EEE First Year

Elements Of Electronics Engg. Notes by Sowmya Sunkara, Asst. Prof. Dept.
Of E&C, BMSCE
Unit 4: Communication systems
Introduction to Analog Communications, Modulation Schemes :- Amplitude modulation (Derivation, frequency
spectrum only), Frequency Modulation (qualitative analysis only), AM and FM: A comparison, Introduction to Digital
Communications :- Digital System Block design , analog to digital and digital to analog conversions, error detection
and digital encoding system, Introduction to optical fibre: Advantages and disadvantages of optical fibre, optical
communication systems, Applications of fibre optic communication, Numerical problems as applicable.
10hrs
Chapter 14.1, 14.2.1, 14.2.2, 14.2.4, 14.4, 15.1.1, 15.3.1, 15.3.5
Introduction to Analog Communications
Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. The term communication refers to transmission,
reception and processing of information by electrical means.
The subject has its origin in the beginning of wire telegraphy in the middle of 19th century and radio
communication at the beginning of 20th century. Radio communication is the process of sending information from
one place and receiving at another place without using any connecting wires.it is also called wireless
communication.
Basic block diagram communication system
Information
The communication systems communicate messages. The message comes from the information sources.
Example: human voice, picture, code, data, music etc...
Transmitter
The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information into a signal
suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.
Communication channel
The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is transmitted from one place to
Another.it can be a pair of conducting wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber or free space.
Noise
Noise is a random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the communication system via medium and
interferes with the transmitted message.
Receiver
A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the original
information.
Communication systems can be fundamentally divided into two categories: Analog and Digital.
Analog refers to a continuous, smooth change of signal. Digital system consists of discrete, distinguishable steps.
Digital is further defined in terms of 2 possible steps known as 1 and 0, on and off, or true and false.
In a historical context, Communications began as a strictly analog process. Original radio, telegraph, and
even telephone systems were analog simply because a digital technique does not exist.
Analog communication had an advantage since all information transmitted at that time was analog in
nature.
As solid state electronics evolved into integrated circuits and other devices, they showed an inherent
advantage in speed, size and power consumption when compared to analog devices.
Elements Of Electronics Engg. Notes by Sowmya Sunkara, Asst. Prof. Dept. Of E&C, BMSCE
Digital electronics led to the development of desktop and laptop computer, calculators and miniature
radios.
Digital environment is better than that of analog in many ways.
Modulation
Modulation is an important step of communication system.

Modulation is a process by which a high frequency sine wave (carrier) is made to carry a modulating signal
(like audio signal).
Here modulating signal is a message signal/information signal or base band signal.
Modulation is also defined as the process whereby some characteristic like amplitude, frequency, phase of
a carrier wave is varied in accordance with the intensity of modulating wave.
Need for modulation: (i) To separate signal from different transmitters:
Audio frequencies are within the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Without modulation all signals at same
frequencies from different transmitters would be mixed up. There by giving impossible situation to tune to
any one of them.
In order to separate the various signals, radio stations must broadcast at different frequencies.
Each radio station must be given its own frequency band.
This is achieved by frequency translation as a result of modulation process.
(ii) To reduce the height of the antenna: -
For efficient transmission the transmitting antennas should have length at least equal to a quarter of
the wavelength of the signal to be transmitted.
For an electromagnetic wave of frequency 15 kHz, the wavelength is 20 km and one-quarter of this will
be equal to 5 km.
Obviously, a vertical antenna of this size is impractible.
On the other hand, for a frequency of 1 MHz, this height is reduced to 75m.
wavelength
Velocity
3 10 8
metres
frequency frequency ( Hz)
(iii)To Increase Operating Range
The power radiated by an antenna of length l is proportional to (l/)2.

This shows that for the same antenna length, power radiated is large for shorter wavelength.
Thus, our signal which is of low frequency must be translated to the high frequency spectrum of the
electromagnetic wave.
This is achieved by the process of modulation.
(iv) Modulation also increases distance of communication and reduces the effect of noise.
Amplitude modulation
AM is a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of the modulating signal , i.e. amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating voltage, Keeping frequency and phase of the carrier constant.
Let the Unmodulated Carrier and Message signal voltages be respectively represented as
ec = Ec cos(c t )--------(1) and em = Em cos(m t )------------(2)

Where Ec --------amplitude of carrier signal
c --------angular frequency of carrier signal
Em --------amplitude of message signal
m --------angular frequency of message signal
The carrier frequency c is much greater than frequency of modulating signal, m. the resulting
modulated wave has form
ec = [Ec + KaEm cos(m t)] cos(c t)---------------(3)
Where Ka is a proportionality factor which determines maximum variation in amplitude for a
given signal voltage Em and the amplitude factor [Ec + KaEm cos(m t )] represents the variation of
the wave.
ec = Ec [1+ {KaEm/Ec } cos(m t)] cos(c t)
ec = Ec [1+ ma cos(m t )] cos(c t)
where ma= KaEm/Ec is called modulation index,
ec = Ec cos(c t)+ ma Ec cos(m t)cos(c t)
it is used calculate percentage of modulation.
ec = Ec cos(c t)+ ma Ec/2 cos(c - m)t + ma Ec/2 cos(c+ m)t
Carrier
lower sideband
upper sideband
The waveforms and frequency spectrum is as shown below.
Frequency spectrum of AM Wave

The following points are to be noted in amplitude modulation.
1. The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the intensity of the signal.
2. The amplitude variations of the carrier wave are at the signal frequency .
3. The frequency of the amplitude modulated wave remains the same ie.carrier frequency .
Modulation index or degree of modulation or percentage of modulation or depth of modulation
It is an indication of the strength of the message signal.
The greater the modulation index ma the stronger and clearer will be the message signal.
Thus for ma=1 or 100% the message signal being transmitted will be strongest.
For amplitude modulation ma= Emax - Emin

Emax + Emin
Frequency modulation
When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is called
frequency modulation.
Here the amplitude of the modulated wave remains the same ie carrier wave amplitude.
The frequency variations of carrier wave depend upon the instantaneous amplitude of the signal.
When the signal approaches positive peaks as the B and F, the carrier frequency is increased to maximum
and during negative peak, the carrier frequency is reduced to minimum as shown by widely spaced cycles.
Disadvantages of FM over AM
Comparison of Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation

The Advantages of AM
1.
The modulators and demodulators are very simple and straightforward to build. This makes the cost of
receivers very low and therefore available to the majority of people.
2. AM requires only a very small bandwidth to transmit the same information compared to FM where the
bandwidth requirement is significantly higher.
The Disadvantages of AM
1.
All communication signals pick up interference and noise, and these usually affect the amplitude of the
carrier. In an AM system (where the information is contained in the amplitude) the noise adds to the
information and thus pollutes it. It is virtually impossible to remove this additional component unless the
original signal is available for comparison and this is hardly ever the case.
2. In AM transmissions a significant amount of the transmitted power is contained within the carrier, which is
eventually discarded at the receiver. Only a limited amount () of the original power is located in the
sideband where the information signal is located. This makes AM an inefficient system.
The Advantages of FM
1.
In an FM system, the amplitude of the carrier remains constant; the information is contained in the
frequency deviation of the carrier. During transmission it will pick up noise just like any other signal,
however, as there is no information contained in the amplitude of the carrier, it is relatively
straightforward to remove any noise picked up during transmission at the receiver. FM transmissions
therefore have greater immunity to the effect of noise.
2. In a wideband FM signal, the amplitude of the carrier component is relatively small: most of the
transmitted power goes into the sidebands, where the information is carried. Therefore FM is a much more
efficient process than AM.
3. Using FM, it is possible to transmit the same quality of information using a lower power transmitter.
The Disadvantages of FM
1.
The circuitry involved in modulating and demodulating FM signals is much more complex that of AM
receivers. This makes FM transmitting and receiving equipment more expensive, and less attractive to
purchase.
2. The transmission range of FM signals is lower than that of AM signals, meaning that more repeater stations
will be required to cover a large area.
3. At high frequency, the carrier signal travels in straight lines, sometimes referred to as line-of-sight
communication, meaning that in hilly areas more repeaters will be required.
Introduction to Digital Communications
Digital system block design
A typical communication system involves a transmitting station (sender), a receiving station (user), and a
connecting medium called a channel.
A block diagram of the principal functions that may be present in a digital communication system is illustrated in
the fig as the overall system is digital, the transmitting subsystem can accept such signals directly.
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter
It can also work with analog signals if they are converted into digital form in the analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter. A/D conversion involves periodically sampling the analog waveform and quantizing the samples.
Quantization amounts to rounding to the nearest of a number amplitudes.
However in the rounding process some information may be lost that limits the accuracy with which the
analog signal can be reconstructed in the receiver.
The actual output of the A/D converter at point A in the fig is a discrete voltage level. These levels can be
represented by a sequence of binary representation, often binary digits 0 and 1.
Source encoder
The purpose of source encoder is to effectively convert each discrete level into a suitable digital
representation, often binary.
Digital messages are said to process redundancy if their levels are not equally probable or are not
statistically independent.
The practical purpose of source encoder is to remove redundancy.
Channel encoder
This block helps to reduce the effects of channel caused errors.
This is achieved by adding controlled redundancy to the source encoders digital representation in a known
manner such that errors may be reduced.
Channel
The transmitted signal moves along with some errors/noise/interferences etc.. through a medium called channel
Channel decoder
The purpose is to reconstruct the signal to the best extent possible, the output that was generated by the source
encoder and channel encoder.
Source decoder
It performs exact inverse of the source encoding function. For digital messages its output becomes the final
receiver output.
Digital-to-Analog converter
If the original message was analog, the source decoder output is passed through a Digital-to-Analog converter which
reconstructs the original message using sampling theory.
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter
Since modern communications are hybrid in nature, some begin as analog and some as digital, a method is
required to convert analog signals to digital signals and vice versa.
A/D conversion involves 2 stages
1. Sampling the message.
2. Quantizing the samples.
To obtain in digital form, an analog continuous time signal is converted into a list of numbers by sampling
the time function.
Then the lists of numbers are coded into discrete code words. Each sample is represented by a digital code.
Smaller samples and more bits in the code increase the accuracy of the conversion.
In majority of digital communication system, the actual form used for code words is binary number
composed of 1,s and 0s.
For example, if the samples ranged from 0 to 10v, each sample could be rounded to the nearest integer.
This would result in code words drawn from the 11 integers between 0 and 10 with the binary
restriction,the converter would operate on the 0 to 10v samples by first rounding each sample value to the
nearest volt.it would then convert the resulting integer into 4-bit binary number.
Unit3: Digital Electronics

Number systems and conversion (binary, decimal, octal, hexadecimal), Logic gates: Review of
representation of logic gates & truth table ,Boolean algebra and, Demorgans theorem :Boolean
laws, duality theorem, Demorgans theorem, universality on NAND gates, Logic circuits: Sum of
product methods and product of sum, simplification of Boolean expressions, Designing
combinational logic networks, Half and full subtractor, Memory parameters, Memory
classification, Numerical problems as applicable.
10hrs
Chapter 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.7.2, 12.2, 12.3.1

Number Systems
There are infinite ways to represent a number. The four commonly associated with modern
computers and digital electronics are: Decimal System
Binary System
Octal System
Hexadecimal System
Decimal System- The decimal system is the system which we use in everyday counting. The
number system includes the ten digits from 0 through 9. These digits are recognized as the
symbols of the decimal system. Each digit in a base ten number represents units ten times the
units of the digit to its right.
For example-9542= 9000 + 500 + 40 +2= (9 103) + (5 102) + (4 101) + (2 100)
Binary System - Computers do not use the decimal system for counting and arithmetic. Their
CPU and memory are made up of millions of tiny switches that can be either in ON and OFF states.
0 represents OFF and 1 represents ON. In this way we use binary system. Binary system has two
numbers 0 and 1. Binary system is called base 2 system.
Octal System- The octal system is commonly used with computers. The octal number system
with its 8 digit 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 has base 8. The octal system uses a power of 8 to determine the
digit of a numbers position.
Hexadecimal System- Hexadecimal is another number system that works exactly like the
decimal, binary and octal number systems, except that the base is 16. Each hexadecimal represents
a power of 16. The system uses 0 to 9 numbers and A to F characters to represent 10 to 15
respectively.
CONVERSIONS
Any number in one number system can be converted into any other number system. There are the
various methods that are used in converting numbers from one base to another.
Conversions of Decimal to Binary- The method that is used for converting of decimals into
binary is known as the remainder method. We use the following steps in getting the binary
number(a) Divide the decimal number by 2.
(b) Write the remainder (which is either 0 or 1) at the right most position.
(c) Repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is 0 and keep writing the remainder after
each step of division.
(d) Write the remainders in reverse order.
Example- Convert (45)10 into binary number system.
Thus (45)10 = (101101)2

