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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
TO
CALCULUS
c
.
S {a,b,c,........} {x : x a,b,c,.......}
Figure 1 : Set S
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T
S T
Figure 3 : Subset
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S T
S T {x : x S and x T }
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S T
REAL NUMBERS
The set of real numbers is often denoted by
R. Much of calculus is based on properties
of the real number system. Real numbers
are numbers that can be expressed as
decimals, such as
3
1
0.75000... , 0.3333....
3
4
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numbers
Examples are:
1 4 4 4 200
,
,
3 9 9 9 13
and 57
57
.
1
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2, 3 5, log10 3
Real
Numbers
Rational
Numbers
Counting
Numbers
Irrational
Numbers
Integers
+
r
Figure 8 : r < s
+
s
Figure 9 : r > s
If r is greater than or equal to s, we write
r s.
Note: The relation r < s also means s > r.
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a b ac bc
a b ac bc
a b and c 0 ac bc I
a b and c 0 bc ac
Special Case: a b b a
1
0
a
5.
6. If a and b are both positive or both
a 0
negative, then
ab
1 1
b a
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1 1
2 5
10
Intervals
A
a
B
intervals
Figure 10 : Intervals
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Interval
Notation
Set Notation
Open
Closed
Half-open
( a, b )
{x : a x b}
[ a, b]
{x : a x b}
[ a , b)
{x : a x b}
( a, b]
{x : a x b}
( a, )
{x : x a}
[ a, )
{x : x a}
( , b)
{x : x b}
( , b]
{x : x b}
Infinite
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12
( , )
Example :
Rewrite the following intervals using
inequalities:
( a )(1,5)
( d )( ,1]
(b)[1,4]
(c )( 4,20]
Solution :
We simply apply the definition of each
interval notation, to get the following:
(a ) (1,5) {x :1 x 5}
(c) (4, 20] {: 4 x 20}
(b) [ 1, 4] { x : 1 x 4}
( d ) ( ,1] { x : x 1}
Example :
Rewrite the set
notation.
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{x : x 2 x 6 0}
in interval
13
Solution:
The stated condition x x 6 0 can be written
in factored from as (x + 3)(x 2) < 0. That
is, the product of the numbers must be
negative. Therefore, one of the numbers
must be positive and the other, negative.
Since x + 3 is greater than x - 2, it must be
that
x+3>0
and x - 2 < 0,
x > -3
and
x <2
-3 < x < 2
2
x
2x 1
3
14
6
5
(c)
x 1
Solution:
2x 1 x 3
2x x 4
(a)
x4
(b)
x
2x 1
3
x 6x 3
0 7x 3
3 7x
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3
x
7
15
3
, .
7
3
7
6
5
x 1
6
is
x 1 , because otherwise
x 1
undefined or negative. Therefore, ( x 1)
is positive and the inequality will be
preserved if we multiply both sides by
( x 1) , and we have
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16
6
5
x 1
6 5x 5
11 5 x
11
x
5
11
5
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if x 0
if x 0
17
0 0,
5 5 5,
a a
real line.
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5 5
-5
3
0
4 1 1 4 3
1
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Without
absolute value
Interval notation
x p
-p < x < p
x p
px p
( -p , p )
[ -p , p ]
x p
x > p or x < p
( , p ) ( p, )
x p
x p or x p
(, p ] [ p, )
xr p
r-p<x<r+p
xr p
r pxr p
(r-p,r+p)
[r-p,r+p]
xr p
x > r + p or x <
r-p
(, r p ) (r p, )
xr p
x r p or x r p
(, r p ] [ r p, )
Note:
x a
if and only if x a
20
2 x 3 7
2 x 4
x 2
The solutions of
-2.
2x 3 7
are x = 5 and x =
(b) 2 x 3 1
Solution :
(a) We have
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2
2
1 1 5 1
x
x
2
6 4
x
1
3 2
x
1
1
x
3
2
(b)
2x 3 1
x
3 1
2 2
x2
or
2 x 3 1
x
3
1
2
2
x 1
22
1.
a a
2.
ab a . b
3.
a
a
b
b
4.
ab a b
b0
(The Triangle Inequality)
3 3 ,
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a b a 2ab b
a a2 a
2
a 2a b b
ab a b
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a 2 2ab b 2
a b
ab
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