a valve, only the positive half-wave of the sinusoidal AC voltage is
allowed to pass through, while the negative half-wave is cut off. The result is a "mixed voltage" or a
pulsating DC voltage composed of a DC voltage with an AC oscillation superimposed on it.
The average of the DC component VDC AV corresponds to the area under the voltage time curve for
one period.
The frequency of the fundamental oscillation of the superimposed AC voltage is 50Hz.
Note: Half-wave circuits should not be used for transformer power supplies (unless the power rating
is very low), since the DC component puts stress on the transformer.
The amplitude of the output voltage is smaller than the input by a factor equivalent to the threshold
voltage of the diode, approximately 0.7 V.
181/301
Bridge rectifiers
In a bridge rectifier, the current always flows through two diodes, while two others are non-conducting
at that time. Different diodes handle the positive and negative half-waves, as shown in the
illustrations below.
In the positive half-wave, diodes D2

and D3 conduct, while D1 and D4
do not.
In the negative half-wave, diodes

D1 and D4 conduct, while D2 and
D3 do not.
The result is once again a pulsating DC voltage. Unlike with half-way rectifiers, though, the pulsation,
known as ripple, is much reduced. the arithmetic mean and the frequency of the background hum are
both double what they are with half-wave devices.
The amplitude of the output voltage is smaller than the input by a factor equivalent to the threshold
voltage of two diodes, approximately 1.4 V.
182/301
Residual ripple
Use of a capacitor in parallel with the load causes charge carriers to be temporarily stored. These
can then be consumed by the load when the voltage level falls beneath a certain value in the course
of the periodic rising and falling of the voltage. Once the voltage rises back above the value, the
capacitor starts storing charge again. The difference between the maximum and minimum voltage
across the capacitor is called the ripple voltage.
Residual ripple is calculated by dividing the AC component of the rectified voltage by the DC
component.
183/301
Experiment: Half-wave rectifier
Circuit diagram
184/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
1 V/div
1 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
4 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
185/301
4 ms/div
1
50 Hz
Experiment set-up
186/301

Set up the oscilloscope as specified above. Copy the trace into the grid below.
What is the maximum voltage across the resistor?
Vmax = ______________________ V
187/301
Set the
oscilloscope so
that you can get
an optimum
reading of the
values. It may be
necessary to
reduce the time
base such that
the positive halfwave is in the
middle of the
oscilloscope
trace.
What is the minimum voltage across the resistor?
Vmin = ______________________ V
Set the
oscilloscope so
that you can get
an optimum
reading of the
values. It may be
necessary to
reduce the time
base such that
the flat part of the
curve is in the
middle of the
oscilloscope
trace.
Change the frequency of the function generators to 200 Hz. Copy the oscilloscope trace into
the grid below. Be aware that you need a quicker (shorter) time base.
188/301
What is the maximum voltage across the resistor now?
Vmax = ______________________ V
Set the time base

so that you obtain
the optimal
reading in the
middle of the
oscilloscope
trace.
What is the minimum voltage across the resistor?
Vmin = ______________________ V
Swap the 10-k resistor for one of 4.7 k and set the frequency to 50 Hz. What is the
minimum voltage across the resistor?
Vmin = ______________________ V
Reset the frequency to 200 Hz. What is the minimum voltage across the resistor?
Vmin = ______________________ V
Calculate the residual ripple. To do this, you need to measure the AC and DC components
of the output voltage
y10k,50Hz = ______________________ %
y10k,200Hz = ______________________ %
y4.7k,50Hz = ______________________ %
y4.7k,200Hz = ______________________ %
189/301
y = VAC/VDC
Which of the following statements are correct?
Residual ripple decreases with increasing load.

Residual ripple increases with increasing frequency.
The residual ripple is always the same.
Residual ripple decreases with decreasing load.
Residual ripple increases with decreasing frequency.
190/301
Bear in mind the

results obtained
further above.
Experiment: Bridge rectifier
Circuit diagram
191/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
1 V/div
1 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
4 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
192/301
4 ms/div
1
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

After conducting this experiment, students should be able to do the following:
Identify the output voltage of a bridge rectifier
Assess residual ripple under load
Identify the oscilloscope trace produced by a partially damaged bridge rectifier
Initially remove capacitor C1 from the circuit. Configure the oscilloscope as shown above and
copy the trace into the grid below.
193/301
As a result of the oscilloscope channels sharing a common ground, the input and output
characteristics need to be recorded separately. Remove the connectors for Channel B from
the circuit to get a good trace of the input characteristic and, similarly, remove those for
Channel A to get a proper output characteristic.
194/301
If the input voltage is set to a value of 4 Vpp, what would be the peak voltage at the output of
the bridge rectifier?
VP = ______________________ V
Set the
oscilloscope so
that you can get
an optimum
reading of the
values.
Why is the peak voltage on the output side lower than the input voltage?
The voltage is lower because the signal is time-shifted

The voltage is lower because approx. 0.7 V drops across
each diode.
The voltage is lower because it is closer to the load.
Remember that
the current of
each phase has
to pass through
two diodes.
Why is the output voltage between the two half-waves flat?
A voltage of 0.7 V respectively drops across each diode.

Consequently, there is no signal below an input voltage of
approx. 1.4 V.
The entire voltage drops across the load resistor.
The oscilloscope measurement interferes with the output
voltage.
Now connect the capacitor to the position specified. Copy the oscilloscope trace to the grid
below.
195/301
Measure the resulting ripple voltage. Copy the trace into the grid below:
Vbr=______________________V
The voltage can

also be
measured using
a multimeter.
Remove one diode from the circuit. Copy the oscilloscope trace obtained into the grid below.
196/301
What does the oscilloscope trace indicate?
The oscilloscope trace has not changed.