Note- In every number system(a) The first bit from the right is referred as LSB (Least Significant Bit)
(b) The first bit from the left is referred as MSB (Most Significant Bit)
Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Binary Fractions- For converting decimal fractions
into binary fractions, we use multiplication. Instead of looking for a remainder we look for an
integer. The following steps are used in getting the binary fractions(a) Multiply the decimal fraction by 2.
(b) If a non-zero integer is generated, record the non-zero integer otherwise record 0.
(c) Remove the non-zero integer and repeat the above steps till the fraction value becomes 0.
(d) Write down the number according to the occurrence.
Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.75)10.
Number (to be recorded)
0.75 2 = 1.50 -----1

0.50 2 = 1.00----- 1
Thus (0.75)10= (0.11)2.
Moreover, we can write (45.75)10= (101101.11)2.
Remark- If the conversion is not ended and still continuing; stop it when same number repeats
again.
Example- Find the binary equivalent of (0.9)10.
0.9 2 = 1.8-----1
0.8 2 = 1.6-----1
0.6 2 = 1.2-----1
0.2 2 = 0.4 -----0
0.4 2 = 0.8 -----0
0.8 2 = 1.6 -----1
0.6 2 = 1.2----- 1
0.2 2 = 0.4----- 0 stop here
Thus (0.9)10 = (0.11100110)2.
2
Conversion of Decimal to Octal- In converting decimal to octal, we follow the same
process of converting decimal to binary. Instead of dividing the number by 2, we divide
the number by 8.
Example- Convert (45)10 into octal number system.
Thus (45)10= (55)8.

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Octal Fractions We follow the same steps of
conversions of decimal fractions to binary fractions. Here we multiply the fraction by 8 instead of
2.
Example- Find the octal equivalent of (0.75)10.
0.75 8 = 6.00-----6
Thus (0.75)10= (0.6)8.
And (45.75)10= (55.6)8.
Conversion of Decimal to Hexadecimal We divide by 16 instead of 2 or 8. If the
remainder is in between 10 to 16, and then the number is represented by A to F respectively.
Example- Convert (45)10 into hexadecimal.
Thus (45)10= (2D)16.

Conversions of Decimal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions Here we multiply the
fraction by 16 instead of 2 or 8. If the non-zero integer is in between 10 to 16, then the number is
represented by A to F respectively.
Example- Find the hexadecimal equivalent of (0.75)10.
0.75 16 = 12.00
C (12 = C)
Thus (0.75)10= (0.C)16.
And (45.75)10= (2D.C)16.
3
Conversions of Binary to Decimal In converting binary to decimal, we use the following
steps(a) Write the weight of each bit.
(b) Get the weighted value by multiplying the weighted position with the respective bit.
(c) Add all the weighted value to get the decimal number.
Conversions of Binary Fractions to Decimal Fractions The conversions of binary

fractions to the decimal fractions are similar to conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers.
Here, instead of a decimal point we have a binary point. The exponential expressions (or weight of
the bits) of each fractional placeholder is 2-1, 2-2
Conversions of Binary to Octal- We use the following steps in converting binary to octal(a) Break the number into 3-bit sections starting from LSB to MSB.
(b) If we do not have sufficient bits in grouping of 3-bits, we add zeros to the left of MSB so that all
the groups have proper 3-bit number.
(c) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
Conversions of Binary Fractions to Octal Fractions- We use the following steps in

converting binary fractions to octal fractions(d) Break the fraction into 3-bit sections starting from MSB to LSB.
(e) In order to get a complete grouping of 3 bits, we add trailing zeros in LSB.
(f) Write the 3-bit binary number to its octal equivalent.
Conversions of Binary to Hexadecimal- We convert binary to hexadecimal in the similar

manner as we have converted binary to octal. The only difference is that here, we form the group of
4bits
.
5
Conversions of Binary Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions - We convert binary fractions
to hexadecimal fractions in the similar manner as we have converted binary fractions to octal
fractions. The only difference is that here we form the group of 4 bits.
Conversions of Octal to Decimal- We follow the same steps of conversion of binary to

decimal. The only difference is that here weight of 8 instead of 2
Conversions of Octal to Binary- We use the following steps in converting octal to binary(a) Convert each octal digit into 3-bit binary equivalent.
(b) Combine the 3-bit section by removing the spaces to get the binary
number.
Conversions of Octal Fractions to Binary Fractions- We follow the same steps of

conversion of octal to binary.
Conversions of Octal to Hexadecimal- The conversion involves the following steps(a) Convert each octal digit to 3 bit binary form.
(b) Combine all the 3-bit binary numbers.
(c) Group them in 4-bit binary form by starting from MSB to LSB.
(d) Convert these 4-bit blocks into their hexadecimal symbols.
Conversions of Octal Fractions to Hexadecimal Fractions- The method of conversion is
based on the same procedure that we have discussed in conversions of octal to hexadecimal.
Conversions of Hexadecimal to Decimal- We do the conversion of hexadecimal to decimal as

we have done the conversion of binary to decimal. Here weight of 16 instead of 2.
Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Decimal Fractions- We do the conversion

of hexadecimal fractions to decimal fractions in the similar manner as we have done the
conversion of binary fractions to decimal fractions. Here weight of bit is 16-1, 16-2.
Conversions of Hexadecimal to Binary-We use the following steps(a) Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
(b) Combine all the binary numbers.
Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Binary Fractions -We use the same steps
of hexadecimal to binary conversion.
Conversions of Hexadecimal to Octal- We convert each hexadecimal digit in binary.

Combine all the binary numbers. Again group them into 3-bit form. Convert the 3-bit block in
octal.
Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Octal Fractions We follow the same

steps of hexadecimal to octal conversion.
10
Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These gates are the AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic operations are described below with the aid of
truth tables.
AND gate
Y=A.B
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are
high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B Bear in mind that this dot is
sometimes omitted i.e. AB
Switch diagram for AND
In the figure below, A and B are two switches which have been connected in series (or just
cascaded) with the Lamp and source battery. When both switches are closed, current flows
to Lamp and it glows.
A
Lamp
OR gate
Y=A+B
The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its inputs
are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
Switch diagram for OR
In the figure, A and B are two switches which have been connected in parallel, and this is
connected in series with the lamp and source battery. When both switches are open, current
does not flow to Lamp, but when any switch is closed then current flows and lamp glows.
11
A
B
V
Lamp
NOT gate
Y=A
The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at its
output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable is A, the inverted output is
known as NOT A. This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as shown at the
outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate can be configured to
produce a NOT gate.
Switch diagram
In the figure, A is a switch which has been connected in parallel, with the Lamp and source
battery. When switch is open, current does not flow to Lamp, when switch is closed then
current flows and Lamp glows.
Lamp
NAND gate
Y=A.B
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The
outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate
with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
12
Switch diagram for NAND
Lamp
NOR gate
Y=A+B
This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of
all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high.
The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents
inversion.
Switch diagram for NOR
A
V
B
Lamp
EXOR gate
Y=AB+AB
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both,
of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the E-OR operation.
13
EXNOR gate
Y=AB+AB
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the E-OR gate. It will give a low output if
either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate with a small circle
on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
Universal Gates
Any function can be implemented using only NAND or only NOR gates. Therefore NAND &
NOR gates are called as universal gates.
NAND AS UNIVERSAL GATE
1. Implementing an Inverter Using only NAND Gate
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
2. Implementing AND Using only NAND Gates

Desired Gate
NAND Construction
3. Implementing OR Using only NAND Gates
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
14
4. Implementing NOR Using only NAND Gates
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
5. Implementing EX-OR Using only NAND Gates
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
6. Implementing EX-NOR Using only NAND Gates
Desired Gate
NAND Construction
NOR AS UNIVERSAL GATE
1. Implementing an Inverter Using only NOR Gate
Desired Gate
NOR Construction
15
2. Implementing OR Using only NOR Gates
Desired Gate
NOR Construction
3. Implementing AND Using only NOR Gates
Desired Gate
NOR Construction
4. Implementing NAND Using only NOR Gates
Desired Gate
NOR Construction
5. Implementing EX-OR Using only NOR Gate
Desired Gate
NOR Construction
16
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND DE-MORGANS THEOREM
The most obvious way to simplify Boolean expressions is to manipulate them in the same way as
normal algebraic expressions are manipulated. With regards to logic relations in digital forms, a
set of rules for symbolic manipulation is needed in order to solve for the unknowns.
A set of rules formulated by the English mathematician George Boole describe certain
propositions whose outcome would be either true or false. With regard to digital logic, these rules
are used to describe circuits whose state can be either, 1 (true) or 0 (false). In order to fully
understand this, the relation between the AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate operations should be
appreciated. A number of rules can be derived from these relations as follows
LAWS AND RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Laws of Boolean Algebra
The basic laws of Boolean algebra-the commutative laws for addition and multiplication, the
associative laws for addition and multiplication, and the distributive law-are the same as in
ordinary algebra.
Commutative Laws
The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as
A+B = B+A
This law states that the order in which the variables are ORed makes no difference. Remember, in
Boolean algebra as applied to logic circuits, addition and the OR operation are the same.
Fig illustrates the commutative law as applied to the OR gate and shows that it doesn't matter to
which input each variable is applied. (The symbol means "equivalent to.").
Fig: Application of commutative law of addition.

The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is
A.B = B.A
This law states that the order in which the variables are ANDed makes no difference. Fig, ilustrates
this law as applied to the AND gate.
Fig: Application of commutative law of multiplication.

Associative Laws :
The associative law of addition is written as follows for three variables:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
This law states that when ORing more than two variables, the result is the same regardless of the
grouping of the variables. Fig , illustrates this law as applied to 2-input OR gates.
17
Fig: Application of associative law of addition.

The associative law of multiplication is written as follows for three variables:
A(BC) = (AB)C
This law states that it makes no difference in what order the variables are grouped when ANDing
more than two variables. Fig, illustrates this law as applied to 2-input AND gates.
Application of associative law of multiplication.

Distributive Law:
The distributive law is written for three variables as follows:
A (B + C) = AB + AC
This law states that ORing two or more variables and then ANDing the result with a single variable
is equivalent to ANDing the single variable with each of the two or more variables and then ORing
the products. The distributive law also expresses the process of factoring in which the common
variable A is factored out of the product terms, for example, AB + AC = A(B + C).
Fig. illustrates the distributive law in terms of gate implementation.
Application of distributive law.

