Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Initial losses
Evaporation
Evapotranspiration
Infiltration
Instructor:
Prof. M Janga Reddy
mjreddy@civil.iitb.ac.in
Interception by shrubs
Initial loss
Interception process + depression storage
Initial loss
Evaporation
Contd
Evaporation Processes
Evaporation:
It is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at the free
surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
Generally expressed in mm/day
Wind speed
Rate of evaporation increases with wind speed up to critical
speed (until it removes all air vapour) then there is no influence.
Critical wind speed is function of size of water bodies
Small water body less speed is sufficient
Large water body high speed is required
Contd
Atmospheric pressure
A decrease in the barometric pressure increases the evaporation (particularly
in high altitudes)
Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters
Colorado Sunken
evaporation pan
Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters
Range
1.
0.70
0.60-0.80
2.
0.80
0.65-1.10
3.
0.78
0.75-0.86
4.
0.80
0.70-0.82
Evaporation Stations
where
15
Reservoir Evaporation
The water volume lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a
month is calculated as
VE = A Epm Cp
Empirical equations can give best approximation
EL=f(St, St+1)
EL= f(At, At+1)
Note: Linear and non-linear relationships can be developed.
Month
Evaporation
loss
Historical evaporation
(Mm3)
(mm)
Average
Constant
at
Standard
deviation
Coefficient
bt
Correlation
coefficient
June
277.2
32.45
21.28
-0.04526
0.032891
0.930
July
221.5
35.96
19.13
0.337934
0.026263
0.957
August
177.6
44.24
14.39
7.048066
0.019883
0.949
September
194.4
52.38
11.71
19.19361
0.014872
0.714
October
124.3
49.98
12.69
10.63109
0.016538
0.873
November
165.1
38.64
9.67
12.74526
0.011463
0.898
December
151.1
31.95
10.28
7.959367
0.012263
0.936
January
171.0
26.74
11.54
2.536207
0.014708
0.981
February
201.3
26.69
12.33
3.772574
0.017282
0.944
March
311.8
37.28
19.84
3.464567
0.033528
0.981
April
369.3
36.71
21.58
6.534537
0.039498
0.962
May
386.3
34.97
23.26
3.220164
0.044379
0.966
Transpiration
Permanent roof
Temporary roofs
Floating roofs (applicable to very small reservoirs)
Chemical films
Used for large reservoirs
One of the practical and viable solution
Cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) and stearyl alcohol (octadecanol)
Applied as thin films (0.35 to 0.4 kg/ha/day)
Evapotranspiration
1. Meteorological parameters
2. Plant characteristics
Contd
Lysimeters
Field plots
ET estimation models
All the models estimate the reference crop evapotranspiration
(ETo). Then converts into crop evapotranspiration (ETc)
ET estimation models
Generally use meteorological
data
Crop ET:
Maximum temperature.
Minimum temperature
Relative humidity
Wind velocity
Solar Radiation
Sunshine hours
Radiation methods
Hargreaves
Jensen-Haise and Others
Combination methods
ETc = Kc ETo
Where ETc = actual crop evapotranspiration rate; ETo = the evapotranspiration rate for a
reference crop; Kc = the crop coefficient
Penman
Kimberly-Penman
Priestly-Taylor
Penman-Monteith and others
ET estimation
Table: Data
Estimating ET
Evapo-transpiration
Evapo-transpiration
mean daily percentage (p) of annual daytime hours for different latitudes
Latitude
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
North
Jan
Feb
Mar
Nov
Dec
South
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
.15
.20
.26
.32
.38
.41
.40
.34
.28
.22
.17
.13
55
.17
.21
.26
.32
.36
.39
.38
.33
.28
.23
.18
.16
50
.19
.23
.27
.31
.34
.36
.35
.32
.28
.24
.20
.18
45
.20
.23
.27
.30
.34
.35
.34
.32
.28
.24
.21
.20
40
.22
.24
.27
.30
.32
.34
.33
.31
.28
.25
.22
.21
ET = p (0.46 Tmean + 8)
35
.23
.25
.27
.29
.31
.32
.32
.30
.28
.25
.23
.22
30
.24
.25
.27
.29
.31
.32
.31
.30
.28
.26
.24
.23
= 0.29 (9.89 + 8)
25
.24
.26
.27
.29
.30
.31
.31
.29
.28
.26
.25
.24
= 5.2 mm/day
20
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
.30
.30
.29
.28
.26
.25
.25
15
.26
.26
.27
.28
.29
.29
.29
.28
.28
.27
.26
.25
10
.26
.27
.27
.28
.28
.29
.29
.28
.28
.27
.26
.26
.27
.27
.27
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.28
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
.27
60
Given:
Estimating ET
The modified Hargreaves method
Where
RA
Rn = Rns Rnl
Rns = Net short wave radiation mm/day = (1-)Rs
= reflection factor (albedo)
= 0.29+0.06 sin[30(M+0.0333N+2.25)]
hours on long
Infiltration
It is the processes of surface entry of water into the soil
Seepage
Percolation
where :
ETo
Rn
G
T
u2
g
D
es
ea
es - ea
Measurement of infiltration
Infiltration indices
In hydrological studies, sometimes it is convenient to use a
constant, average value of infiltration loss for the duration
of the storm, instead of an exponentially decaying
infiltration capacity curve.