The oscilloscope trace is identical to that for a half-wave
rectifier.
The oscilloscope trace is similar to that of the half-wave
rectifier, but the output voltage is lower by a further 0.7 V, i.e.
by a total of 1.4 V, than the input.
197/301
Removing a
diode is
comparable to
the component
burning out under
excess load.
Experiment: Three-phase bridge rectifier
Circuit diagram
198/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
5 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
199/301
4 ms/div
X/T
A
Positive
Three-phase power
supply
7/12 V
Frequency
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

After conducting this experiment, students should be able to do the following:
Identify the output voltage from a three-phase bridge rectifier.
Identify the oscilloscope trace produced by a partially damaged bridge rectifier
Set the oscilloscope to X/T display mode. Copy the oscilloscope trace into the grid below.
200/301
As a result of the oscilloscope channels sharing a common ground, the input and output
characteristics need to be recorded separately. Remove the connectors for Channel B from
the circuit to get a good trace of the input characteristic and, similarly, remove those for
Channel A to get a proper output characteristic.
201/301
Now measure the voltage across the resistor using the voltmeter in DC mode. What is the
DC voltage?
VDC=______________________ volts
Now set the voltmeter to AC mode and measure the AC voltage component.
VAC=______________________ volts
202/301
Remember that
the voltmeter
normally
measures RMS
values in AC
mode.
Voltage multipliers
203/301

Voltage multipliers
Here you will learn how alternating voltages can be multiplied.
Training contents
Multiplying an input voltage
Response of capacitors
Introduction
If an AC voltage is available, it is possible by means of various circuits to derive a DC voltage from it.
However, the DC voltage required is often much higher than the AC voltage available.
Villard circuit:
A simple Villard circuit is an asymmetric voltage doubling circuit. During the negative half-wave,
capacitor C1 charges up via diode D1 until it reaches the peak value of the input (mains) voltage.
During the positive half-wave, capacitor C2 charges via diode D2. Now though, the voltage stored by
C1 is added to the mains input voltage, meaning that C2 charges up to nearly twice the peak voltage
of the mains.
It takes a few periods, though, before the circuit reaches its settled state due to the internal
resistance of the diodes and the mains itself.
204/301
Voltage multipliers
The main benefit from the Villard circuit is that it can easily be cascaded. Adding another set of two
diodes and capacitors results in an output voltage of four times the peak mains voltage.
Circuits of this kind with many more cascaded levels are commonly used for generating very high
voltages. However, principally each of the diodes is only loaded with double the mains voltage.
205/301
206/301
Experiment: Voltage multipliers
Circuit diagram
207/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
5 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
10 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
208/301
4 ms/div
1
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

Apply a sinusoidal alternating voltage to input Vin with an amplitude of 10 VPP and frequency
50 Hz.
209/301
Use the oscilloscope to measure the input voltage Vin and output voltage Vout1. Copy the
results into the oscilloscope grid. What do you observe?
Output Vout1 is identical to the input voltage.

Output Vout1 is phase-shifted with respect to the input
voltage.
In contrast to the input voltage, output Vout1 is a pulsating DC
voltage.
The voltages are of different magnitude.
The voltages are of the same magnitude.
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
More than one
answer may be
correct.
Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage input to the second stage (at jumper B1) and the
output voltage Vout1 from the first stage.Copy the voltages into the oscilloscope grid.
210/301
What do you notice with regard to the previous measurement?
The output Vout1 from the first stage is an unsmoothed

pulsating DC voltage.
The output Vout1 from the first stage is a smoothed pulsating
DC voltage.
The peak voltage of the positive half-wave of the input
voltage is the same as that of the output of the first stage
except for the voltage drop across the diodes.
The peak voltage of the positive half-wave of the input
voltage is equal to half that of the output from the first stage
The amplitude of the input voltage is equal to half that of the
output from the first stage except for the voltage drop across
the diodes.
The peak-to-peak voltage of the input is equal to the output
voltage from the first stage except for the voltage drop
across the diodes.
The peak-to-peak voltage of the input is equal to half that of
the output from the first stage except for the voltage drop
across the diodes.
211/301
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
More than one
answer may be
correct.
Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage at the positive pole of the electrolytic capacitor
C3 (cathode of diode D3) and the output voltage Vout2 from the second stage.Copy the
voltage traces into the oscilloscope grid.
212/301
What do you notice with regard to the previous measurements?
The output voltage from the second stage is approximately

three times the amplitude of the input voltage minus the
voltage drop across the diodes.
four times the amplitude of the input voltage minus the
voltage drop across the diodes.
double the output voltage of the first stage minus the voltage
drop across the diodes.
half the output voltage of the first stage minus the voltage
drop across the diodes.
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
More than one
answer may be
correct.
What can be concluded about how each of the stages works?
Each stage quadruples the amplitude of its input voltage

Each stage doubles the amplitude of its input voltage except
for the voltage drop across the diodes.
Each stage halves the amplitude of its input voltage except
for the voltage drop across the diodes.
At each stage the input voltage is almost halved except for
the voltage drop across the diodes.
At each stage the input voltage is almost doubled except for
the voltage drop across the diodes.
213/301
More than one

answer may be
correct
Stabilising circuits
214/301

Voltage and current regulators
Here you can learn how the output voltage and current from power supplies can be regulated.
Training contents
Current regulation using zener diodes
Voltage regulation by means of a reference voltage
Measurement of residual ripple
Introduction
Most power supplies first transform the alternating mains voltage and then rectify it. The DC voltage
produced in this way is then smoothed out using large capacitors. Usually the voltage will exhibit
considerable degrees of ripple, since it is not desirable to choose capacitors that are unreasonably
large.
In order to suppress this ripple, though and obtain a stable voltage which remains constant even
under variable loading or in the presence of mains fluctuations, it is necessary to use voltage
regulation or stabilisation. Power transistors are often used for this. In conjunction with regulating or
stabilising electronics, they can maintain a constant output even when there is a fluctuating input or
changing load.
215/301
Voltage stabilisation using zener diodes

The simplest stabilisation circuit comes in the form of an emitter follower with the base connected to a
reference voltage source. The reference voltage can be derived from an unstabilised input by using a
zener diode in series with a resistor.
The controlling element in this case is a power transistor with high current gain, operating in analogue
fashion and located between the input and output. This procedure is called series stabilisation.
Generally, series stabilisation has the disadvantage of being highly inefficient and in the case of large
currents, the power losses are difficult to deal with.
Adjustable output voltage