Rules of Boolean Algebra
Table lists 12 basic rules that are useful in manipulating and simplifying Boolean expressions.
Rules 1 through 9 will be viewed in terms of their application to logic gates. Rules 10 through 12
will be derived in terms of the simpler rules and the laws previously discussed.
Table :Basic rules of Boolean algebra.
18
Rule 1. A + 0 = A
A variable ORed with 0 is always equal to the variable. If the input variable A is 1, the output
variable X is 1, which is equal to A. If A is 0, the output is 0, which is also equal to A. This rule is
illustrated in Fig , where the lower input is fixed at 0.
Rule 2. A + 1 = 1
A variable ORed with 1 is always equal to 1. A 1 on an input to an OR gate produces a 1 on the
output, regardless of the value of the variable on the other input. This rule is illustrated in Fig,
where the lower input is fixed at 1.
Rule 3. A . 0 = 0
A variable ANDed with 0 is always equal to 0. Any time one input to an AND gate is 0, the output
is 0, regardless of the value of the variable on the other input. This rule is illustrated in Fig,
where the lower input is fixed at 0.
Rule 4. A . 1 = A
A variable ANDed with 1 is always equal to the variable. If A is 0 the output of the AND gate is 0.
If A is 1, the output of the AND gate is 1 because both inputs are now 1s. This rule is shown in
Fig, where the lower input is fixed at 1.
19
Rule 5. A + A = A
A variable ORed with itself is always equal to the variable. If A is 0, then 0 + 0 = 0; and if A is 1,
then 1 + 1 = 1. This is shown in Fig.(4-10), where both inputs are the same variable.
Rule 6. A + A = 1
A variable ORed with its complement is always equal to 1. If A is 0, then 0 + 0 = 0 + 1 = 1. If A is
1, then 1 + 1 = 1+ 0 = 1. See Fig, where one input is the complement of the other.
Rule 7. A . A = A
A variable ANDed with itself is always equal to the variable. If A = 0, then 0.0 = 0; and if A = 1.
then 1.1 = 1. Fig.(4-12) illustrates this rule.
Rule 8. A . A = 0
A variable ANDed with its complement is always equal to 0. Either A or A will always be 0: and
when a 0 is applied to the input of an AND gate. The output will be 0 also. Fig illustrates this
rule.
Rule9. A = A
The double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable. If you start with the
variable A and complement (invert) it once, you get A. If you then take A and complement
(invert) it, you get A, which is the original variable. This rule is shown in Fig using inverters.
Rule10. A + AB = A
This rule can be proved by applying the distributive law, rule 2, and rule 4 as follows:
A + AB = A( 1 + B) Factoring (distributive law)
= A . 1 Rule 2: (1 + B) = 1
= A Rule 4: A . 1 = A
20
The proof is shown in Table , which shows the truth table and the resulting logic circuit
simplification.
simplification.
Rule 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

This rule can be proved as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC Distributive law
= A + AC + AB + BC Rule 7: AA = A
= A( 1 + C) + AB + BC Rule 2: 1 + C = 1
= A. 1 + AB + BC Factoring (distributive law)
= A(1 + B) + BC Rule 2: 1 + B = 1
= A. 1 + BC Rule 4: A . 1 = A
21
= A + BC
simplification.
Duality Theorem
Duality Principle:
The duality property of Boolean algebra state that all binary expressions remain valid when following two
steps are performed:
Step 1: Interchange OR and AND operators.
Step 2: Replace all 1s by 0s and 0s by 1s.
Example:
1) x + 0 = x, duality of this is x 1 = x
2) x + x= 1 duality of this is x x = 0
3) x + y = y + x duality of this is x * y = y * x
DEMORGAN'S THEOREMS
DeMorgan, a mathematician who knew Boole, proposed two theorems that are an important part
of Boolean algebra. In practical terms. DeMorgan's theorems provide mathematical verification
of the equivalency of the NAND and negative-OR gates and the equivalency of the NOR and
negative-AND gates.
One of DeMorgan's theorems is stated as follows:
The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the complements of the
variables,
Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent to the OR of the
complements of the individual variables.
The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is
XY = X + Y
22
DeMorgan's second theorem is stated as follows:
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the complements of the
variables.
Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ORed variables is equivalent to the AND of the
complements of the individual variables,
The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is
X+Y=XY
Fig.shows the gate equivalencies and truth tables for the two equations above.
As stated, DeMorgan's theorems also apply to expressions in which there are more than two
variables. The following examples illustrate the application of DeMorgan's theorems to 3variable and 4-variable expressions.
23
24
STANDARD FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

All Boolean expressions, regardless of their form, can be converted into either of two standard
forms: the sum-of-products form or the product-of sums form. Standardization makes the
evaluation, simplification, and implementation of Boolean expressions much more systematic
and easier.
The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition, the resulting expression is a
sum-of-products (SOP). Some examples are:
Also, an SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in

In an SOP expression a single overbar cannot extend over more than one variable.
The Standard SOP Form

So far, you have seen SOP expressions in which some of the product terms do not contain all of
the variables in the domain of the expression. For example, the expression
has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C. and D. However, notice that the complete set of
variables in the domain is not represented in the first two terms of the expression; that is, D or
D is missing from the first term and C or C is missing from the second term.
A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the domain appear in each product
term in the expression. For example,
is a standard SOP expression.
Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP:

Each product term in an SOP expression that does not contain all the variables in the domain
can be expanded to standard SOP to include all variables in the domain and their complements.
As stated in the following steps, a nonstandard SOP expression is converted into standard form
using Boolean algebra rule (A + A = 1): A variable added to its complement equals 1.
Step 1. Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up of the sum of a missing
variable and its complement. This results in two product terms. As you know, you can multiply
anything by 1 without changing its value.
Step 2. Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all variables in the domain in
either complemented or uncomplemented form. In converting a product term to standard form,
the number of product terms is doubled for each missing variable.
25
The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form

A sum term was defined before as a term consisting of the sum (Boolean addition) of literals
(variables or their complements). When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting
expression is a product-of-sums (POS).
A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in A(A + B + C)(B + C + D).
26
The Standard POS Form

So far, you have seen POS expressions in which some of the sum terms do not contain all of the
variables in the domain of the expression. For example, the expression
has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D. Notice that the complete set of variables
in the domain is not represented in first two terms of the expression; that is, D or D is missing
from the first term and C or C is missing from the second term.
A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the domain appear in each sum
term in the expression. For example,
is a standard POS expression. Any nonstandard POS expression (referred to simply as POS) can be
converted to the standard form using Boolean algebra.
Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS
Each sum term in a POS expression that does not contain all the variables in the domain can be
expanded to standard form to include all variables in the domain and their complements. As
stated in the following steps, a nonstandard POS expression is converted into standard form
using Boolean algebra rule (A A = 0)
Step 1.Add to each nonstandard product term a term made up of the product of the missing
variable and its complement. This results in two sum terms. As you know, you can add 0 to
anything without changing its value.
Step 2.Apply rule 12 from Table 4-1: A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
Step 3.Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the domain in either
complemented or noncomplemented form.
27
BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

Boolean algebra provides a concise way to express the operation of a logic circuit formed by a
combination of logic gates so that the output can be determined for various combinations of
input values.
Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit
To derive the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit, begin at the leftmost inputs and work
toward the final output, writing the expression for each gate. For the example circuit in Fig, the
Boolean expression is determined as follows:
The expression for the left-most AND gate with inputs C and D is CD.
The output of the left-most AND gate is one of the inputs to the OR gate and B is the other
input. Therefore, the expression for the OR gate is B + CD.
The output of the OR gate is one of the inputs to the right-most AND gate and A is the other
input. Therefore, the expression for this AND gate is A(B + CD), which is the final output
expression for the entire circuit.
Fig1. A logic circuit showing the development of the Boolean expression for the output.
28
Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit
Once the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has been determined, a truth table that
shows the output for all possible values of the input variables can be developed. The procedure
requires that you evaluate the Boolean expression for all possible combinations of values for the
input variables. In the case of the circuit in Fig1, there are four input variables (A, B, C, and D)
and therefore sixteen (24 = 16) combinations of values are possible.
Putting the Results in Truth Table format
The first step is to list the sixteen input variable combinations of 1s and 0s in a binary sequence
as shown in Table 4-5. Next, place a 1 in the output column for each combination of input
variables that was determined in the evaluation. Finally, place a 0 in the output column for all
other combinations of input variables. These results are shown in the truth table in Table .
SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to implement a given expression.
Example
Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression:
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
Solution
Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the expression, as follows:
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term.
AB + AB + AC + B + BC
Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms.
AB + AC + B + BC
Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms.
AB + AC + B
Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms.
B+AC
At this point the expression is simplified as much as possible.
29
Gate circuits for example above.
Half subtractor
The half-subtractor is a combinational circuit which is used to perform subtraction of two bits. It has two
inputs, X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and two outputs D (difference) and B (borrow).
XYDB
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Circuit Diagram
Logic Equations for "Difference" And "Borrow". Are As Follows
Full subtractor
As in the case of the addition using logic gates, a full subtractor is made by combining two halfsubtractors and an additional OR-gate. A full subtractor has the borrow in capability (denoted as BIN in the
diagram below) and so allows cascading which results in the possibility of multi-bit subtraction. The
circuit diagram for a full subtractor is given below.
30
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
INPUT
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
BIN
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
OUTPUT
DIFF
BOUT
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
Difference, D= A B BIN
Borrow, BOUT = AB + AB +BBIN
Circuit Diagram
FULL SUBSTRACTOR USING 2 HALF SUBSTRACTOR
D
X
HS
B
DIFF=A B BORIN
HS
B
Y
B
BOUT=AB+ (A B )BORIN
BORIN
31
Unit 2: Amplifiers, Oscillators, and Op-amps
Basic features of an amplifier:-Biasing of an amplifier, Amplifier gain, input and output resistance, signal
handling capacity, frequency response and bandwidth, Small signal C E amplifier:-coupling and bypass
capacitors, graphical analysis of small signal CE amplifier, linearity and distortion, small signal ac
equivalent circuit, Feedback principles, Advantages of negative feedback amplifiers:- gain stability, noise
reduction, bandwidth enhancement, improvement in linearity and signal handling capacity, Oscillators:classification of oscillators, principle of sinusoidal feedback oscillations, Working of RC phase shift and
Crystal oscillator (BJT version only), Operational amplifier: Block diagram representation, schematic,
symbol and pin configuration, The Ideal op-amp, Virtual ground concept, Amplifiers using operational
amplifier :- Inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, Linear Circuit applications of OPAMP:- Integrator,
Differentiator, Numerical problems as applicable.
11hrs
Chapter 5.2,5.4,6.2,6.3,6.5.1,6.5.2,6.5.3,6.5,7.3.1,7.3.2, 7.3.3, 7.3.4,7.4.2,7.4.3,7.5.3
Introduction
Amplifier is a circuit that is used for amplifying a signal. The input signal to an amplifier will be a current or
voltage and the output will be an amplified version of the input signal. An amplifier circuit which is purely
based on a transistor or transistors is called a transistor amplifier.
Transistors amplifiers are commonly used in applications like RF (radio frequency), audio, OFC (optic
fibre communication) etc. Anyway the most common application we see in our day to day life is the usage
of transistor as an audio amplifier.
As you know there are three transistor configurations that are used commonly i.e. common base (CB),
common collector (CC) and common emitter (CE). In common base configuration has a gain less than unity
and common collector configuration (emitter follower) has a gain almost equal to unity). Common emitter
follower has a gain that is positive and greater than unity. So, common emitter configuration is most
commonly used in audio amplifier applications.
A good transistor amplifier must have the following parameters; high input impedance, high band width,
high gain, high slew rate, high linearity, high efficiency, and high stability
Basic features of an amplifier
The functional block that accomplishes the task of signal amplification is called amplifier.one of the basic
features of amplifier is that the output waveform must be identical in nature to those in the input waveform.
The amplifier preserves the details of the signal waveform and any deviation of the input waveform is
considered as distortion.
Biasing of an amplifier
The purpose of biasing in a transistor amplifier is to set a dc operating, i.e. to fix base current, collector
current and collector-emitter voltage such that the transistor operates in the linear region of the output
characteristics even after superposition of ac signal voltage at the base.
Both the forward-bias voltage at the base-emitter junction and the reverse-bias voltage at the collector-base
junction are derived from the single dc supply voltage Vcc. The circuit diagram of a transistor CE amplifier
is shown as in fig.
The bias voltage at the base-emitter junction is given by
The ac input voltage causes the output voltage to vary above and below the bias voltage. Output is given by
Where Vo is bias voltage or dc component of the output and Ao is the peak value of the sinusoidal ac component.
Fig 5.1
FEEDBACK
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Op-Amp (operational amplifier) is defined as direct-coupled high-gain amplifier and is used to perform a wide variety
of linear as well as nonlinear functions.
Op-Amp (operational amplifier) is basically an amplifier available in the IC form. The word operational is used
because the amplifier can be used to perform a variety of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
integration, differentiation etc.
An Op-Amp is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac signals.
Figure 1 below shows the symbol of an Op-Amp.
+VCC
V1 (Inverting input)
Vo(output)
V2 (non-inverting input)
-VEE
Fig.1 Symbol of Op-Amp
It has two inputs and one output. The input marked - is known as Inverting input and the input marked + is
known as Non-inverting input.
If a voltage Vi is applied at the inverting input (keeping the non-inverting input at ground) as shown below.
Vi
V0
Fig.2 Op-amp in inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= -AVi is amplified but is out of phase with respect to the input signal by 1800.
If a voltage Vi is fed at the non-inverting input ( Keeping the inverting input at ground) as shown below.
Vi
Vo
Fig.3 Op-Amp in Non-inverting mode

