Chapter Five, Plate Girders

Chapter Five: Plate Girders

5.1 Introduction
A plate girder is a beam built up from plate elements to achieve a more efficient arrangement of
material than is possible with rolled beams. Plate girders are economical where spans are long
enough to permit saving in cost by proportioning for the particular requirements. They are used
as flexural members to carry extremely large lateral loads. And they are typically used as longspan floor girders in buildings, as bridge girders, and as crane girders in industrial structures.
They are constructed by welding steel plates together to form I sections.
Plate girders are at their most impressive in modern bridge construction where main spans of
well over 200m are feasible, with corresponding cross-section depths, haunched over the
supports, in the range of 5-10m. Because plate girders are fabricated separately, each may be
designed individually to resist the applied actions using proportions that ensure low self-weight
and high load resistance.
The web of a girder is relatively thin, and stiffeners are required either to prevent buckling due
to compression from bending and shear or to promote tension-field action, depending on the
design method used. Stiffeners are also required at load points and supports.
5.2 Types of Plate girders
There are several forms of plate girder;
Figure 5.1 illustrates three different
types:-unstiffened, transversely stiffened,
and
transversely
and
longitudinally
stiffened. The three girders shown have
bisymmetric
I-profile
cross-sections,
although flanges of different size are
sometimes used. Other types of crosssection are mono-symmetric I-profiles,
which are popular in composite construction
with the smaller flange on top, or as crane
girders with the larger flange on top.
There is also considerable scope for
variation of cross-section in the longitudinal
direction. A designer may choose to reduce
the flange thickness (or breadth) in a zone
of low applied moment, especially when a
field-splice facilitates the change. Equally,
in a zone of high shear, the designer might
choose to thicken the web plate (see Figure
5.2). Alternatively, higher grade steel might
be employed for zones of high applied
5.1 Stiffened and unstiffened plate girders
moment and shear, while standard grade
would be used elsewhere. So-called "hybrid" girders with different strength material in the
Design of steel and timber structures (CE 519)
Yibeltal Temesgen
flanges and the web offer another possible means of more closely matching resistance to
requirements. More unusual variations are adopted in special circumstances, such as bridgework
e.g. tapered girders, cranked girders, haunched girders (see Figure 5.3).
Fig. 5.2 Plate girder with splice and variable cross section
Fig. 5.3
Plate
girder
with
haunches, tapers and cranks
5.3 Proportions
Since the designer, in principle, is quite free to choose all
the dimensions of a plate girder, some indication of the
more usual proportions is now given (Fig.5.4):
Depth: Overall girder depth, h, will usually be in the range
lo
l
h o , where Lo is the length between points of zero
12
8
moment. However, for plate girder bridges the range will

extend to approximately
lo
.
20
Fig. 5.4 Plate girder proportions
Yibeltal Temesgen
Flange breadth: The breadth, b, will usually be in the range
h
h
b , b being in multiples of
5
3
25mm. 'Wide flats' may be used unless the flange is very wide.
Flange thickness: The flange thickness, tf, will usually at least satisfy the requirements of EBCS
3 (Table 4.1) for Class 3 (semi-compact) sections, i.e. c/t f 13. The thickness will usually be
chosen from the standard plate thicknesses.
Web thickness: Web thickness, tw, will
determine the exact basis for web design,
depending on whether the web is classified
with regard to shear buckling as "thick" or
"thin". Thin webs will often require stiffening;
this may take the form of transverse
stiffeners, longitudinal stiffeners or a
combination, see Figure 2. Longitudinally
stiffened girders are more likely to be found
in large bridge construction where high d/tw
ratios are appropriate, e.g. 200 d/tw 500,
due to the need to minimize self-weight.
Since the deeper the girder is made, the
smaller the flange plates required.
Clearly, depending on the particular loading
pattern, and on depth and breadth
restrictions, one can expect wide variations
within all the above limits which should be
regarded as indicative only.
5.3 Design Criteria for Plate Girders
Provided that the individual plate elements in
a girder are each kept sufficiently stocky,
the design may be based on straightforward
yield strength considerations. Economic and
Fig. 5.5 Buckling phenomena in plate girders
practical considerations will, however, dictate
that not all of these conditions will always be
met. In most cases various forms of buckling must be taken into account. Figure 5.5 lists the
different phenomena.
Shear Buckling of the Web
Once the d/tw value for an unstiffened web exceeds a
limiting figure (69 in EBCS 3) the web will buckle in shear
before it reaches its full shear capacity A wy. Diagonal
buckles, of the type shown in Figure 5.6(a), resulting from
the diagonal compression associated with the web shear will
form. Their appearance may be delayed through the use of
Fig.5.6 Buckling of slender web under shear
Yibeltal Temesgen
vertical stiffeners, see Figure 5.6(b) since
the load at which shear buckling is initiated is a