If the output voltage needs to be adjustable, The reference is set using an adjustable voltage divider,
i.e. a potentiometer. This adjustable voltage is then fed to the base of the transistor.
216/301
Circuit description
The full circuit for the power supply includes one other transistor in addition to the reference voltage
source and emitter follower. This transistor, T2, compares the actual voltage value with the intended
value and thereby handles the real job of regulation.
The set value is established by means of the reference voltage across the zener diode V1, which is
connected to its emitter. The actual voltage is fed to the base of T2 via the adjustable voltage divider,
consisting of potentiometer P1 and resistor R4.
From the unstabilised voltage, part of the current through the zener diode is output via R1. The action
of the zener causes the voltage measured at P6 to be highly constant at around 4.7 V.
The base current for the emitter follower T1 comes from R2. However, some of this current flows via
transistor T2.
If the output voltage becomes too high, the voltage between the base and emitter of T2 rises, causing
conductivity of T2 to increase and giving rise to a large current at the collector of T2. This also results
in the current to the base of T1 decreasing, thus lowering the emitter current of T1 and thereby
making the output current fall. In this way the circuit returns to a stable state.
Resistor R3 has a value of 1 and in this experiment it is used in order to measure the collector
current of the power transistor. For circuits to be used in practice though, efforts would be made to
ensure the internal resistance of the source is as small as possible in order to keep down the power
losses. Even a 1- resistor could in that case lead to substantial additional losses.
Capacitors C1 and C2 do not have any essential involvement in the regulation, but they are important
for suppressing oscillation in the circuit.
For the emitter follower T1, a Darlington power transistor with very high current gain is used. Since a
large amount of power could be lost via this transistor, that power needs to be dissipated through a
heat sink.
217/301
Experiment: Voltage stabilisation
Circuit diagram
218/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
DC voltage
10 V
Black lead
Ground
Red lead
400 mA input
Selector knob
mA =
Plug the red and
black test probes
into the terminals
marked.
219/301
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

Set the input voltage for the circuit Vin to 10 V. Insert the load resistors listed below one by one
and carry out the measurements with each of them.
Resistor RL ()
Output voltage Vout (V)
Output current Iout (mA)
______________________
______________________
10
______________________
______________________
22
______________________
______________________
220/301
33
______________________
______________________
100
______________________
______________________
330
______________________
______________________
1k
______________________
______________________
10 k
______________________
______________________
47 k
______________________
______________________
100 k
______________________
______________________
What is this circuit intended to stabilise?
Output voltage
Output current
Output power
What voltage is applied to the basis of transistor T1?
VB = ____ V
On what does the voltage VBE depend?
The input voltage Vin

The load resistor
The voltage drop across the zener diode
221/301
Experiment: Adjustable voltage stabilisation
Circuit diagram
222/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
DC voltage
10 V
Black lead
Ground
Red lead
400 mA input
Selector knob
mA =
Plug the red and
black test probes
into the terminals
marked.
223/301
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

Replace jumper B1 with a load resistor RL = 1 k. Set the input voltage for the circuit to Vin =
10 V. Use potentiometer P1 to set the output voltage to Vout = 7 V.
When not using the ammeter to measure current (terminals "A"), make sure you plug in a
jumper instead to complete the circuit.
Remove the 1-k load resistor and replace with each of the resistors listed below one by one.
Carry out the measurements for each one.
224/301
Resistor RL ()
Output voltage Vout (V)
Output current Iout (mA)
______________________
______________________
10
______________________
______________________
22
______________________
______________________
33
______________________
______________________
100
______________________
______________________
330
______________________
______________________
1k
______________________
______________________
10 k
______________________
______________________
47 k
______________________
______________________
100 k
______________________
______________________
Which of the following statements about the output voltage and its regulation are correct?
The output current is regulated using potentiometer P1.

The output voltage is determined by resistor R2.
The output voltage can be modified using potentiometer P1.
The output current is regulated by means of transistor T2.
The zener diode D1 regulates the magnitude of the output
voltage.
225/301
More than one

answer may be
correct
226/301

Here you will learn how a DC voltage can be converted into a regulatable output voltage by
periodically switching it on and off.
Training contents
Conversion of a pulsed voltage into DC
Use of pulse width modulation
Introduction
Switched-mode voltage regulators are circuits where a controlling semiconductor (a transistor or
FET) periodically blocks or conducts the input voltage to the output. The ratio of the time switched on
to the time switched off can then control the average value of the output voltage, which corresponds
to pulse width modulation. In order to obtain a genuine DC voltage at the output, the DC components
of the pulsed output voltage are added together with the help of an LC circuit. This results in very low
losses, since the controlling semiconductor is either fully turned on or fully turned off.
227/301
Experiment: Switched-mode voltage regulator
Circuit diagram
228/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
1 V/div
1 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
DC voltage
30 V
Waveform
Square
Amplitude
10 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
229/301
4 ms/div
1
50 Hz
Experiment set-up
230/301
If the output voltage cannot be set using potentiometer P1, then instead of running the op-amp
with the suggested supply voltage of +30V and GND, apply +15V and -15V across the input
terminals of the op-amp.
Set the variable DC source to an output voltage of VDC = 30 V and configure the function
generator to output a square signal with a voltage VFG = 10 VPP at a frequency f= 50 Hz.
Turn on both instruments and use the potentiometers to adjust the output to Vout = 2 V. Use
potentiometer P1 for coarse adjustment to find the switching point and then use P2 for fine
adjustment to obtain the desired output voltage. Measure the output of the controlling
transistor at the measuring point Vcontrol as well as the output Vout and copy the results to
the oscilloscope grid.
Pulse length = ______________________ s
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
Now use potentiometer P1 to set an output voltage of Vout = 10 V. Measure the output of the
controlling transistor at the measuring point Vcontrol as well as the output Vout and copy the
results to the oscilloscope grid.
231/301
How long is the pulse at the output of the controlling transistor?
Pulse length = ______________________ s
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
Now use potentiometer P1 to set an output voltage of Vout = 17 V. Measure the output of the
controlling transistor at the measuring point Vcontrol as well as the output Vout and copy the
results to the oscilloscope grid.
232/301
How long is the pulse at the output of the controlling transistor?
Pulse length = ______________________ s
Use the
oscilloscope in
DC mode to
perform the
measurement.
What relationship can be derived from the foregoing measurements?
The output voltage depends on the frequency of the control