The output voltage Vo= AVi is amplified and in-phase with the input signal.
If two different voltages V1 and V2 are applied to an ideal Op-Amp as shown below.
V1
VO
V2
Fig.4 Ideal Op-Amp

The output voltage will be Vo = A(V1 V2) i.e the difference of the tow voltages is amplified. Hence an Op-Amp is also
called as a High gain differential amplifier.
Block Diagram of an Op-AMP

An Op-Amp consists of four blocks cascaded as shown above
Input stage: It consists of a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. Its function is to amplify the
difference between the two input signals. It provides high differential gain and high input impedance.
Intermediate stage: The overall gain requirement of an Op-Amp is very high. Since the input stage alone cannot
provide such a high gain. Intermediate stage is used to provide the required additional voltage gain.It consists of
another differential amplifier with dual input, and unbalanced (single ended) output
Buffer and Level shifting stage: As the Op-Amp amplifies D.C signals also, the small D.C. quiescent voltage
level of previous stages may get amplified and get applied as the input to the next stage causing distortion
the final output. Hence the level shifting stage is used to bring down the D.C. level to ground potential,
when no signal is applied at the input terminals. Buffer is usually an emitter follower used for impedance
matching.
Output stage- It consists of a push-pull complementary amplifier which provides large A.C. output voltage swing
and high current sourcing and sinking along with low output impedance.
Ideal Characteristics of an Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal Op-Amp has the following characteristics.
1. Infinite voltage gain ( ie AV =)
2. Infinite input impedance (Ri = )
3. Zero output impedance(Ro =0)
4. Infinite Bandwidth (B.W. = )
5. Infinite Common mode rejection ratio (ie CMRR =)
6. Infinite slew rate (ie S=)i.e, output voltage change simultaneously as input voltage changes.
7. Zero power supply rejection ratio ( PSRR =0)ie output voltage is zero when power supply VCC =0
8. Zero offset voltage(ie when the input voltages are zero, the output voltage will also be zero)
9. Perfect balance (ie the output voltage is zero when the input voltages at the two input terminals are equal)
10. The characteristics are temperature independent.
1.Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of phase by 1800 with respect to the input.
Rf
i2
Vi
R1
i1
vo
Vd=0
Fig.8 Inverting Amplifier

The point G is called virtual ground and is equal to zero.
By KCL we have
i1 i2
Vi 0 0 Vo
R1
Rf
Vi
V
o
R1
Rf
Rf
Vi
VO
R1
Input and output waveforms

Vi
Vo
2. Non- Inverting Amplifier
Non Inverting Amplifiers
By equivalent circuit we have
Input and output waveforms
3.Integrator
4.Differentiator
Applications of Electronics
Automotive Electronics - Evolution of Electronic Control Units (ECUs) in automotive subsystems - Concept of
sensors and actuators - ECUs for Air bag control, Seat belt control, and Active suspension system - in-vehicle
communication system - Engine Control Module (ECM) - Automotive Infotainment System
3Hours
Electronics in Home appliances - Microwave ovens, Refrigerators, air conditioners and washing machines
Electronic Display Systems - Technologies for LED, LCD, EPIDs, OLEDs and Plasma displays - Power management in
display systems - Display controllers
2Hours
Electronics in wired and wireless Communication subsystems - Radios, Televisions, mobile phones, Satellite
based communications
3Hours
Electronics in internetworking - Modems, Hubs, Switches, Routers
1Hours
AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS
Electronics have been relatively slow in coming to the automobile primarily because of the relationship
between the added cost and the benefits.
Two major events occurred during the 1970s that started the trend toward the use of modern electronics in
the automobile:
(1) The introduction of government regulations for exhaust emissions and fuel economy, which required
better control of the engine than was possible with the methods being used.
(2) The development of relatively low cost per function solid-state digital electronics that could be used for
engine control.
The electronic control unit, also called the ECU, is the brain of the automobile. The ECU controls overall power
train including the ignition system, the fuel system, and the transmission for the purpose of engine performance
improvement, fuel consumption improvement, cleaner exhaust gas, and drivability improvement .The electronic
control unit takes readings from all of the vehicle's electronic sensors and interprets the vehicle's needs. In order to
operate at the peak fuel mileage and performance, the electronic control unit makes continual adjustments to the
engine's fuel delivery circuits as well as the ignition timing to provide the proper air and fuel mixture being ignited
at the optimal time in the combustion chamber. This ensures the vehicle is operating at the utmost peak power and
economy level possible.
An electronic engine control system is an assembly of electronic and electromechanical components that
continuously varies the fuel and spark settings in order to satisfy government exhaust emission and fuel
economy regulations.
Figure shows a block diagram of a generalized electronic engine control system.
The electronic engine control system receives input electrical signals from the various sensors that measure
the state of the engine. From these signals, the controller generates output electrical signals to the
actuators that determine the engine calibration.
Sensors and actuators play a critical role in determining automotive control system performance.
In any control system, sensors provide measurements of important plant variables in a format suitable for
the digital microcontroller.
Similarly, actuators are electrically operated devices that regulate inputs to the plant that directly control
its output.
Airbag systems
Introduction
Despite sophisticated transportation ecosystem for automotives, it is essential to equip automotives with safety
mechanisms that protect the driver and other passengers during collisions of all types. Airbag system is, by far, the
most sophisticated safety mechanism within automotives. The airbag system is used as supplement to the seat belts
to help reduce shocks applied to the head and chest of the occupants in the event of collision. The front airbags
would protect the driver or front passenger in the event of a frontal impact collision whereas the side airbags
would protect the driver or the front passenger from impact due to side collision. A third type of airbag called the
curtain shield airbags would protect the driver, front passenger and rear outer passenger from shocks due to side or
rear side impact collision.
Owing to the requirement on swiftness of the airbag system, it is as good as its control system. Airbag system shall
consist of the following functional entities:
1. Impact sensors
2. Airbag assembly
3. Airbag ECU
These functional entities are explained in the following paragraphs:
Impact sensors:
Typically, there are one to three impact or crash sensors located in the front of most of the domestic vehicles.
These sensors react, almost, instantly to the sudden deceleration that results from a frontal impact (anything up to
about 30o either side of center). Many European vehicles use only a single electronic crash sensor located inside the
passenger compartment. The same setup is now being used in many newer domestic vehicles.
There are several different types of crash sensors which, primarily, get classified as a. Passive sensors and b.Active
sensors.
Passive sensors are, basically, mechanically switches which get CLOSE on impact by suitable mechanical or, at best,
an electromechanical arrangement. Also, the switches OPEN on restoration of normal situation following an impact.
A commonly used sensor of passive type is the "gas dampened ball and tube" design. The sensor is nothing more
than a small tube with a switch at one end and a gold plated steel ball at the other, held in place by a small
magnet. When the sensor receives a hard enough jolt to knock the ball loose from the magnet, the ball rolls down
the tube, hits the switch and closes the circuit. The tube is slanted upward so the ball would return to its original
position after an impact. Another common crash sensor is called the "Rolamite" design by TRW. This sensor consists
of a small metal roller that rolls forward under sudden deceleration and trips a switch. Some vehicles have "spring
and mass" crash sensors in which a spring loaded weight is deflected by the impact to close a switch. Most new
vehicles now have solid state crash sensors (active sensors) that contain either a piezoelectric crystal or a
"micromachined accelerometer" chip that produces an electronic signal when subjected to an impact. .
To prevent false deployments that might result from bumping into objects or a slow speed fender bender (a minor
collision that does not warrant airbag deployment), most air bag systems also have one or two "safety" or "arming"
sensors which are usually located inside the passenger compartment (under the dash or seat, in the airbag control
module, or in the steering wheel air bag module). The safety sensor will not allow the bag to deploy unless it also
experiences a certain rate of deceleration (usually less than that of the crash sensors).
Airbag assembly
Airbag assembly consists of the following:

Airbags
Inflator assembly
fig-2
The airbags are made of a thin, nylon fabric and are fitted into the automotive in a folded (technically, "deflated")
condition. They are fitted into the steering wheel and dashboard to address the frontal impact and fitted into the
door or the side of the seats to address the side impacts.
The inflator assembly consists of
Propellant
Igniter
Filters
Propellant:
Adequate quantity of sodium azide with potassium nitrate constitute the propellant. Sodium azide on ignition get
oxidized with potassium nitrate and releases nitrogen. Different manufacturers uses different oxidizers. These two
chemicals are, carefully, blended. The blended mixture are pressed into pellets or disks of adequate size. The
nitrogen gas released during the reaction is used to inflate the airbag.
Igniter:
Igniter, as the name suggests, ignites the propellant. Ignition is initiated by the airbag ECU (Electronic Control
Unit). The igniter initiates the production of the nitrogen gas by the propellant
Filters:
The nitrogen gas produced by the propellant material is passed thro' the filters to prevent the unburnt propellant
material from reaching the airbags. The filters also help in cooling the gas produced by the burning of the
propellant. The filters are made of stainless steel wire mesh of fine holes.
Airbag ECU:
Depending on the output of the crash sensors and other logical qualifiers, the airbag ECU initiates the ignition of
the propellant which burns extremely fast to create a large volume of gas to inflate the bag. The bag, once gets
inflated, bursts from its housing at up to 200 mph. The inflation and unfurling of the airbags would involve a
latency of 30 to 55milliseconds. Once the airbags are in the burst out condition in front of the victim, the gas
quickly dissipates through tiny holes in the bag, thus deflating the bag so that the victim can move around. A
powdery substance is released from the airbag is, nominally, the cornstarch or talcum powder which is used by the
airbag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable and lubricated while they are in storage over long periods of time.
Capacitors which are installed within the airbag ECU are used to store electricity and act as a backup power supply.
If a vehicle has its battery destroyed or disconnected in an accident, the capacitors supply the electricity required
to keep the airbag system, operational.
The trigger for the deployment of airbag is the ignition of the propellant as explained above. This trigger is
provided by the ECU depending, mainly, on the status of the impact sensors. Additional qualifiers for the decision
of the ECU are as follows:
1. Occupant classification system
2. Seat belt buckle system
The occupant classification system is a sophisticated system by itself which, to begin with, detects the presence of
a passenger. Once detected, this system shall also, algorithmically, estimates if the occupant is a child or an adult.
The control algorithm for the airbag ECU could be different while protecting the child or the adult. The seat belt
buckle system informs the airbag ECU if the seat belts are in-use. An in-use seat belt, additionally, confirms the
presence of the occupant.
The airbag ECU, continuously, conducts diagnostics to ensure that the entire system is intact, technically. The
outcome of the diagnostics is made available to the driver by suitable display on the dashboard. Any exceptions as
inferred by the display shall have to be attended by the driver by getting the airbag unit checked and serviced as
might be required.
Electronic Display Systems

Plasma
Capsules of xenon, neon, or argon gas sandwiched between two planes of glass are chemically excited by an
electrical current. When excited enough, the gas changes to a plasma, releasing light. The light strikes a
phosphorescent layer which produces the required coloured light in each pixel making up the image.
The key features of plasma's are:
They're economical to manufacture in large sizes, so really big TV's tend to be plasmas
The have a bright image relative to other TV technologies
Fast moving images don't blur (unlike on LCD and LED TV's)
Their glass screens make them prone to picking up reflections in brightly lit rooms
They are not very efficient consuming relatively large amounts of electricity
They are prone to image burn-in
LCD
White light from a series of cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL's) at the back of the TV panel is blocked or
allowed through LCD shutters (liquid crystal display basically the same technology you find on a digital watch
face) into red, blue, or green filtered sub-pixels. Switching the light on or off into the sub-pixels creates the
appropriate coloured light in each pixel making up the image.
The key features of LCD's are:
Reduced electricity consumption compared to Plasma TV's

