UNIT II

ANALYSIS OF HVDC CONVERTERS AND HVDC SYSTEM

CONTROL
Pulse number, choice of converter configuration Simplified
analysis of Graetz circuit -Converter bridge characteristics
characteristics of a twelve pulse converter- detailed analysis of
converters. General principles of DC link control Converter control
characteristics System control hierarchy - Firing angle control
Current and extinction angle control Generation of harmonics and
filtering - power control Higher level controllers
2.1 PULSE NUMBER
The pulse number of a converter is defined as the number of
pulsations (cycles of ripple)of direct voltage per cycle of
alternating voltage.
The conversion from AC to DC involves switching
sequentially different sinusoidal voltages onto the DC
circuit.
The output voltage of the converter consists of a DC
component and a ripple whose frequency is determined by
the pulse number.
2.1.1 VALUE AND SWITCHES
A valve can be treated as a (controllable) switch which can
be turned on at any instant, provided the voltage across it is
positive.
A diode is an uncontrolled switch which will turn on
immediately after the voltage becomes positive whereas the
thyristor switching can be delayed by an angle or (alpha).
The opening of the switch(both for diode and thyristor)
occurs at the current zero (neglecting the turn-off time).

2.2 CHOICE OF CONVERTER CONFIGURATION

The confi uration fora given pulse number is selected in such a

way that both the valve and transformer (feeding the
converter) utilization are maximized.

The configuration shown in Fig. is not the best. In general, a

converter configuration can be defined by the basic
commutation group and the number is selected in such a way
that both the valve and transformer (feeding the converter)
utilization are maximized.

The configuration shown in Fig. is not the best. In general, a

converter configuration can be defined by the basic
commutation group and the number of such groups connected
in series and parallel.

If there are q valves in a basic commutation group and r of

these are connected
in parallel and s of them connected to
in series,
then P = q r
s

Fig 2.1 Choice of

Configuration

2.2.1 VALVE RATING

The valve voltage rating is specified in terms of peak

inverse voltage (PIV) it has to withstand.

The ratio of PIV to the average dc voltage is an index of the

valve utilization.
The average maximum dc voltage across the converter is
given by

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) across a valve can be obtained

as follows :

If q is even. then the maximum inverse voltage occurs

when the valve with a phase displacement of p radian
(l80) is conducting
If q is odd, maximum inverse voltage occurs when the
valve with a phase shift of is conducting.

2.2.2 Simplified analysis of Graetz circuit

For a 6 pulse converter, this can be easily arranged. The
Graetz circuit shown in Fig 2.2. is obtained when the two
windings are combined into

Fig 2.2 Arrangement of Graetz Circuit

Thus, it is shown that both from valve and transformer utilization

considerations.
Graetz circuit is the best circuit for a six pulse converter.

In HVDC transmission, the series conduction of converter groups

has been preferred because of the ease of control and protection
as well as the requirements of high voltage rating. Thus a 12
pulse converter is obtained by the series connection of two
bridges. The 30 phase displacement between the two sets of
source.
voltages is achieved by the transformer connections, Y/Y for
feeding one bridge and Y/A for feeding the second bridge.
The use of 12 pulse converter is preferable over the six pulse
converter because of the reduced filtering requirements.
However, increase in pulse number beyond 12 is not practical
because the non-characteristic harmonics are not eliminated.
Simplified analysis of Graetz circuit
Without overlap

With overlap
Without overlap
At any instant two valves are conducting in the bridge.

The following assumption are made to simplify the analysis.

The dc current is constant.

The valves can be modelled as ideal switch with zero

impedance, when ON , and with infinite impedance
when OFF

The AC voltage at the converter bus are sinusoidal and

remains constant.

One period of the AC supply voltage can be divided in to 6

intervals each corresponding to the conduction of a pair of
valves.

The DC voltage waveform repeats for each interval.

Thus for the calculation of the average dc voltage it is

necessary to consider only one interval
Assuming the firing of 3 is delayed by an angle alpha ( a ) , the
instantaneous dc voltage Vd
The range of alpha is from 0 degree to 180 degree and
correspondingly Vd can vary from +Vdo to Vdo .