pulses.
The output voltage does not depend on the frequency of the
control pulses.
The output voltage depends on the number of control pulses.
The output voltage depends on the duty cycle of the control
pulses.
The output voltage depends on the length of the control
pulses.
233/301
More than one

answer may be
correct
234/301

In this experiment you will learn how a uni-junction transistor (UJT) works with the help of a circuit
which outputs a signal. By wiring the circuit in various ways it is possible to see how it operates.
Training contents
Charging and discharging of the capacitor which determines the frequency
Switching voltage of the UJT
Frequency changes
The following requirements are essential for this part of the

course to be completed successfully
Basic knowledge of alternating current
Measurement of frequency by means of an oscilloscope
Measurement of time with an oscilloscope
235/301
Experiment: Pulse generation
Circuit diagram
236/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
5 V/div
1 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
Variable DC Power
Supply
237/301
4 ms/div
X/T
B
Positive
10 V
Experiment set-up

Configure the oscilloscope with the values given above and make a trace of the characteristic.
238/301
All these values should be obtained using the oscilloscope and entered as appropriate.
How long is one period at measuring point OA?
T = ______________________ ms
How long is one period at measuring point OA if capacitor C1 (0.47 F) is replaced by a

22-F capacitor? To make it easier to take readings, you should set the time base to an
appropriate value.
T = ______________________ ms
239/301
Use the capacitor with C = 0.47 F again. What is the maximum voltage Vmax across C1?
vmax = ______________________ V
In order to obtain
readings more
easily, set the
oscilloscope
trigger to channel
A, the pre-trigger
to 50 and the
time base to 500
s/div.
How long does it take to discharge the capacitor? To make it easier to take readings, you
should set the time base to an appropriate value.
T = ______________________ s
240/301
DC converters
241/301

DC converters
Here you will learn how a DC voltage can be converted to a larger one.
Training contents
Use of resonant circuits
Rapid changes in coil circuits
Transformation/repeating
How transformed voltages respond to loading
Introduction
DC converters or DC-to-DC converters are voltage converters which can take an input voltage and
transform it into one of much higher voltage with very little loss of power.
Such a step-up converter is called a switched-mode power supply. The switching input is provided by
a semiconductor which periodically, and at high frequency, connects an inductor to ground and then
disconnects it again. Immediately after it is switched off, inductive peaks arise across the coil and
these are then fed to a capacitor via a diode. The inductive peaks can attain quite high values, being
partially dependent on the magnitude of the current flowing through the coil. This current can be
adjusted by changing the time for which the coil is switched on. The current rises as soon as the
transistor starts conducting and increases for as long as it remains so.
In practice, the time is limited because leaving it on for 100% of the time would result in a permanent
short circuit of the supply voltage. It is common therefore to limit the ratio of the time the circuit is
switched on to no more than 90%.
The ratio between the time the circuit is on to the time it is off determines the amplitude of the output
voltage. This is also referred to a Pulse width modulation (PWM).
The following is applicable to the output voltage:
VOUT = VIN * (1 + ton/toff)
This can never be smaller than the input voltage and, assuming the 90% limit is adhered to, it will be
no greater than 10 x VIN.
242/301
The diode is responsible for decoupling the capacitor current (which should be kept as constant as
possible) from the switching transistor. The capacitor needs to charge up fully in a relative short time
period and should therefore be resistant to transients and of sufficient size to provide adequate
smoothing of the output voltage.
It should be noted that energy is fed to the storage coil L1 during the time the transistor is conducting
and is then given up again while the transistor is turned off. The current in the coil is thus
commutated from the transistor to diode D1.
In contrast to linear regulators, the power losses are very low. Essentially the losses there are
derived from conducting losses from the semiconductor switches and frequency-dependent switching
losses. With modern semiconductors it is possible to make DC-DC converters with an efficiency of
considerably more than 90%.
243/301
Experiment: DC converter
Circuit diagram
244/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
2 V/div
2 V/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
100 s/div
Mode
X/T
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
245/301
Positive
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

Start up the circuit as indicated in the experiment instructions with a supply voltage of 15 V.
Use an oscilloscope to measure the output voltage of the oscillator at Vout1. Copy the signal voltage to
the oscilloscope grid. Use a pre-trigger of 50%.
246/301
Which of these statements concerning an oscillator using a uni-junction transistor (UJT) are
correct?
The UJT initially switches the full supply voltage via resistor
R2 until C1 has charged up and then switches off.
The UJT does not change state at the beginning of the
charging phase of C1.
The UJT changes state rapidly at the end of the charging
phase of C1.
The base of the UJT B1 controls the switching of the
component, by conducting maximum current at the beginning
and, unlike a bipolar transistor, stops conducting when a
defined minimum voltage is applied to B1.
The emitter of the UJT B1 controls the switching of the
component, by conducting the maximum current as of a
certain voltage and automatically switching off once the
current falls below a certain value.
247/301
More than one

answer may be
correct
By finding the duration T of one period of the signal at Vout1, determine the frequency at
which the subsequent transistor stage turns on the primary coil L1. Change the oscilloscope
time base to 2 ms/div and the pre-trigger setting to 0%.
Period T =
______________________ ms
Frequency f =
______________________ Hz
f=1/T
Measure the rectified output voltage Vout2 from the secondary coil L2 via the combination of
resistors R6 and R7 (1.1 M, representing a ratio of 10:1) at measuring points OB. Make
sure that the iron core is properly connected.
Output voltage OB = ______________________ V
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Why are the measurements at OB made inside the voltage divider?
Carrying out the measurement on a part of the voltage

divider increases the accuracy.
divider increases the safety of measuring it
divider increases the limited measuring range of the
oscilloscope input.
Only one answer

is correct

divider makes it easier to identify faults.
Measure the output voltage at measuring points OB and copy the trace into the oscilloscope grid. Set
the voltage sensitivity of the oscilloscope in AC mode to 100 mV/div.
248/301
Now use the combination of load resistors consisting of R6 = 100 k and R7 = 100 k at the
output Vout2
What is the rectified output voltage?
VOB = ______________________ V
249/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Thyristors
250/301