They are immune to image burnin
While the gap is closing, they tend to be expensive in the largest sizes
LCD's struggle with fast moving images (e.g. sports) causing blurring
Their viewing angle generally isn't as good as Plasma TV's
LED
This is a marketing term for a type of LCD TV that uses LED's (light emitting diodes) to supply the white light
coming from the back of the TV panel. Despite some recent hype about this being a breakthrough technology, it's
been around on some TV's since 2004. LED TV's come in two flavours, edge lit (where the LED's are arranged around
the outer rim of the TV panel facing inwards) or back-lit (where the rear of the TV panel is made up of LED's).
The key features of LED's are:
Reduced electricity consumption compared to CCFL LCD and Plasma TV's
Edge lit TV's tend to be extremely thin and lightweight

Depending on the technology used (more about that here) LED TV's may display better contrast ratio's (i.e.
a deeper blacks) than CCFL LCD TV's
They are more expensive to produce than CCFL LCD TV's
OLED
Unlike so called LED TV's, OLED TV's are based on a 'true' LED TV technology. Each pixel on the screen is made up of
either a red blue or green organic light emitting diode ('organic' is chemistry speak for saying a material contains
carbon), which when stimulated by electricity the pixel fluoresce, producing coloured light. The key difference
between is that unlike LCD and LED technology, OLED TV's require no backlight, making them extremely energy
efficient.
The key features of OLED's are:
Being made up of just a single layer the panel can be extremely thin, just a few millimetres in some cases
The most energy efficient of all the TV technologies
A very new technology that is only available in a few products
Very expensive to produce, in the short term you are more likely to see these used in laptop displays rather
than TV's.
Electronics in wired and wireless Communication subsystems

Radio waves are Electromagnetic waves of high frequency. Basically there are two ways in which Radio waves
can be transmitted.
Guided and Unguided (or free space). In guided propagation, transmission lines such as two wire transmission
lines, wave guides, coaxial cables, planar transmission lines guide signal from source to destination. Guided
Propagation uses
Cables: Used at frequencies below 35 GHz

Waveguides: Used between 0.4 GHz to 350 GHz
Quasi-optical system: Used above 30 GHz
Radio
Basic super heterodyne block diagram and functionality: Signals enter the front end circuitry from the antenna.
This contains the front end tuning for the Receiver to remove the image signal and often includes an RF amplifier
to amplify the signals before they enter the mixer. The level of this amplification is carefully calculated so that it
does not overload the mixer when strong signals are present, but enables the signals to be amplified sufficiently to
ensure a good signal to noise ratio is achieved. The tuned and amplified signal then enters one port of the mixer.
The local oscillator signal enters the other port. The local oscillator may consist of a variable frequency oscillator
that can be tuned by altering the setting on a variable capacitor. Alternatively it may be a frequency synthesizer
that will enable greater levels of stability and setting accuracy. Once the signals leave the mixer they enter the IF
stages. These stages contain most of the amplification in the receiver as well as the filtering that enables signals on
one frequency to be separated from those on the next. Filters may consist simply of LC tuned transformers
providing inter-stage coupling, or they may be much higher performance ceramic or even crystal filters, dependent
upon what is required. Once the signals have passed through the IF stages of the super heterodyne receiver, they
need to be demodulated. Different demodulators are required for different types of transmission, and as a result
some receivers may have a variety of demodulators that can be switched in to accommodate the different types of
transmission that are to be encountered. The output from the demodulator is the recovered audio. This is passed
into the audio stages where they are amplified and presented to the headphones or loudspeaker.
Aerial
Loud Speaker
Block diagram of a basic super heterodyne radio receiver