Thus the same converter can acts as a rectifier or inverter

depending upon whether the dc voltage is +ve or ve.
2.2.3 AC CURRENT WAVEFORM

It is assumed that the direct current has no ripple.

There is normally valid because of the smoothing reactor

provided in series with the bridge circuit.
The rms value of the fundamental components of the current is
given.
The reactive power requirements are increased as alpha is
decreased from zero.
When alpha is 90degree the power factor is zero and only
reactive power consumes.

With overlap
Due to leakage inductance if the converter transformer and the
impedance in the

supply network, the current in a valve cannot change suddenly

and the
commutation from one valve to next cannot be
instantaneous.
For example : When Valve 3 is Fired.
The Current transfer from valve 1 to valve 3 takes a finite period
during which both valves are conducting.
This is called OVERLAP and its duration is measured by the
OVERLAP ANGLE (m) .
three modes of the converter as follows.
MODE 1 : Two and three valve conduction ( u
< 60degree ) MODE 2 : Three valve
conduction ( u = 60 degree)
MODE 3 : Three and four valve conduction (u >
60 degree )
2.3 CONVERTER BRIDGE CHARACTERISTICS

Rectifier
Inverter

RECTIFIER
The rectifier in general has 3 modes:

1st mode : 2 and 3 valve conduction mode ( u< 60 degree )

2nd mode : 3 valve conduction mode only for (alpha < 30
degree ) u = 60 degree 3rd mode : 3 and 4 valve conduction
mode (alpha >= 30 degree )
As per the current continues to increase, the converter operation
changes over from mode 1 to mode 2 and finally to mode 3.

Fig 2.3 Converter Bridge Characteristics

The DC voltage continues to decrease until reaches to zero

INVERTER

The inverter characteristics

characteristics

However, the operation as an inverter requires a

minimum commutation margin angle during which the
voltage across the valve is negative

Hence the operating region of an inverter is different from that

for a rectifier.

The commutation margin angle is equal to the extinction

angle only values of 60

The voltages across the value has a positive dent because of the
secondary commutation.
With increased over lap and consequently earlier ignition of the
value, the dent encroaches on the period in which the valve
voltage would otherwise be negative.

are

similar

to

the

rectifier

With Decreased commutation margin , the dent becomes

entirely negative ,If any dent changes takes places.

2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A TWELVE PULSE CONVERTER

As long as AC voltage at the converter bus remains
sinusoidal the operation of one bridge is unaffected
by the operation of the other bridge connected in
series
In this case, The converter characteristics are with
the assumption that the AC voltage at the
converter bus remains constant.
The region of rectifier operation can be divided in to the
Five modes
Mode 1 :
4 and 5 value conduction
0 degree < u < 30degree
Mode 2 :
5 and 6 value conduction
30 degree < u < 60 degree
Mode 3 :
6 value conduction
0 < alpha < 30 degree u=60 degree
Mode 4 :
6 and 7 value conduction
60 degree < u < 90 degree

Mode 5:

7 and 8 value conduction

90 degree < u < 120 degree
It is noted that, the second mode is continuous of
the 1st mode Similarly, 5th mode is continuous of 7th
mode
The region of the mode 3 shrinks to a point when alpha exceeds
30 degree

When no AC filters are provided and the source

reactance Is not zero the operation of either bridge is
affected by the commutation process taking place in the
other bridge.

In this case operation of the twelve pulse converter

is quite complex and there complex and there
could be additional modes

5 value conduction

6-7 8-7 valve conduction

Also there could be new modes of 5-6-7-6 valve

conduction , depending on the value of coupling
factor K .
It is to be noted that the interaction between adjacent bridges
can be neglected if the converter bus voltages are sinusoidal.
However, the presence of source reactance results in the
variation off the magnitude of the bus voltage.
This can affect the shape of the converter characteristics.