Full-wave control using zero-voltage switching
Here you can learn how AC load can be controlled with minimal jumps in the load current.
Training contents
How thyristors work
Triggering (firing) on the crossing of the zero-voltage axis
Control of triggering
Introduction
Thyristors are semiconductor components which are used in many applications to replace
mechanical switches and relays.
Like diodes, thyristors have conducting and non-conducting characteristics. Unlike diodes, though, a
thyristor can only conduct in the forward-bias direction if its third, controlling electrode, also called a
gate, has a suitable voltage applied to it.
Thyristors are easy to trigger but cannot be turned off again so simply. This behaviour can be
explained by the internal structure of the devices and by their equivalent circuit.
251/301
The four semiconductor layers with three p-n junctions develop at least one depletion layer
depending on the polarity of the voltage applied. If the anode is negative with respect to the cathode,
two depletion layers will be generated, whereas if the anode is more positive, there will be only one.
If a suitable control voltage is applied at the gate, the depletion layer at the positive anode will
weaken and the thyristor will start to conduct. It is thereby triggered or fired. The component remains
in this state until the current through the thyristor has gone below a certain value, called the holding
current, whereby the thyristor is reset. The depletion layers then build up again.
This means that a thyristor can only be reset in special circuits or where the current passes through
zero from positive to negative, as happens with AC.
The internal functioning of a thyristor can be explained using the following design diagram and
equivalent circuit, depicting the component as two complementary transistors:
The gate current controls the base of one of the two transistor sections, which itself then controls the
base of the second transistor. If both are turned on, they both remain in the conducting state. Only in
rare cases is it possible to reset a thyristor via its gate.
252/301
Experiment: DC switching
Circuit diagram
253/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Variable DC Power
Supply
254/301
20 V
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

If a positive pulse is applied to the control input G (the gate) via a switch, the thyristor turns on and
the resistance of the path between the cathode and the anode drops to a low level. The thyristor
remains in this conducting state until the voltage drops below the so-called holding voltage. Once it
does, the thyristor switches to a high-resistance state and stops conducting.
When in its conducting state, the resistance of a thyristor may be of the order of just a few milliohms.
For that reason, a resistor of sufficiently high rating needs to be included in the main thyristor circuit
in order to limit the current there. The controlling circuit (between gate and cathode) also needs to
include a resistor to protect the component.
255/301
Turn the switch on and then quickly turn it off again. What do you observe?
The lamp comes on and then turns off again.

The lamp stays off.
The lamp comes on and stays on.
Now press the button. What do you observe?

The lamp turns off again.
The lamp lights up.
The lamp briefly turns on but then turns off again.
The lamp briefly turns off but then turns on again.
Operate the switch again to turn on the lamp. Measure the voltage across the thyristor.
Vforward = ______________________ V
The thyristor
works like a
switch and its
resistance
becomes very
low.
Now press the button again to turn off the lamp. Measure the voltage across the thyristor.
Vreverse = ______________________ V
256/301
The thyristor
blocks the flow of
current.
Experiment: Full-wave control
Circuit diagram
257/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
2 V/div
2 V/div
Coupling
AC
AC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Variable DC Power
Supply
10 V
Waveform
sine
Amplitude
20 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
258/301
10 ms/div
1
50 Hz
Experiment set-up

Configure the circuit as shown in the set-up diagram and turn it on. Potentiometer P1 should
be set in such a way that the lamp is off or shining as dimly as possible (turn the pot all the
way to the right).
Measure the voltage Vin at the input of the control circuit (corresponding to the output of the
astable multivibrator) and voltage Vout at the output of the bridge rectifier, then copy the results
to the oscilloscope grid.
259/301
The control pulses at the input Vin of the control circuit stop
the thyristor working.
The control pulses at the input Vin of the control circuit allow
the thyristor to work.
During a control pulse, the output of the rectifier Vout can be
short circuited to ground via the thyristor.
During a control pulse, the output of the rectifier Vout can be
conducted through to the load via the thyristor.
How many half-waves are affected by the thyristor after the falling edge of the pulse at Vin?
An unlimited number, since this is determined by the

transistor in the control circuit.
None, since the thyristor immediately turns off on the falling
edge of the pulse.
At most one, as the thyristor needs to be retriggered each
time the voltage passes through zero.
260/301
Only one answer

is correct!
Potentiometer P1 should be turned to the centre so that the lamp is lit with medium intensity.
Measure the voltage Vin at the input of the control circuit (corresponding to the output of the astable
multivibrator) and voltage Vout at the output of the bridge rectifier, then copy the results to the
oscilloscope grid.
The length of the control pulses at the input of the control

circuit Vin determines how long the thyristor remains off.
The length of the control pulses at the input of the control
circuit Vin determines how long the thyristor remains on.
The width of the pulse determines how long the thyristor
remains off, thus allowing a load current to flow through the
lamp.
The width of the pulse determines how long the thyristor
remains on, thus allowing a load current to flow through the
lamp.
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
More than one
answer may be
correct.
Potentiometer P1 should be turned to all the way to the left so that the lamp is lit with maximum
intensity.
Measure the voltage Vin at the input of the control circuit (corresponding to the output of the astable
multivibrator) and voltage Vout at the output of the bridge rectifier, then copy the results to the
oscilloscope grid.
261/301
What conclusions can you draw?
The thyristor cannot operate during one of the control pulses.