Mobile phones
First-generation (1G) mobile phones had only voice facility. These were replaced by second-generation (2G)
digital phones with added fax, data, and messaging services. The third-generation(3G) technology has added
multimedia facilities to 2G phones. And now talks are on for the next-generation mobile technology with more
advanced features, i.e.4G, which is expected to be available in the market by 2010.
I G: 1G mobile phones were based on the analogue system. The introduction of cellular systems in the late 1970s
was a quantum leap in mobile communication, especially in terms of capacity and mobility. Semiconductor
technology and microprocessors made smaller, lighter, and more sophisticated mobile systems a reality. However,
these 1G cellular systems still transmitted only analogue voice information. The prominent ones among 1G systems
were advanced mobile phone system (AMPS), Nordic mobile telephone (NMT), and total access communication
system (TACS)
2G : phones using global system for mobile communications (GSM) were first used in the early 1990s in Europe. GSM
provides voice and limited data services, and uses digital modulation for improved audio quality. Multiple digital
systems. The development of 2G cellular systems was driven by the need to improve transmission quality, system
capacity, and coverage. Further advances in semiconductor technology and microwave devices brought digital
transmission to mobile communications. Speech transmission still dominates the airways, but the demand for fax,
short message, and data transmission is growing rapidly. Supplementary services such as fraud prevention and
encryption of user data have become standard features, comparable to those in fixed networks. 2G cellular systems
include GSM, digital AMPS (D-AMPS), code-division multiple access (CDMA), and personal digital communication
(PDC)
The 3G technology adds multimedia facilities to 2G phones by allowing video, audio, and graphics applications.
Over 3G phones, you can watch streaming video or have video telephony. The idea behind 3G is to have a single
network standard instead of the different types adopted in the US, Europe, and Asia. These phones will have the
highest speed of up to 2 Mbps, but only indoors and in stationary mode. With high mobility, the speed will drop to
144 kbps, which is only about three times the speed of todays fixed telecom modems.3G cellular services, known
as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) or IMT-2000, will sustain higher data rates and open the
door to many Internet style applications. The main characteristics of IMT-2000 3G systems are:
1. A single family of compatible standards that can be used worldwide for all mobile applications.
2. Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data transmission.
3. Data rates up to 2 Mbps (depending on mobility).
4. High spectrum efficiency. IMT-2000 is a set of requirements defined by the International Telecommunications
Union( ITU).
IMT stands for International Mobile Telecommunications, and 2000 represents both the scheduled year for initial
trial systems and the frequency range of 2000MHz. The most important IMT-2000 proposals are the UMTS (W-CDMA)
as the successor to GSM, CDMA2000 as the successor to interim-standard 95 (IS-95), and
time-division synchronous CDMA (TDSCDMA) and UWC-136/EDGE as TDMA based enhancements to D-AMPS/ GSMall
of which are leading previous standards towards the ultimate goal of IMT-2000.UMTS increases transmission speed
to 2Mbps per mobile user and establishes a global roaming standard.
Fig: 3G Network
4G mobile communications will have transmission rates up to 20 Mbpshigher than of 3G. The technology is
Expected to be available by the year 2010. Presently, NTT DoCoMo and Hewlett-Packard are on their agenda
to make it available by the year 2006.4G is being developed with the following objectives:
1. Speeds up to 50 times higher than of 3G. However, the actual available bandwidth of 4G is expected to
be about 10 Mbps.
2. Three-dimensional virtual realityimagine personal video avatars and realistic holograms, and the
ability to feel as if you are present at an event even if you are not. People, places, and products will be able to
interact as the cyber and real worlds merge.
3. Increased interaction between corroborating technologies; the smart card in your phone will automatically
pay for goods as you pass a linked payment kiosk, or will tell your car to warm up in the morning as your
phone has noted you leaving the house
One of the main concerns about 4G is that due to high speed of the frequency, it will experience severe
interference from multipath secondary signals reflecting off other objects. To counter this problem, a number of
solutions have been proposed, including use of a variable spreading factor and orthogonal frequency code-division
multiplexing. Next comes the problem of non-compatibility of various applications. For example,
FOMA-enabled videophones cannot be used for i-motion music and video links; and the N2002 handset erases parts
of the phones memory if certain Websites are accessed. Finally, as i-mode mobile phones cost
very high, the technology will be limited to corporate use.
Satellite communication
Satellite communications are comprised of 2 main components:
The Satellite-The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and is composed of three separate units,
namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry controls, and the transponder. The transponder includes the
receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the ground station, a broad band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a
frequency converter which is used to reroute the received signals through a high powered amplifier for downlink.
The primary role of a satellite is to reflect electronic signals. In the case of a telecom satellite, the primary task is
to receive signals from a ground station and send them down to another ground station located a considerable
distance away from the first. This relay action
can be two-way, as in the case of a long distance phone call. Another use of the satellite is when, as is the case
with television broadcasts, the ground station's uplink is then downlinked over a wide region, so that it may be
received by many different customers possessing compatible equipment. Still another use for satellites is
observation, wherein the satellite is equipped with cameras or various sensors, and it merely downlinks any
information it picks up from its vantage point.
The Ground Station-This is the earth segment. The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of an uplink, or
transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of baseband signals, is passed through a baseband processor, an up
converter, a high powered amplifier, and through a parabolic dish antenna up to an orbiting satellite. In the case of
a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse fashion as the uplink, ultimately converting signals received
through the parabolic antenna to base band signal.
Various Uses of Satellite Communications
1. Traditional Telecommunications
2. Cellular Communications
3. Television Signals
4. Marine Communications
5. Space Bourne Land Mobile
6. Satellite Messaging for Commercial Jets
7. Global Positioning Services
Electronics in Internetworking
Internetworking of system is done with the help of following devices
Hubs
There are two type of hubs
Passive Hubs: A passive hub is just a connector. It connects wire coming from different braches i.e., a point where
the signals coming from different stations collide
Active Hubs: An active hub is actually a multiport repeater
Eg: Repeater
Repeaters:
Signals that carry information within a network can travel fixed distance before attenuation endangers the integrity
of the data.
Repeater receives the signal before it attenuate and regenerates the original signal for transmission.
Repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier
Repeater
System 1
System 2
Functions of a repeater
Corrupted Signal
Regenerated Signal
Switches
A switch is a computer networking device that links network segments or network devices.
A switch is a telecommunication device which receives a message from any device connected to it and then
transmits the message only to the device for which the message was meant. This makes the switch a more
intelligent device than a hub
Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including data link and network. A device that
operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch.
We can have two type of switches, two layer switch or three layer switch
Two-layer Switch: A bridge, may interconnect a small number of devices in a home or the office
Three layer switch: Within the confines of the Ethernet physical layer, a layer-3 switch can perform some or all of
the functions normally performed by a router.
Internet
Printer
Switch
Game
Console
Routers:
Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for
many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, data networks (such as the Internet).
Its a device that routes information based on their address. A router normally connects LAN and WANs in the
internet and it has a routing table that is used for making decisions about the route.
By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers
also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on the addresses of senders and receivers.
Routing Schemes
Unicast : In this scheme a message is delivered to a single specific node
Broadcast: In this scheme a message is delivered to all nodes in the network
Multicast: In this scheme a message is delivered to a group of nodes that have expressed interest in receiving the
message
Anycast: In this scheme a message is delivered to any one out of a group of nodes, typically the one nearest to the
source
LAN
WAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
Other parts of internet
Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information
Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in
bits per second (bit/s, or bps), or bytes per second (B/s). Modems can alternatively be classified by their symbol
rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem
sends a new signal
Modem enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines or cable lines. Computer information is stored
digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A
modem converts from analog signal to digital signal vice versa.
Modem
MICROWAVE OVENS
Normally microwaves spread outwards as they travel through the atmosphere and disappear without
effect. The microwave oven uses microwaves of frequency 2.5GHz (12.5 cm wavelength) to cook food.
Microwave ovens have a magnetron usually concealed in the roof of the oven, specifically designed to
make use of the energy in the microwaves. Electricity applied to the magnetron tube is used to create
microwave energy.
Microwaves enter the cooking area through openings inside the oven. A turntable or tray is located at the
bottom of the oven. Microwaves cannot pass through the metal walls of the oven, but they can penetrate
such materials as glass, porcelain and paper, the materials out of which microwave-safe cook ware is
constructed. Microwaves do not heat cookware, though cooking vessels will eventually get hot from the
heat generated by the food.
Four concave reflectors are located on the left and back sides to concentrate the microwave energy on
the food. In state-of-art microwave ovens, the wave reflector system (WRS) and dual-wave emission
system (DES), ensure that the food is always uniformly cooked.
Microwaves reflect off the metal components in the oven (such as the interior walls and the fine screen
on the oven door). These metal parts prevent the escape of microwave energy. All microwave activity
remains inside the oven. When the door is opened or the oven in switched off, the production of
microwaves stops instantly.
The block diagram of a microwave oven is given Fig.. The mains plug and socket are three-pin earthing
type. The fast blow ceramic fuse is of 15 A, 250v. Interlock switches are linked with the oven door.
Power will be applied to the mains transformer only when the oven door is closed. At least one interlock
switch is in series with the transformer primary, hence even a spot of dirt in the relay or trial, cannot
turn the oven on when the door is open.
There is yet another interlock across the power supply line. It normally remains open. If the door
alignment is not correct it will be activated, putting a short circuit across the line and making the fuse to
melt. Thus, the microwave oven is a fail safe device.
The voltage induced in the secondary winding is about 2000v(rms) at 250 mA for normal domestic ovens.
The transformer also has a tertiary winding for them magnetron filament. The high voltage return circuit
is fastened directly to the chassis through the transformer frame. A half-wave doubler configuration is
used for the rectifier, with a peak inverse voltage of about 12000v. One end of the diode is connected to
the chassis.
The bleeder capacitor (1mF) should always be discharged before touching anything inside when the cover
is removed. The high value bleeder resistor is slow to discharge; further it may be open.
The thermal protector is a PTC thermistor. The primary current decreases when the temperature rises
abnormally. It senses the temperature of the magnetron as it is bolted to the magnetron case and is so
connected electrically that its resistance comes in series with the primary circuit.
The controller is a microprocessor chip with a clock. It is activated by key-pad switches and sets the
cooking time. It senses the temperature and moisture, sets the power levels and runs the display. There
are three power levels. For HIGH the microwave generator remains on continuously; for MEDIUM it
remains on for 10 seconds and off for 10 seconds; for LOW it remains on for 5 seconds and off for 15
seconds. The controller activates the microwave generator using either a relay or a triac.
WASHING MACHINE
ELECTRONIC CONTROLLER FOR WASHING MACHINES:The task here is simply to identify the input and
output devices used in electronic washing machines and to construct a block diagram showing their
connections to the controller. Detailed information about the characteristics of sensors and actuators
can be added at a later stage. The block diagram shows a possible representation of the system. There
are many acceptable ways of representing the system. It would, for example, be possible to consider the
display to be internal to the controller and therefore not show it separately. Similarly clock circuitry
used to time the operation of the machine is considered here to be contained within the controller. It
could equally well be considered as an external component. The block diagram is a good starting point
for the generation of the specification since it shows very clearly the structure of the complete system.
The block diagram makes no assumptions of the form of the controller. It could be implemented using an
electromechanical timer, or a microcomputer, or a range of other technologies.
Many modern washing machines now use microcomputer to control their various function, replacing the
electromechanical controllers used in earlier models. Clearly it is not practical to consider all aspects of
such a system, but it is instructive to look at some elements of the design.
At various stages of the washing cycle the drum is required to rotate at different speeds. These include;
a low speed of about 30 revolutions per minute while clothes are washed; an intermediate speed of
about 90 rpm while the water is pumped out and a high speed of either 500 or 100 rpm to spin dry the
clothes. Lets consider how the microcomputer should control the speed of the motor.
The speed of the motor will be controlled by the power dissipated in it. The simplest way of speed
control is to use triac. The power could be controlled by some form of electronic circuitry, but the
hardware requirement can be reduced if the microcomputer controls the power directly by firing the
triac at an appropriate time during its cycle. To do this the controller must detect the zero crossing of
the ac supply. This will require circuitry to detect the crossing point while protecting the processor form
high voltages. A block diagram of the system is shown in fig.51.2.
At any time in the washing cycle the program determines at what speed the drum should rotate. From a
knowledge of the required speed and the actual speed as obtained above, the controller can determine
whether to increase or decrease the power dissipated in the motor.
The motor power is determined by timing of the triac firing pulse. If the triac is fired at the beginning of
each half of mains cycle it will remain on for the remainder of the half cycle and the motor will operate
at full power. The longer the processor waits before firing the triac, the less will be the motor power.
The processor thus varies the delay time with respect to the zero crossing point of the mains by an
appropriate amount to increase or decrease the power in the motor as determined by the difference
between the actual and required speeds.
AIR CONDITIONERS
Air conditioning is the process of treating air in an internal environment to establish and maintain
required standards of temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and motion. This is how each of these
conditions is controlled:
1. Temperature: Air temperature is controlled by heating or cooling the air. Cooling technically
means the removal of heat, in contrast to heating, the addition of heat.
2. Humidity: Air humidity, the water vapour content of the air, is controlled by adding or removing
water vapour from the air.
3. Cleanliness: Air cleanliness or air quality is controlled by either filtration, the removal of
undesirable contaminants using filters or other devices or by ventilation, the introduction of
outside air into the space which dilutes the concentration of contaminants. Often both filtration
and ventilation are used in an installation.
4. Motion: Air motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is distributed. It is controlled by
appropriate air distributing equipment.
Sound control can be considered an auxiliary function of an air conditioning system even though
the system itself may be the cause of the problem. The air conditioning equipment may produce
excessive noise requiring additional sound attenuating (reducing) devices as part of the
equipment.
Most air conditioning systems are used for either human comfort for process control. Air
conditioning enhances our comfort. Certain ranges of air temperature humidity, cleanliness, and
motion are comfortable; other are not.
Air conditioning is also used to provide conditions that some process require. For example,
textile printing, and photographic processing facilities as well as computer rooms and medical
facilities, require certain air temperature and humidity for successful operation.
COMPONENTS OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
Heat always travels from a warmer to a cooler area. In winter, there is a continual heat loss from
within a building to the outdoors. If the air in the building is to be maintained at a comfortable
temperature, heat must be continually supplied to the air in the rooms. The equipment that
furnishes the heat required is called a heating system.
In summer heat continually enters the building from the outside. In order to maintain the room,
air at a comfortable temperature, this excess heat must be continually removed from the room.
The equipment that removes the excess heat is called a cooling system.
An air conditioning system may provide heating, cooling, or both. Its size and complexity may
range from a single space heater or window unit for a small room to a huge system for a building
complex. Most heating and cooling systems must have the following basic components:
1. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air, water, or steam).
2. A cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water).
3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the rooms to be
heated or cooled.
4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water.
5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the room.
ALL-WATER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
A typical hydronic (all water) heating system is shown in fig. water is heated at the heat source
(1) usually a hot water boiler. The heated water is circulated by a pump(2) and travels to each
room through piping(3) and enters a terminal unit(4). The room air is heated by bringing it into
contact with the terminal unit. Since the water loses some of its heat to the rooms, it must
return to the heat source to be reheated.
REFRIGERATORS
A refrigeration system extracts heat from a substance at a temperature lower than the ambient
and transfers the extracted heat to the atmosphere at a temperature higher than the ambient. A
refrigeration system is termed as:
1. A heat recovery system when its refrigeration effect is utilized for cooling an area or a fluid
and the heat rejection is put to some beneficial use.
2. A heat pump when it is used for cooling during summer and heating in winter by incorporating
suitable accessories for the change over form the cooling to heating modes and vice versa.
Food preservation, both for processing and storage, is one of the significant applications of
refrigeration. Food processing calls for chilling, freezing, quick freezing, or freeze drying. Typical
applications are the domestic refrigerators and home freezers, ice cream manufacturing and
storage, drinking water coolers, beverage cooling, cold storages, process cooling of meat, fish,
dairy products, fruits, vegetables, transport refrigeration etc. refrigeration is very vital to the
chilled and frozen-foods industry for maintaining the cold chain i.e. a supply of such foods from
the farm to the consumer. Transport refrigeration is an important link in this chain. The
conditions of temperature and relative humidity are dictated by the application for which the
refrigeration system is intended.
REFRIGERATOR SYSTEM
Process 1-2: At point (1), the refrigerant is in the liquid state at a relatively high pressure and
high temperature. It flows to (2) through a restriction, called the flow control device or
expansion device. The refrigerant loses pressure going through the restriction. The pressure at (2)
is so low that a small portion of the refrigerant flashes (vapourises) into a gas. But in order to
vapourise, it must gain heat (which it takes from the portion of the refrigerant that did not
vapourise, thus cooling the mixture and resulting in low temperature(2).
Process 2-3 : The refrigerant flows through a heat exchanger called the evaporator. This heat
exchanger has two circuits. The refrigerant circulates in one, and in the other, the fluid to be
cooled (usually air or water) flows. The fluid to be cooled is at a slightly higher temperature than
the refrigerant, therefore heat is transferred from it to the refrigerant, producing the cooling
effect desire. The refrigerant boils because of the heat it receives in the evaporator. By the time
it leaves the evaporator (4), it is completely vapourized.
Process 3-4: Leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant is a gas at a low temperature and low
pressure. In order to be able to use it again to achieve the refrigerating effect continuously, it
must be brought back to the Conditions at (1) a liquid at a high pressure. The first step in this
process is to increase the pressure of the refrigerant gas by using a compressor. Compressing the
as also results in increasing its temperature.
Process 4-1 : The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a gas at high temperature and high
pressure. In order to change it to a liquid, heat must be removed from it. This is accomplished in
a heat exchanger called the condenser. The refrigerant flows through one circuit in the
condenser. In the other circuit, a cooling fluid flows (air or water) at a temperature lower than
that of the refrigerant. Heat therefore transfers from the refrigerant to the cooling fluid, and as
a result, the refrigerant condenses to a liquid (1). This is shown in fig.
The refrigerant has returned to its initial state and is now ready to repeat the refrigeration cycle.
Of course the processes are actually continuous as the refrigerant circulates through the system.
The absorption system uses the principle that some gases will be absorbed by certain other
substances. There are many pairs of substances that have this affinity for one another. We are all
aware of how table salt absorbs water vapour from the air, thus making it difficult to pour. Yet
another combination is lithium bromide (LiBr) and water, lithium bromide will absorb large
quantities of water vapour. This is used in many refrigeration systems.
BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRONIC ENGG
DIODES AND TRANSISTORS
Semiconductor Diode:-Diode under forward bias condition, Diode under reverse bias condition,
current-voltage(I-V) characteristics of a p-n diode, diode breakdown, diode resistance, DC power
supply, The Bridge Rectifier:-performance of a bridge rectifier, Rectifier with Zener shunt
regulator:- zener diode, zener shunt regulator, Bipolar Junction Transistor :- physical structure
and modes of operation, principle of operation of n-p-n Transistor, relation between Ic,Ib and Ie,
Biasing of BJT and Amplifying action:- fixed bias circuit, Bias Stabilization, Self-bias circuit,
stability factors(only definitions no derivations),Bias design of a well-stabilized circuit, Numerical
problems as applicable.
11hrs
Chapter 2.4, 3.1, 3.2.3, 3.4, 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.3
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Construction: when a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor
the contact surface is called a p-n junction. The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor diode.
p
n
++
A
(a)
(a) p-n junction
(b)
Depletion region
(b) symbolic representation
The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having ve acceptor ions and +vely charged
holes. The right side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and free
electrons.
Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn junction, then there is a tendency for
the free electrons from n-type to diffuse over to the p-side and holes from p-type to the nside. This process is called diffusion.
As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, +ve donor ions are
uncovered. Hence a +ve charge is built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time, the
free electrons cross the junction and uncover the ve acceptor ions by filling in the holes.
Therefore a net ve charge is established on p-side of the junction.
When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered further diffusion is
prevented, there is a +ve charge on n-side and ve charge on p-side, This region is called
depletion region or transition region or space charge region, which is depleted of free
charge carriers.
Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of charge carriers. This is called potential
barrier or junction barrier Vo. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V
for Si.
Outside this barrier on each side of the junction, the material is still neutral. Only inside the
barrier, there is a +ve charge on n-side and ve charge on p-side. This region is called
depletion layer.
Semiconductor diode: it is a pn junction with conductor for connecting the device in a circuit, it
has an ability to permit substantial current flow when forward biased and block current when
reverse biased and it can be used as a switch.
Biasing of a Diode
Connecting a p-n junction to an external d c. voltage source is called biasing.
1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing
1. Forward biasing
When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier, thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing.
To apply forward bias, connect +ve terminal of the battery to p-type and ve terminal to ntype as shown in fig below.
As a result holes in p-region will be repelled by the +ve terminal of the battery and moves
towards junction and electrons in n-region will be repelled by the -ve terminal of the
battery and moves towards junction and width of the depletion region narrows
Since the potential barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to
completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward
voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for
the entire circuit. Therefore current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.
Forward biasing of p-n junction
2. Reverse biasing
When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction the potential barrier
is increased it is called reverse biasing.
To apply reverse bias, connect ve terminal of the battery to p-type and +ve terminal to ntype as shown in figure below.
The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction as
the field due to potential barrier. Therefore the resultant field at the junction is
strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown in fig.2.2.
The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
Thus a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence current does not
flow.
Reverse biasing of p-n junction