Fig 2.4 Twelve Pulse Converter

2.4.1 DETAILED ANALYSIS OF CONVERTERS

Some of the assumptions can be made

The system is described by sets of linear differential

equations, and each set is applicable for particular
conduction pattern of the values in bridge.
AC system is symmetrical and source voltages are balanced
Firing pulses are generated at equal interval of time.

The solution is periodic in steady state ,each period can be

divided in to p intervals where p is the pulse number of the
converter.

Each interval in general can be sub divided in to sub interval as

follows
0 < t < t1 corresponding to the Conduction of ( m+1 )
valves.

t1 < t < T1 corresponding to the Conduction of m

valves.

For Example , 6pulse converter

Normal mode consists of 3 and 2 valve conduction.

First computing from a non linear equation to form

Once (t 1) is obtained initial conditions can be calculated from linear

equation
Some of the assumptions can be made for calculating boundary
conditions.
Magnetic fluxes and electric charges must be
continuous function of time.
The current in the outgoing valve is zero .
2.5 Basic Control Principles
The HVDC system is basically constant-current controlled for
the following two important reasons:
To limit over current and minimize damage due to faults.
To prevent the system from running down due to fluctuations of
the ac voltages.
It is because of the high-speed constant current control
characteristic that the HVDC system operation is very stable . The
following are the significant aspects of the basic control system
shown in Fig 2.5 ,

Fig 2.5 Basic Control scheme for HVDC system

The rectifier is provided with a current control and an -limit

control. The minimum reference is set at about 50 so that
sufficient positive voltage across the valve exists at the time of
firing, to ensure successful commutation. In the current control
mode, a closed loop regulator (which is a proportional plus integral
regulator also termed as Type-0 controller) controls the firing angle
and hence the dc voltage to maintain the direct current equal to
the current order. Tap changer control of the converter transformer
brings within the range of 100 to 200. A time delay is used to
prevent unnecessary tap movements during excursions of .
The inverter is provided with a constant extinction angle (CEA)
control and current control. In the CEA control mode, is
regulated to a value of about 150. This value represents a
tradeoff between acceptable VAR consumption and a low risk of
commutation failure. Tap changer control is used to bring the
value of close to the desired range of 150 to 200.
Under normal conditions, the rectifier is on current control mode
and the inverter is on CEA control mode. If there is a reduction in
the ac voltage at rectifier end, the rectifier firing angle decreases
until it hits the min limit. At this point, the rectifier switches to
min control and the inverter will assume current control. These
are illustrated in Fig 2.6

Fig 2.6 Actual Converter Control steady Characteristics

2.6 System Control Hierarchy

the basic control system needed to operate an HVDC transmission.
To differ between the rectifier and the inverter operation, both
stations are provided with equal
control functions with only some individually preset
parameters. Both stations are given equal current orders,
but the current margin D I order is
subtracted in the inverter to make the effective current order
in that station lower than in the rectifier.
2.6.1 Converter Firing Control System

The Converter Firing Control system receives a current order I0

and sends out firing pulses (CP) in such a way that the ordered
current is maintained. The dynamics of the HVDC transmission
system is determined primarily through the settings of the Voltage
Dependent Current Order Limiter (VDCOL) and the Current Control
Amplifier (CCA)

Fig 2.7 Overview of Converter Firing Control

2.6.2 Firing Control

The objective of the firing control is to convert the ordered firing
angle a to firing

pulses, which are further transferred to the converter valves of

the corresponding phase and within a correct interval. The firing
angle being between the a = a min to a = a max , the latter
being determined by the minimum extinction angle g limit. The
permitted changes of the firing angle are depending on the
operation mode. Thus, the most important task of the Firing
Control is to make sure, that the firing instant does occur within
the designed time limitations for the thyristor valves. For
example, to avoid too fast changes at low g in regions, where the
commutations may become unsuccessful. This is accomplished
through the following features.
The AC voltage has to reach a certain level (UMIN,
corresponding to a approximately 5 degrees at normal voltage)
across the thyristor valve to enable firing. For inverter
operation, the value (ALPHA MIN) is set to approximately 90
degrees, to prevent reversed voltage and thereby reversed
power.