The thyristor can only operate as far as the next zero
crossing during a control pulse.
The thyristor can operate during one of the control pulses.
The thyristor cannot operate without a control pulse.
The thyristor can only operate as far as the next zero
crossing without a control pulse.
The thyristor can continue to operate even without any
control pulse.
262/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
More than one
answer may be
correct.
263/301

Here you will learn how the power supplied to loads in an AC circuit can be regulated by means of a
thyristor or triac.
Training contents
How thyristors and TRIACs work
Triggering and resetting of thyristors and TRIACs
Use of a capacitor as the source of a reset pulse
Introduction to triacs
A triac is a semiconductor component which is used instead of a mechanical switch, relay, switching
transistor or voltage/power regulator in many applications.
Unlike a thyristor, a triac has a conducting characteristic in both directions and may be compared with
two thyristors connected the opposite way round.
The way a triac works can be explained by considering it as two virtual thyristors. The four
semiconductor layers of the two thyristors with their three p-n junctions always develop at least one
depletion layer, depending on the polarity.
If a suitable voltage is applied to the control input, the gate, when the anode is connected to the
positive, the depletion layer at that end shrinks and the thyristor triggers, i.e. starts to conduct. This
state continues until the current through the triac drops below a certain value called the holding
current, in which case this virtual thyristor turns off. The depletion layers then build up again. This
means that a triac only turns off when the current passes through zero (drops below the holding
current), which is normal for alternating current. The internal functioning of a triac can be explained
by the following illustration showing the design and the equivalent circuit for the two virtual thyristors:
264/301
The gate current controls the gate of one sub-thyristor which becomes conductive in its forward
direction. The triac cannot be turned off again via this gate.
265/301
Experiment: Phase control
Circuit diagram
266/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
10 V/div
10 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
AC power supply
267/301
2 ms/div
X/T
B
Positive
24 V
Experiment set-up

Configure the oscilloscope with the settings above and connect the measurement probes for
channel A to the power supply (measurement point OA) and those for channel B across the
0.47-F capacitor (measuring point OB). Vary the potentiometer setting and observe the
oscilloscope trace. Turn the potentiometer up to its limit and copy the recorded oscilloscope
trace below.
Since the oscilloscope is limited to displaying no more than 5 V/div, it is necessary in this
experiment to use the 1:10 probes (slider to "X10") on the oscilloscope instead of the usual 1:1
probes to get around the problem (see example in the experiment set-up instructions). Adjust
the configuration for the corresponding oscilloscope channels by setting the "sampling ratio"
menu option to "X10". Then it is possible to display signals of greater than 5 V/div.
268/301
Note: it is not possible for the lamp to light up very brightly, since the half waves cannot reach
full saturation.
Which of the following statements are applicable?
The triac turns on the lamp briefly during each half-wave of

the alternating current, causing it to shine then.
The potentiometer modifies the time at which the triac
switches.
The lamp turns on, indicating that the triac remains
permanently switched on. The brightness changes because
the current is being modified by the potentiometer.
The lamp shines with the same brightness regardless of the
potentiometer setting.
269/301
The voltage
across the
resistor is
proportional to
the current
flowing
Which of the following statements are applicable?
The potentiometer limits the current through the diac,

causing the triac to trigger later.
The potentiometer, along with C1, R2 and C2, form a phase
shifting circuit and therefore cause the phase of the
triggering voltage across the diac to change.
The diac always triggers the triac at the same time, but limits
the voltage across the lamp.
The phase at the moment of triggering always changes by
the same amount for both the positive and negative halfwaves.
Now swap the triac for a thyristor and repeat the two measurements carried out above.
270/301
How does the functioning of a triac differ from that of a thyristor?
The operation of a triac and a thyristor do not differ in this

experiment.
The triac turns on for every half-wave, whereas the thyristor
only triggers on positive half-waves.
The lamp shines equally brightly when it is at its maximum
since the maximum current is always the same.
The lamp is brighter with the triac because it is turned on by
the voltage signal twice as often as the thyristor.
The lamp is less bright with the thyristor because it is only
turned on by the voltage signal every second half-wave.
271/301
More than one

answer more be
correct
272/301

Operational amplifier used to make a differential amp
Here you can learn how an operational amplifier can be used to measure differences in voltage.
Training contents
How an op-amp works
Familiarisation with various op-amp circuits
Introduction
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are high-quality DC amplifiers with special properties.
Originally designed for mathematical operation and closed-loop control, op-amps are used more and
more nowadays in analogue circuits.
Modern operational amplifiers incorporate many transistors and resistors into a small case and
therefore offer many advantages over amps built with discrete components, including the following
aspects:
Space saving
Cheaper than multiple discrete components
Easy to use - making circuit design simpler
Outstanding properties and technical data
Due to these benefits, op-amps have now penetrated into all areas of electronics and there are many
variations from various manufacturers on the market at inexpensive prices.
Figure 1:
Operational amplifiers come in a variety of
different shaped casings, but the most common
is the dual inline (DIL) format.
In this age of miniaturisation, though, many more
are being supplied in the newer SMD (surface
mount device) format.
273/301
Circuit symbol
A variety of circuit symbols are currently in use. The older symbol, which is still commonly used, is
simply a triangle with two inputs and an output. The inverting input is indicated by a minus sign while
the non-inverting input has a plus sign. The output is not marked with any further indication. In some
cases, though two more inputs, representing the positive and negative of the power supply are
shown.
The newer symbol uses a rectangle instead of a triangle, but has not yet found general acceptance.
Common depiction (similar to DIN 40 900 T10)
Symbol as per DIN 40 900 T13
The illustration shows the circuit symbols for an op-amp.