Volt- Ampere characteristics (V-I)
R
A
V
diode
IF(mA)
Break over
Voltage
VR
Knee voltage
VF
IR(A)
V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode.
(i) Circuit diagram
(ii) Characteristics
The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of the
circuit shown in fig (i)
The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased in the circuit
shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor. The voltage across the diode is
measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is recorded using an ammeter.
By varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained. By
plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained. It can be
noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage attains the barrier
potential.
For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for Germanium diode, it is 0.3 V. The
barrier potential is also called as knee voltage or cur-in voltage.
The reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can be noted
that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly. This voltage is
called breakdown voltage.
Diode current equation

The current in a diode is given by the diode current equation
Where:
I = the net current flowing through the diode;
I0 = reverse saturation current
V=applied voltage across the terminals of the diode;
q=absolute value of electron charge;
k=Boltzmann's constant and
T = absolute temperature (K).
n = ideality factor which is 1 for Ge and 2 for Si
At 293 K, VT = kT/q = 0.025V, where VT is thermal voltage.
The breakdown in the diode may be due to any of the following mechanisms.
Zener breakdown: [Ionization due to electric field]
In a heavily doped PN junction when an electric field is applied at the junction, covalent bond
breaks, As a result new e-hole pair is created and reverse current increases.
Due to heavy doping the depletion region width becomes very small , even for a less applied
reverse bias voltage break the covalent bonds. This is called zener break down
It is found in the diodes having VBR < 5v
Avalanche breakdown: [Ionization by collision]
This type of breakdown occurs in wider depletion region, where electric field is not strong
enough to produce zener break down
When the reverse bias voltage is increased, the velocity of minority charge carriers will also
increase and consequently their energy content will also increase.
When these high energy charge carriers collide with the atom within the depletion region they
cause other charge carriers to break away from their atoms and join the flow of current across
the junction.
The additional charge carriers generated in this way collide with other atoms and generate
new carriers by making them to break away from their atoms.
This cumulative process is referred to as avalanche multiplication which results in the flow of
large reverse current and this breakdown of the diode is called avalanche breakdown.
It is found in the diodes having VBR > 7v

Diode Resistance:
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.
There are two types of resistance:
DC (static) resistance
AC (dynamic) resistance
DC (static) resistance
For a specific applied DC voltage VD, the diode has a specific current ID, and a specific resistance
RD.
RD= VD/ ID
AC (dynamic) resistance
This resistance of a diode is resistance offered to changing levels of forward voltage
rd = Vd/ Id
rd = 26mv/Id
by equation
Block diagram of DC power supply

One of the most important applications of diodes is in design of DC power supply
In the dc power supply, ac voltage from supply mains is stepped down, rectified, filtered and regulated to
give the required dc voltage
Power Transformer
It consists of two separate coils wound around a core that magnetically couples the two
windings.
The primary winding, having n1 turns, is connected to the 230-V ac supply; and the
secondary winding, having n2 turns, is connected to the circuit of the dc power supply.
The ac voltage available at the two terminals of the secondary windings is given by
V2=n2/n1*v1
Thus by selecting appropriate turns ratio (n2/n1) required output voltage can be
obtained.
It steps down 230V AC mains to required low AC voltage.
Rectifier
Converts AC voltage from transformer secondary to DC voltage, but the DC voltage

output is pulsating.
It employ 1,2or 4 diodes to provide various degrees of rectifying ettectiveness.
Filter
Filter circuit is required to reduce the variations in the magnitude of the rectified output.
They use the energy storage capabilities of capacitors and inductors to smooth out the
pulsation and to provide a steady output current.
Filters out the ac component from the rectified output.
Voltage Regulator
Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

RECTIFIERS
Rectifiers are the circuit which converts ac to pulsating dc

Rectifiers are grouped into two categories depending on the period of conductions.
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full- wave rectifier.
Full-wave rectifier
Full-wave rectifier is of two types
1. Centre tapped full-wave rectifier
2. Bridge rectifier
6
Bridge rectifier
A
B
Full wave bridge wave rectifier
The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifier is shown above. It uses four diodes and a
transformer.
During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is ve thus diodes D2 and D3 are forward
bias while diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current flows through diode D2, load
RL and diode D3.
During the ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is ve thus diodes D1 and D4 are forward
biased while the diodes D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Now the flow of current is through
diode D1 load RL and diode D4. Thus, the waveform is same as in the case of center-tapped
full wave rectifier.
Advantages
The need for center-taped transformer is eliminated.

The output is twice when compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier.
for the same secondary voltage.
The peak inverse voltage is one-half(1/2) compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier.
Can be used where large amount of power is required.
Disadvantages
It requires four diodes.

The use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage drop thereby reducing the output
voltage.
Efficiency of bridge rectifier
Let V = Vmsin be the voltage across the secondary winding

I = Imsin be the current flowing in secondary circuit
rf = diode resistance
RL = load resistance
2
r f RL ---------------------------------------- (4)
Pac I rms
Dc power output
Pdc I dc2 R L ----------------------- (1)
1 2
I rms 2
i d
2 0
1
Squaring both sides we get
I dc I av 2
i.d
2 0
I av 2
I av
(2)
1
Im Sin .d
2 0
2I m
1 2
i d
0
2
I rms
I m2
2
--------------------------------------------------------
I rms
2
2I
Pdc m RL ------------------------------------------ (3)

Input ac power
2
I rms
Im
2
I
Pac m r f RL --------------------------------(6)
2
2
2I m

Pdc
RL
0.812
*
=
-------------------------(7)
2
rf
r f RL
Pac I m
2
RL
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL.

Maximum efficiency = 81.2 %
This is the double the efficiency due to half wave rectifier. Therefore a Full-wave rectifier is twice
as effective as a half-wave rectifier.
Ripple factor
The pulsating output of a rectifier consists of d.c. component and a.c. component ( also known as
ripple). The a.c. component is undesirable and account for the pulsations in the rectifier output.
The effectiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of a.c. component in the output : the
smaller this component, the more effective is the rectifier.
The ratio of rms value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the rectifier
output is known as ripple factor
2
Iac
r=
= Irms / Id c - 1 ------------------------- (1)
Idc
2I
I
For full wave rectification we have Irms = m , Idc = m
2
Substituting above values in equation (1) we get,
Ripple factor r = 0.48
This shows that in the output of Full-wave rectifier, the D.C. component is more than the a.c.
component
Zener Diode
A zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction
in the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to f low in the reverse direction.
when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee
voltage" or "zener voltage."
Zener diodes are heavily doped silicon diodes that, unlike normal diodes, exhibit an abrupt
Reverse break-down at relatively low voltages.
The Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse breakdown region.
Zener diode is used for voltage regulation purpose.
Zener diodes are designed for specific reverse breakdown voltage called Zener
breakdown voltage (Vz). The value of Vz depends on amount of doping.
The symbol of Zener diode is shown below
The V-I characteristics of a zener diode including the breakdown region are shown below.
Fig. 2.9 Zener diode characteristics
Zener shunt regulator

The function of the regulator is to provide an output voltage V 0 that is as constant as possible in
spite of the ripple in source voltage, Vs and the variations in the load current, IL. Two parametersthe line regulation and the load regulation-can be used to measure how well the regulator is
performing its function.
The line regulation is defined as the change in V0 corresponding to a 1-V change in Vs
Line regulation= Vo/ Vs , It is expressed in mV/V.
The load regulation is defined as the change in V0 corresponding to a 1-mA change in IL
Load regulation= Vo/ IL
A voltage regulator circuit using a zener diode is as shown in the figure.
Rs
Is
Vs
IZ
VZ
IL
RL
Vo
This circuit is known as a shunt regulator because the zener diode is connected in parallel
with the load RL.
The regulator is fed with a supply voltage (Vs) which is not constant and may include a large
ripple component.
Such a dc supply voltage along with ripple component is obtained as the output of a rectifier
circuit even after inclusion of filter circuit.
The load can be a simple resistor or a complex electronic circuit.
10
The function of the zener diode is to keep the output voltage constant over a wide variation
of load current. This is accomplished by operating the zener in the breakdown region, when
its voltage varies only slightly with changes in zener current.
The resistance Rs is provided to keep the zener current limited to its maximum value even
load RL is shorted and this resistance is called current limiting resistance of zener regulator
circuit.
The zener diode has to be kept operating in its breakdown region with Iz>Izmin in order to
keep the load voltage relatively constant.in practice Iz should be kept much greater than
Izmin.
The source voltage Vs delivers a total current Is, which is called source current and it
divides between zener current Iz and load current IL. i.e. Is=Iz+IL. So as long as zener
remains in breakdown region, Vz will be constant and Is is given by
Is = Vs-Vz
Rz
When RL is large, IL is small and most of input current flow through Zener
When RL is small, IL is large and most of input current flow through load and IZ decreases
If IZ falls below IZK, Zener will not be operating in breakdown region and VZ gradually
reduces and cause output load voltage to come out of regulation.
Problem: Design a voltage regulator that will maintain an output of 20V across 1K ohm
load when input varies from 30-50V.Assume zener knee current is negligible. Indicate
maximum power of the diode
Soln:IL=20V/1K=20mA,
0 Rs=(30-20)/20=0.5K=500 ohms
Max current thr Rs is 50-20/.5=60mA
Izmax=60-20=40 mA
Hence max power rating of Zener is 40mA X20 V=0.8W
11
TRANSISTORS
A BJT consists of two coupled pn-junction, connected back-to-back with a common middle layer.
Current is conducted both by electrons and holes-hence the name Bipolar
(It is often referred to as transistor which is a contraction of the word transfer resistor)
A transistor is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or n-type) between two layers of
other types. It is a 3 layer, two junction device.
BJTs are used both in analog and digital circuits.
Bipolar Transistors are classified into two types;
1. pnp transistor
pnp transistor is obtained when a n-type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two ptype silicon material.
2. npn transistor
npn transistor is obtained when a p-type layer of silicon is sandwiched between two ntype silicon materials.
JE=Emitter Junction
JC=collector Junction
Fig 3.1: Symbolic representation
pnp
npn
Fig 3.2: Schematic representation
The three portions of transistors are named as emitter, base and collector. The junction
between emitter and base is called emitter-base junction while the junction between the
collector and base is called collector-base junction.
The base is thin and lightly doped, the emitter is heavily doped and it is wider when compared
to base, the width of the collector is more when compared to both base and emitter.
A terminal is connected to each of the three semiconductor regions of a transistor labeled as E,
B, C as shown above.
In order to distinguish the emitter and collector an arrow is included in the emitter. The
direction of the arrow depends on the conventional flow of current when emitter base junction
is forward biased.
In a pnp transistor when the emitter junction is forward biased the flow of current is from
emitter to base hence, the arrow in the emitter of pnp points towards the base.
12
Depending on the bias conditions of the EB and CB junctions different modes of operations of
BJT are obtained.
There are four possible ways of biasing these junctions
When emitter base junction is forward biased and CB junction is reverse biased the
BJT is said to be in active mode. This mode is used if BJT is used to operate as an
Amplifier
When both junctions are forward biased, BJT is said to be in saturation mode.
When both junctions are reverse biased, BJT is said to be in cut-off mode.
Switching applications use cut-off and saturation modes
When emitter base junction is reverse biased and CB junction is forward biased the
BJT is said to be in Inversion mode or Reverse Active. Inversion mode is used in
TTL gates.
Active mode
J E B JC
Saturation mode
C
p
VEB
VCB
E
p
VEB
J E B JC
C
p
VCB
13
Cut-off mode
E JE B JC C
p
VEB
Inversion Mode E
VCB
J E B JC
VEB
C
p
VCB
Principle of operation of NPN transistor
Figure shows an idealized NPN bipolar transistor biased in the forward-active mode.
An NPN bipolar transistor biased in the forward-active mode means baseemitter junction
forward biased and basecollector junction reverse biased.
Since the E-B junction is forward biased, as a result depletion region narrows ,electrons
from the emitter are injected across the BE junction into the base, this constitute emitter
current Ie
Since base is p-type and thin a very few electrons combine with holes in base, this constitute
base current Ib.
The remaining large number of electrons cross the base region and move through the
collector region to the +ve terminal of the external dc source vcc, this constitute collector
current Ic.
Thus main current in an NPN transistor is due to electron flow.
14
Current components of a transistor
JE
INE
N
(e- current)
IE
JC
P
IPB
IPE(hole current)
INC N
(e- current)
ICO
IC
IB
VEB
VCB
Fig above shows a transistor operated in active region. It can be noted from the diagram the
battery VEB forward biases the EB junction while the battery VCB reverse biases the CB junction.
As the EB junction is forward biased the electrons from emitter region flow towards the base
causing a electron current INE. At the same time, the holes from base region flow towards the
emitter causing an hole current IPE. Sum of these two currents constitute an emitter current I E =
IPE +INE.
The ratio of hole current IPE to electron current INE is directly proportional to the ratio of the
conductivity of the p-type material to that of n-type material. Since, emitter is highly doped when
compared to base; the emitter current consists almost entirely of electrons.
Not all the electrons, crossing EB junction reach the CB junction because some of the them
combine with the holes in the p-type base. If INC is the electron current at (Jc) CB junction. There
will be a recombination current INE - INC entering the base as shown in figure .
If emitter is open circuited, no charge carriers are injected from emitter into the base and hence
emitter current IE =o. Under this condition CB junction acts a a reverse biased diode and therefore
the collector current ( IC = ICO) will be equal to the reverse saturation current. Therefore when EB
junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased the total collector current IC
= INC +ICO.
Current relations
From KCL, the current that enters a transistor should leave it thus from fig the
emitter current is equal to sum of the collector current and the base current
i.e.
IE=Ic+Ib ------------------ (1)
Emitter current cross collector and only a small portion flows in to the base terminal
and remaining flows across C-B junction to become collector current
i.e. Ic = IE------------------(2)
I
where = C ( typically is in b/w0 .96 to0.995 it is called common base current
IE
gain)
since C-B junction is reverse biased ,a very small reverse saturation current (I CBO)
flows across the junction
ICBO is called as collector to base leakage current
15
Then eq(2 )can also be written as