Fig 2.8(a) - A Converter Firing Control

Predictive extinction angle(AMIN) control ensures that the

extinction angle g is kept above the minimum value, normally
17 degrees, to minimize the risk of commutation failures.
2.6.3 Current and extinction angle control :

Fig 2.8(b) A Converter current and extinction angle control

By assuming current as constant and alpha as variable. It can

be seen from the figure that higher dc voltage at minimum
alpha and increasing of alpha decreases the dc voltage. The
direct current is determined based on the current order, which
could be selected between minimum current capability and the
rated current of valves. The maximum current carrying
capacity of valves would be determined for a transient time
period to limit valve stress.
2.6.4 Extinction angle control:
Inverter is normally operating as alpha-max or constant
commutation margin mode in order to have certain extinction angle
to commutate the valves without fail. Under normal operation,
inverter operates at =17 at 50Hz, it is not recommended to
increase or decrease to limit reactive power consumption and avoid
commutation failure. At steady state, inverter operates normally as
constant dc voltage control mode. Assuming gamma constant and
Idc as variable gives negative slope characteristics. This slope
would be even more negative if the ac system
is weaker.
2.7 Generation of harmonics and filtering
Harmonics were non sinusoidal component present in sine
waveform. Harmonicswould cause serious problems in the
powersystem. So, harmonics were eliminatedwith the help of
filters .
Harmonics were classified into two typesbased on the supply

AC harmonics
DC harmonicsHarmonics were also classified into twotypes based
on the order
Characteristic harmonics
Non- Characteristic harmonics
2.7.1 Characteristic harmonics
The harmonics of those orders which werealways present in the
HVDC system evenunder the ideal conditions such as1.Balanced AC
voltages2.Symmetric 3 phase network and3.Equidistant pulses were
called asCharacteristic harmonics.AC characteristic harmonics were
of theorder h= np1Whereh=order of harmonicsn=Integer.
p=pulse numberAC characteristic harmonics were given a Non
characteristic harmonics The harmonics of the order other than the
characteristic harmonics were called as Non-characteristic
harmonics.
2.7.2 Causes of Non-characteristic harmonics
1.Imbalance in the operation of two bridges-Residual harmonics
2.Firing angle errors
3.Unbalance and distortion in AC voltages
4.Unequal transformer leakage impedances-Residual harmonics
Imbalance in the operation of two bridges
These were called as residual harmonics.
Causes
1.Due to the difference in the firing angles in the two bridges.
2.Unequal cancellation of harmonics of order 5, 7, 17, 19
Reduction
Equidistant pulse control was used to eliminate residual
harmonics.
It
involves
increased
reactive
power
consumption.
Firing angle errors Causes
1.Due to jitter (or) nature of control system
2.Ripple in current feedback signal Properties of non-characteristics
harmonics due to firing angle errors
1.There were even harmonics if x or d0
i. x, d=parameter showing the deviation of the current waveform
2.The magnitude of the characteristic harmonics were also affected
due to this
3.Triple harmonics would fall into odd or even groups defined by

h=6n+3
n=0, 1, 2
h=6n n=1, 2
In each of these groups, the magnitude of harmonics decreases
monotonically as n increases.
4. Two groups of even harmonics which were not multiples of
3 were given by h=6n+2, n=0, 1, 2
h=6n+4, n=1, 2
In one group, magnitude increases with n while in the other
group, it decreases with the increase in n.
5. For higher values of hNon characteristic harmonics The
harmonics of the order other than the characteristic harmonics
were called as Non-characteristic harmonics.
Causes of Non-characteristic harmonics
1.Imbalance in the operation of two bridges-Residual harmonics
2.Firing angle errors
3.Unbalance and distortion in AC voltages
4. Unequal transformer leakage impedances-Residual harmonics
Imbalance in the operation of two bridges
These were called as residual harmonics.
Causes
1.Due to the difference in the firing angles in the two bridges.
2.Unequal cancellation of harmonics of order 5, 7, 17, 19
Reduction
Equidistant pulse control was used to eliminate residual
harmonics. It involves increased reactive power
consumption.
Firing angle errors Causes
1.Due to jitter (or) nature of control system
2. Ripple in current feedback signal Properties of non-characteristics
harmonics due to firing angle errors
1.There were even harmonics if x or d0
i. x, d=parameter showing the deviation of the current waveform
2.The magnitude of the characteristic harmonics were also affected
due to this
3.Triple harmonics would fall into odd or even groups defined by
h=6n+3
n=0, 1, 2