The form on the left is more commonly used and will therefore be employed in the rest of this course.
Description of functionality
An ideal operational amplifier would have infinite gain, which is independent of frequency. What gets
amplified is the difference in voltage between the two inputs, making it common to use the terms
operational amplifier and differential amplifier synonymously.
The component has an inverting input (In) and a non-inverting input (In+). If there is a larger voltage
at the inverting input than there is at the non-inverting input, the op-amp will amplify this difference
and output a negative voltage. If the higher potential should be at the non-inverting input, the output
voltage will be positive.
Since it is not possible for an ideal op-amp to exist in practice, the examples have certain limits,
although these can vary greatly from component to component.
274/301
Typical parameters:
Operating voltages:
3 V ... +/-30 V
Voltage gain:
103 ... 108
Input resistance:
105 ... 1015 ohms
Output resistance:
15 ... 3000 ohms
Frequency range:
0 Hz ... 100 MHz
The way operational amplifiers function in an application is determined by the external circuitry. A
large number of variations are possible, all of which are commonly used for control switching and are
described in technical literature. In this introduction, we will be concerned with just three basic
circuits, which are especially important. These will be investigated in the subsequent experiments.
Inverting amplifiers:
One standard circuit using op-amps is an inverting amplifier circuit.

The circuit is illustrated above. The gain is exclusively determined by the ratio of the two resistors R1
and R2.
The output signal Vout is 180 out of phase with the input signal Vin. This inversion is expressed by
the negative sign of the gain G.
When R1 is chosen to be greater than R2, the gain G is less than 1. This accomplishes attenuation of
the signal.
The input resistance of the circuit is determined by R1.
275/301
Non-inverting amplifiers
An amplifier circuit in which the output signal is in phase with the input (not inverted), can be
implemented by means of an op-amp using the circuit shown here. The gain depends on the quotient
of the resistance values for R2 and R1 and is always greater than 1. The input resistance of the circuit
is very high, determined by the input resistance of the op-amp itself. Depending on the op-amp used,
it can be in the range of 105 ... 1015 ohms.
Voltage follower/impedance converter
276/301
One special form of non-inverting amplifier is called a voltage follower and has a gain of 1.
A voltage follower circuit can also be called an impedance converter since the input resistance is high
and the output resistance is relatively small.
Differential amplifier
To make a differential amplifier, the op-amp is connected in such a way that it works both as an
inverting and a non-inverting amp simultaneously. The relationship between the input and output
voltages is as follows:
If the relevant resistors in the circuit are of the same value (R3 = R1, R4 = R2), the generalised
relationship can be simplified to the product of the difference between the two input voltages and the
ratio of the resistors R2 and R1:
One special case exists: Vout = Vin + Vin for R1 = R2.
277/301
An important application for this is the conversion of symmetrical signals into one signal referenced to
ground. In this way, any disturbances which are additive between the two symmetrical signals can be
eliminated. A prerequisite is that the ratio between the input resistances, including the internal
resistance values of the signal sources, are implemented as precisely as possible. It is necessary to
take into account that the input resistances for (= R1) and + (= R3+R4) are not equal in order to
obtain the optimum DC suppression. For this reason, a range of integrated circuits (resistor networks)
is available which contain resistors of very high precision.
278/301
Experiment: Inverting amplifier
Circuit diagram
279/301
Equipment
Equipment
280/301
Settings
Supply voltage
15 V
Variable DC power
supply
1V
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

For R1 use a 10-k resistor and for R2 use one of 47 k. Set the function generator to a
voltage of 1 V (configuration as above) and connect it into the circuit.
Measure the output voltage (multimeter setting AV) and copy it into the box provided.
Output voltage Vout = ______________________ V
281/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Determine the gain of the circuit:
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Now set the function generator to a DC voltage Vin of 2 V (20%).
Measure the output voltage and enter it into the box provided.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Uout / Vin
Compare the results. How does the circuit respond to changes in the input voltage?
The gain decreases.

The gain remains the same.
The gain increases.
Only one answer

is correct
Turn off the DC supply. Change the value of the feedback resistor R2 from 47 k to 100 k.
282/301
Now set up an input voltage Vin = 1 V (10%) again and measure the output voltage.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
What is the relationship between the input voltage, the feedback resistance and the gain?
The gain changes with the input resistance.

The gain changes with the input voltage.
The gain changes with the feedback resistance.
The gain changes in proportion to the ratio of the output
resistance to the input resistance.
The gain changes with the proportion of the output voltage
fed back to the input.
voltage to the input voltage.
Turn off the DC supply. Now change the input resistor R1 from 10 k to 22 k.
283/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Set up an input voltage of Vin= 1 V and measure the output voltage.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
What is the relationship between the input and the output voltage, the input and output
resistance and the feedback resistance with respect to the gain?
The gain depends on the input resistance.

The gain depends on the input voltage.
The gain depends on the output resistance.
The gain depends on the output voltage.
The gain depends on the feedback resistance.
284/301
Experiment: Non-inverting amplifier
Circuit diagram
285/301
Equipment
Equipment
286/301
Settings
Supply voltage
15 V
DC power supply
1V
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up
In this circuit, use a 10-k resistor for R1 and a 47-k resistor for R2. Set the variable DC
source to a voltage of 1 V and connect the circuit to it. Measure the output voltage and enter
it into the box provided.
287/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Determine the gain of the circuit.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Set the voltage Vin to 2 V (20%).
Measure the output voltage and enter it into the box provided.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Compare the results. How does the circuit respond to changes in the input voltage?
The gain gets much bigger.

The gain gets much smaller.
The gain remains roughly the same.
Only one answer

is correct
Turn off the DC supply. Change the value of the feedback resistor R2 from 47 k to 10 k.
288/301
Set up an input voltage of Vin = 1 V and measure the output voltage.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode to measure
the voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Compare the results for the gain with various feedback resistors. What is the relationship
between the input voltage, the feedback resistance and the gain?
The gain changes with the input voltage.