We have
I C I E I CBO --------------------------(3)
usually ICBO is very small neglect it, then

Ic = IE
Ic = (Ic+Ib)
from eq (1)
Ic = IB/1-
Ic =IB
Where
= /1- (where is called as common emitter current gain and typically it ranges
b/w 25 to 300)
Common base Current amplification factor ()

It is defined as the ratio of D.C. collector current to D.C. emitter current
= IC / I E
Common emitter Current amplification factor ()
It is the ratio of d.c. collector current to d.c. base current.
i.e., = IC / IB
Relationship between and
We know that =
IC
IE
IC
IB IC
Divide both numerator and denominator of RHS by IC, we get

1
IB
1
IC
1
1
1
Also we have
( IC / IB = )
(1 )

(1 )
16
Biasing of BJT
Purpose of biasing a BJT circuit
Transistors are used in the different kinds of circuits that are designed to serve
different purposes.
In case of transistor amplifier, we need to use the active region of the transistor
output characteristics.
The transistor parameters are not absolute constant, but changes with both
temperature and bias conditions.
For example, transistor increases with temperature as well as with collector current
and an increase of in turn further increases in collector current.
The bias point thus shifts with temperature.
Another parameter that affects the bias point is the collector to base leakage current,
which approximately doubles for every 10c rise in temperature.
The purpose of dc biasing of a transistor is to obtain the most appropriate values of
Ic, IB, and VCE.
The particular values of Ic, IB, and VCE represents a particular point in the output
characteristics of the transistor, called the quiescent point or Q-point or operating
point.
To obtain a suitable operating point we make use of some circuits and these circuits
are called biasing circuit.
DC load line and Bias point
DC load line
17
Dc load line for a transistor is o straight line drawn on output characteristics.

For common emitter, the load line is line drawn on graph of Ic Vs V CE.
The load line shows all corresponding levels of Ic and VCE that can exist in a particular
circuit.
Consider the common emitter circuit as shown in the fig note that the polarities of the terminal
voltages are such that base-emitter junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
Applying KVL to output loop, we get
VCE= Vcc Ic Rc----------------------(1)

Substitute Ic=0 in eq 1,
VCE= 20v 0* Rc = 20v (point A)
Plot point A on the C-E characteristics as shown at Ic=0 and Vcc=20v, one point of dc load
line
If Vce=0v in eq 1, then
0= 20v Ic* 10
Ic=Vcc/Rc=20/10=2mA (point B)
Plot point B on the C-E characteristics as shown at Ic=2mA and Vcc=0v, another point of dc
load line.
The Straight line drawn through A and B is dc load line for Rc=10K and Vcc=20v.
If either of these 2 quantities changed, anew load line must be drawn.
18
Operating point (Q)
A point on the d.c. load line which represent the signal values of VCE and IC in a transistor is called
as operating point or silent point or quiescent point or Q-point.
The Q-point is selected where the DC load line intersects the curve of output characteristics for
particular value of signal current.
i.e. Q-point = (VCE ,IC)
Bias stabilization
The process of making operating point independent of temperature changes or variation in
transistor parameters is called the Bias stabilization.
We know that for transistor to operate it should be properly biased so that we can have a fixed
operating point. To avoid any distortions, the Q-point should be at the center of the load line.
But in practice this Q-point may shift to any operating region (saturation or cur-off region) making
the transistor unstable. Therefore in order to avoid this, biasing stability should be maintained.
Causes for shift of operating point or Bias instability
Bias instability occurs mainly due to two reasons.
1. Temperature
2. Current gain
1. Temperature (T)
The temperature at the junctions of a transistor depends on the amount of current flowing through
it. Due to increase in temperature following parameters of a transistor will change.
(a) Base-emitter voltage (VBE)
VBE decreases at a rate of 1.8mV/0C with one degree rise in temperature for Si diode and VBE
decreases at a rate of 2.02mV/0C with one degree rise in temperature for Ge diode.
The base current IB will increase if VBE decreases and since IC= IB, IC will also increases resulting
in changing the Q-point.
(b) Reverse saturation current (ICBO)
We know that IC = IB + (1+) ICBO where ICBO is the reverse saturation current. ICBO doubles for
every 100C rise in temperature there by increase in IC and hence changing the Q-point.
2. Current gain ()
In the process of manufacturing the transistors different transistors of same type may have
different parameters ( i.e. if we take two transistor units of same type and use them in the circuit
there is a change in the value in actual practice ). The biasing circuit will be designed according
to the required value but due to the change in from unit to unit the operating point may shift.
19
In summary increase in temperature always increases collector current Ic Because
and ICBO increase with temperature and VBE decreases with increase in temperature.
Thermal runaway
Wkt IC = IB + (1+) ICBO
As temperature increases, ICBO will increase, Increase in ICBO causes Ic to increase, increase
in Ic increases the C-B junction temperature, In turn results in a further increase in ICBO. The effect
is cumulative it leads to substantial increase in Ic. This could produce significant shift in Q-point
or in the worst case Ic might keep on increasing and the C-B junction over heats and burns out
resulting in the process called Thermal Runway.
Stability factor
The stability is assessed by calculating stability factor.
It is defined as ratio of change in Ic to change in parameter value that caused in collector current.
A stability factor is thus a measure of how sensitive collector bias current is to changes in a
parameter values such as ICBO, and VBE.
Since Ic is a function of three temperature dependent parameters, ICBO, and VBE, we can express a
small increment Ic as
Ic =[(Ic/ICBO)* /I CBO ]+ [(Ic/V BE)* /V BE ]+ [(Ic/ )* / ]

Ic =S1I CBO+S2VBE +S3
S1=Ic/ICBO = ICBO- stability factor
S2=Ic/ VBE = VBE - stability factor
S3=Ic/ = - stability factor
Note : S=1 is higher stability
S=10 good stability
S>10 poor stability
20
21

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Elements Of Electronics Engg. Notes by Sowmya Sunkara, Asst. Prof. Dept.

Modulation is an important step of communication system.

Need for modulation: (i) To separate signal from different transmitters:

(ii) To reduce the height of the antenna: -

(iii)To Increase Operating Range

The power radiated by an antenna of length l is proportional to (l/)2.

ec = Ec cos(c t )--------(1) and em = Em cos(m t )------------(2)

The waveforms and frequency spectrum is as shown below.

Frequency spectrum of AM Wave

Modulation index or degree of modulation or percentage of modulation or depth of modulation

It is an indication of the strength of the message signal.

For amplitude modulation ma= Emax - Emin

Comparison of Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation

Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter

Unit3: Digital Electronics

Chapter 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.7.2, 12.2, 12.3.1

Thus (45)10 = (101101)2

0.75 2 = 1.50 -----1

Thus (45)10= (55)8.

Thus (45)10= (2D)16.

Conversions of Binary Fractions to Decimal Fractions The conversions of binary

Conversions of Binary Fractions to Octal Fractions- We use the following steps in

Conversions of Binary to Hexadecimal- We convert binary to hexadecimal in the similar

Conversions of Octal to Decimal- We follow the same steps of conversion of binary to

Conversions of Octal Fractions to Binary Fractions- We follow the same steps of

Conversions of Hexadecimal to Decimal- We do the conversion of hexadecimal to decimal as

Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Decimal Fractions- We do the conversion

Conversions of Hexadecimal to Octal- We convert each hexadecimal digit in binary.

Conversions of Hexadecimal Fractions to Octal Fractions We follow the same

2. Implementing AND Using only NAND Gates

3. Implementing OR Using only NAND Gates

5. Implementing EX-OR Using only NAND Gates

6. Implementing EX-NOR Using only NAND Gates

NOR AS UNIVERSAL GATE

1. Implementing an Inverter Using only NOR Gate

3. Implementing AND Using only NOR Gates

4. Implementing NAND Using only NOR Gates

5. Implementing EX-OR Using only NOR Gate

Fig: Application of commutative law of addition.

Fig: Application of commutative law of multiplication.

Fig: Application of associative law of addition.

Application of associative law of multiplication.

Application of distributive law.

Rule 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC

STANDARD FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

Also, an SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in

The Standard SOP Form

is a standard SOP expression.

Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP:

The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form

A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in A(A + B + C)(B + C + D).

The Standard POS Form

BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Gate circuits for example above.

Logic Equations for "Difference" And "Borrow". Are As Follows

FULL SUBSTRACTOR USING 2 HALF SUBSTRACTOR

Unit 2: Amplifiers, Oscillators, and Op-amps

The bias voltage at the base-emitter junction is given by

Fig.2 Op-amp in inverting mode

Fig.3 Op-Amp in Non-inverting mode

Fig.4 Ideal Op-Amp

Block Diagram of an Op-AMP