h=6n n=1, 2
In each of these groups, the magnitude of harmonics decreases
monotonically as n increases.
4. Two groups of even harmonics which were not multiples of
3 were given by h=6n+2, n=0, 1, 2
h=6n+4, n=1, 2
In one group, magnitude increases with n while in the other
group, it decreases with the increase in n.
2.8 Types of AC Filters
The different types of AC filters used in
HVDC systems were as follows
1.Band pass filter
2.Single tuned filter
3.Double tuned filter
4.High pass Filter
i. Second order filter
ii. C type filter
Single Tuned Filter
It was to filter out the characteristic harmonics of single
frequency. It was used to filter out 11 th and 13th harmonics in
a converter system.
Double tuned filter
It was used to filter out two discrete frequencies. It was also
used to eliminate 11th and 13th harmonics.
Advantages
1.Only one inductor was subjected to full line
impulse voltage 2. Reduced power loss at the
fundamental frequency
High Pass Filter
Second order High pass filter
It was used to filter out the higher frequencies. Tuning of
these filters was not critical.
C type High pass filter
It was used to reduce power losses at the fundamental frequency.
Capacitor was connected in series with inductor to provide low
impedance path to the fundamental

component of current. A third harmonic filter was used to

filter out the non-characteristic harmonic of third order. All
the filter branches were capacitive at fundamental frequency
and supply reactive power.
2.9 Power control:
It is sometimes specified that the HVDC transmission shall
assist the existing power generation stations to control the
frequency of the network. It is often stated in such cases that a
dead-band for the frequency deviation shall exist. The gain of the
regulator as well as the dead-band are normally variable. Figure 2
shows an example of controller arrangement in which the
power/frequency control unit generates an additional power order D
Pmod to a manually set order Po .

Fig 2.9 Power Control

2.10 Higher level controllers:

The HVDC transmission has an inherent control property which is
unique in electrical power transmission technique, i.e. the power
transmitted on the DC line is easily controlled with a high speed of
response. Further the interconnection of two or more AC systems or
two or more buses in one AC system by a DC link is asynchronous
and the transmission stability is not affected by pole angle
differences. Thus the HVDC transmission can be used for
stabilization of an AC system by modulating the transmitted DC
power in accordance with the variations in some AC system
quantities, usually the frequency. The link can also be used to
directly control the frequency of an AC network connected to one of
the substations. These applications will be discussed below with
reference to some typical cases.
(i)Power/frequency control
It is sometimes specified that the HVDC transmission shall assist
the existing power generation stations to control the frequency of
the network. It is often stated in such cases that a dead-band for
the frequency deviation shall exist. The gain of the regulator as well
as the dead-band are normally variable. example of controller
arrangement in

which the power/frequency control unit generates an additional

power order D Pmod to a manually set order Po . If required the
regulator can be so designed that
the property of it is similar to a turbine governor as illustrated

Fig 2.10 Higher level Control

(ii)Stabilization of an AC link by a parallel DC line (damping

control)
When two AC systems are interconnected by parallel AC and/or DC
links the latter can easily be used to stabilize the interconnection to
a degree which is not possible for an AC link. two AC networks are
interconnected by two AC and one DC link in parallel.

Fig 2.11 Reactive Power Control

(iii)Reactive power control

It is well known that the reactive power consumption of a convertor
station in an
HVDC transmission is dependent on the control angle and the direct
current level.
Thus the DC link can also be used for control of reactive power or
for voltage control of the voltage in the AC network. The modulating
signal for the DC link is here derived from measured reactive power
or AC voltage deviation and affects the commutation margin
reference.