Tension Infiltrometers
- index and
46
- index
Infiltration indices
resulting runoff,
2. W-index:
It is a modified version of - index, where
initial losses are separated from the total loss.
where
P= precipitation (cm)
R= runoff (cm)
te= duration of rainfall excess (hrs)
W= average rate of infiltration (cm/h)
Ia= initial losses (cm)
Note:
The first hr and last hr rainfall has not
contributed to the runoff !
Overton Model
Holtan Model
Huggins-Monke (HM) Model
Kostiakov
Green-Ampt (GA) Model
Horton Model
Philip Model
Kostiakov Model
Horton Model
Problem:
For experimental data given in
Table below, fit the Kostiakov
model and Horton infiltration
model. Show graphically the
model fit to experimental data.
Also plot the relative error in
model fit against time.
Relative error =
(Observed value computed value)
Observed value
Observ ed Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
6.730
3.605
10
3.438
15
3.101
20
2.776
25
2.600
30
2.567
35
2.565
40
2.487
45
2.494
50
2.510
55
2.384
60
2.275
65
2.303
70
2.336
75
2.323
80
2.240
85
2.381
90
2.377
95
2.208
100
2.282
105
2.264
110
2.316
115
2.195
120
2.168
125
2.325
130
2.085
135
1.969
140
2.102
Kostiakov Model
Step1: plot the data
Step2: Kostiakov model
Take log of f and t
Step3: Plot log (f ) Vs log(t)
Kostiakov Model
Slope = -0.21461
Hence value of
(b-1) = -0.21461
Intercept = 0.787172
=log10(a)
Hence a=5.850
Observ ed Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
6.730
0.48
0.83
4.62
45.66
3.605
0.70
0.56
4.14
-12.93
10
3.438
1.00
0.54
3.57
-3.63
15
3.101
1.18
0.49
3.27
20
2.776
1.30
0.44
3.07
-9.69
25
2.600
1.40
0.41
2.93
-11.26
30
2.567
1.48
0.41
2.82
-8.89
35
2.565
1.54
0.41
2.73
-5.90
40
2.487
1.60
0.40
2.65
-6.11
45
2.494
1.65
0.40
2.58
-3.43
50
2.510
1.70
0.40
2.52
-0.58
55
2.384
1.74
0.38
2.47
-3.62
60
2.275
1.78
0.36
2.43
-6.29
65
2.303
1.81
0.36
2.39
-3.49
70
2.336
1.85
0.37
2.35
-0.54
75
2.323
1.88
0.37
2.31
0.38
80
2.240
1.90
0.35
2.28
-1.85
85
2.381
1.93
0.38
2.25
5.69
90
2.377
1.95
0.38
2.23
6.82
95
2.208
1.98
0.34
2.20
0.38
100
2.282
2.00
0.36
2.18
4.90
105
2.264
2.02
0.35
2.15
5.17
110
2.316
2.04
0.36
2.13
8.66
115
2.195
2.06
0.34
2.11
120
2.168
2.08
0.34
2.09
3.64
125
2.325
2.10
0.37
2.07
12.12
130
2.085
2.11
0.32
2.06
1.40
135
1.969
2.13
0.29
2.04
-3.46
140
2.102
2.15
0.32
2.02
log t
log f
Estimated Infiltration
rate (cm/h)
-5.16
3.97
3.86
Average
Horton's Model
Step1: plot the data
Step2: Find the basic infiltration
rate from the graph (1.95
cm/hr)
Step 3: Estimate (f-fc), then find
ln (f-fc)
Step3: Plot ln (f-fc) Vs t
Step4: Fit a straight line find the
slope and intercept
Step5: Slope is equal to k
and antilog of intercept will give
the (fo-fc)
Step6: Estimate the error in
estimation
Error in estimation
(%)
0.54
Self Study
1. Analytical models for estimation of
evaporation loss
2. Various models available for estimating
Evapotranspiration and Infiltration
3. Solve all the given problems
10