The gain changes with the feedback resistance.
The gain changes with the input resistance.
voltage to the input voltage.
resistance to the input resistance.
The gain changes with the proportion of the output voltage
fed back to the input.
289/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Experiment: Differential amplifier using an op-amp
Circuit diagram
290/301
Equipment
Equipment
291/301
Settings
Positive input
Negative input
Ground
Selector knob
V-- (DC)
Experiment set-up

Use potentiometer P1 to set the voltage at the input Vin1 to 2 V and potentiometer P2 to set the
voltage at input Vin2 to 4 V.
Measure the output voltage Vout.
292/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode for these
measurements.
How does the output voltage relate to the difference between the input voltages? Calculate
the gain for the differential voltage.
Gaindiff. = ______________________
Gaindiff. = Vout /
(Vin2 - Vin1)
Now set up the voltages at the circuit inputs Vin1 and Vin2 such that Vin1 = 2 V and Vin2 = 6 V.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode for these
measurements.
Gaindiff. = ______________________
Gaindiff. = Vout /
(Vin2 - Vin1)
Now set up the voltages at the circuit inputs Vin1 and Vin2 such that Vin1 = 2 V and Vin2 = -4 V.
293/301
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode for these
measurements.
Take note of the
sign.
Gaindiff. = ______________________
Gaindiff. = Vout /
(Vin2 - Vin1). Take
note of the sign.
Now set up the voltages at the circuit inputs Vin1 and Vin2 such that Vin 1 = -2 V and Vin2= -4 V.
Use the
multimeter in DC
mode for these
measurements.
Take note of the
sign.
Gaindiff. = ______________________
294/301
Gaindiff. = Vout /
(Vin2 - Vin1). Take
note of the sign.
Which of the following statements about the amplification of the difference between the two
input voltages are correct?
The gain for the differential voltage gets smaller as the

difference increases.
The gain for the differential voltage gets bigger as the
difference increases.
The gain for the differential voltage does not essentially
change as the difference increases.
The gain for the differential voltage depends on the feedback
resistance.
The gain for the differential voltage depends on the input
resistance.
The gain for the differential voltage depends on the output
resistance.
295/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Experiment: Dynamic response of op-amps
Circuit diagram
296/301
Equipment
Equipment
Settings
Channel
A
Channel
B
Sensitivity
2 V/div
2 V/div
Coupling
DC
DC
Normal
Normal
Polarity
Y-pos
Time base
Mode
Trigger channel
Trigger edge
X/T
A
Positive
Supply voltage
15 V
Waveform
Sine
Amplitude
1 Vpp
Frequency factor
Frequency
297/301
200 s/div
1k
1 kHz
Experiment set-up

Jumpers B1 and B3 are to be removed and a sinusoidal voltage of 1 VPP and frequency f = 1
kHz applied to the input Vin.
What is the output voltage?
Output voltage Vout = ______________________ VPP
298/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Now insert jumper B1, whereby the feedback resistance R3 is halved to 5 k because two
resistors of equal size have been connected in parallel. Set the function generator frequency
back to f= 1kHz with V = 1 VPP.
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Gain = ______________________
Gain = Vout / Vin
Which of the following conclusions are correct with reference to the previous
measurements?
The gain is dependent on the frequency.

The gain is not dependent on the frequency.
The gain is dependent on the input resistance.
The gain is not dependent on the input resistance
Increasing the feedback resistance reduces the band width.
Increasing the feedback resistance increases the band width.
Increasing the feedback resistance reduces the gain.
Increasing the feedback resistance increases the gain.
299/301
More than one

answer may be
correct.
Remove jumper B1. Disconnect input Vin1 from ground by removing jumper B2. Now insert
jumper B3, which applies the same voltage to both inputs. What is the output voltage?
What is the explanation for the response seen in the previous measurement?
The inputs are shorted together so that there is no voltage at

either the input or the output.
Connecting the inputs together makes the voltage at the
input too small to produce an output.
The same signal is applied to the inverting and non-inverting
outputs so that they cancel out.
300/301
Use the
oscilloscope to
measure the
voltage.
Copyright
Congratulations!
This is the last page. You have completed the "Basic electronic circuits" course.
Copyright 2015 LUCAS-NLLE GmbH.

The EloTrain "Basic electronic circuits" course is protected by copyright. All rights pertaining
thereto are reserved. Any reproduction of the document as a file or in written form be it photocopy,
microfilm or any other method or conversion into a machine-compatible language, in particular for
data processing systems, without the expressed written approval of the LUCAS-NLLE GmbH is
strictly forbidden.
The software as described above is made available on the basis of a general licensing agreement or
in the form of a single license. The use or reproduction of the software is only permitted in strict
compliance with the contractual terms stated therein.
If changes have been performed in a manner which was not strictly authorised by the LUCAS-NLLE
GmbH, any product liability or warranty claims pertaining thereto are null and void.
301/301
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EloTrain: Basic electronic circuits

Course no.: SH5002-7J version 2.0

Patch panel and jumpers

Plug-in component set

Instructions for experimentation

Amplifier circuits with bipolar transistors

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Common emitter circuit

Experiment: Common collector circuit

Basic amplifier circuits using field effect transistors (FETs)

Training objectives and introduction

Training objectives and introduction

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Darlington amplifier

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Emitter coupling

Phase inverter stages

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Phase inverter stage

Differential amplifiers using transistors

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Differential amplifier using transistors

Two-stage amplifier circuits

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Amplifier circuit

Push-pull end stages

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: push-pull end stage

Positive and negative feedback

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Negative feedback

Experiment: Positive feedback

Schmitt triggers and square-wave generators

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Thresholds and square-waves

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Astable multivibrator

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Monostable multivibrator

Bistable multivibrators (flip-flops)

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Bistable multivibrator

Saw-tooth generators (pulse generators)

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Saw-tooth generator

Sine-wave generator using an LC circuit

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Sine-wave generator

Amplitude modulators and demodulators

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Amplitude modulator

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Frequency modulation

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Half-wave rectifier

Experiment: Bridge rectifier

Experiment: Three-phase bridge rectifier

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Voltage multipliers

Training objectives and introduction

Experiment: Voltage stabilisation

Experiment: Adjustable voltage stabilisation

Switched-mode voltage regulators