function of both d/tw and panel aspect ratio a/d.
Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Girder
It is known from our understanding of the behaviour of struts that, whenever a slender
structural element is loaded in its stiff plane (axially in the case of the strut), there exists a
tendency for it to fail by buckling in a more flexible plane (by deflecting sideways in the case of
the strut). Although Lateral-torsional buckling involves both a lateral deflection (u) and twisting
about a vertical axis through the web (), as shown in Figure 5.7, this type of instability is quite
similar to the simpler flexural buckling of an axially loaded strut. Loading the beam in its stiffer
plane (the plane of the web) has induced a failure by buckling in a less stiff-direction (by
deflecting
sideways
and
twisting).
Lateral-torsional
instability
influences
the
design
of
laterally unrestrained beams in
much the same way that flexural
buckling influences the design of
columns. Thus the bending
strength will now be a function
of the beam's slenderness,
requiring the use in design of an
iterative procedure similar to
the use of column curves in
Fig. 5.7 Similarity between strut buckling and beam buckling
strut design. However, because
of the type of structural actions involved, the analysis of lateral-torsional buckling is
considerably more complex. This is reflected in a design approach which requires a rather
greater degree of calculation.
Bracing as a means of improving performance

Bracing may be used to improve the strength of a
beam that is liable to lateral-torsional instability.
Two requirements are necessary:
1.
The bracing must be sufficiently stiff to hold

the braced point effectively against lateral
movement (this can normally be achieved
without difficulty).
2. The bracing must be sufficiently strong to

withstand the forces transmitted to it by the
main member (these forces are normally a
percentage of the force in the compression
flange of the braced member).
Fig. 5.8 Buckling of beams provided with lateral bracing
Yibeltal Temesgen
Providing these two conditions are satisfied, then the full in-plane strength of a beam may be
developed through braces at sufficiently close spacing. Figure 5.8, which illustrates buckled
shapes for beams with intermediate braces, shows how this buckling involves the whole beam. In
theory, bracing should prevent either lateral or torsional displacement from occurring. In
practice, consideration of the buckled shape of the beam cross-section shown in Figure 5.7
suggests that bracing is potentially most effective when used to resist the largest components
of deformation, i.e. a lateral brace attached to the top flange is likely to be more effective than
a similar brace attached to the bottom flange.
Local Buckling of the Compression Flange
Provided that outstand proportions c/t f are suitably restricted, local buckling will have no effect
on the girder's load carrying resistance.
Compression Buckling of the Web
Webs for which d/tw 124 (Table 4.2) and which are not subject to any axial load will permit
the full elastic moment resistances of the girder to be attained. If this limit of d/t w (or a lower
one if axial compression in the girder as a whole is also present) is exceeded, then moment
resistance must be reduced accordingly.
Flange Induced Buckling of the Web
If particularly slender webs are used, the compression flange may not receive enough support to
prevent it from buckling vertically rather like an isolated strut buckling about its minor axis.
This possibility may be eliminated by placing a suitable limit on d/t w (Art. 4.6.6.7, EBCS
3).Transverse stiffeners also assist in resisting this form of buckling.
Local Buckling of the Web
Vertical loads may cause buckling of the web in the region directly under the load as for a
vertical strut. The level of loading that may safely be carried before this happens will depend
upon the exact way in which the load is transmitted to the web, the web proportions, and the
level of overall bending present (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3).
5.4 Ultimate Limit State, EBCS 3
Under static loading, ultimate limit states such as strength and stability will normally govern
most plate girder design, with serviceability limit states such as deflection or vibration being
less critical. A generally accepted method for designing plate girders (which is permitted by
EBSC 3) subject to a moment Msd and a coincident shear Vsd is to proportion the flanges to carry
all the moment with the web taking the entire shear. This provides a particularly convenient
means for obtaining an initial estimate of girder proportions.
Thus, at any particular cross-section along a laterally-restrained plate girder, subject to specific
values of bending moment and shear force, the flange and web plates can be sized separately.
The required flange plate area may readily be obtained as follows:
Af
M
M
(h t f ) f y
hf y
mo
mo
(5.1a)
Yibeltal Temesgen
Iterations may be required depending on an assumed value of t f and its corresponding f y value as
the (normally) slender web will prevent the plastic moment of resistance of the cross-section
from being attained. The cross-sectional moment of resistance may then be checked using:
M f , rd
bt f (h t f ) f y
(5.1b)
mo
Unfortunately, economic sizing of the web plate is not quite as straightforward, although where
a thick web is acceptable it can be rapidly sized by assuming uniform shear stress y over its
whole area. The web-to-flange fillet welds must be designed to transmit the longitudinal shear at
the flange/web interface.
Flexural Strength Criteria
According to the EBCS 3, 1995 specification, plate girders loaded in the plane of the web and
designed to resist a factored uniaxial bending moment M sd calculated using the appropriate load
combinations, must satisfy the conditions:
Mrd Mc,rd
(5.2)
Where Mc,rd is the design moment resistance of the cross section (see Chapter 4)
Shear Strength Criterion
A typical transversely stiffened plate girder is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.9, which also
defines the notation used. The shear buckling resistance of the web depends mainly on the depth
to thickness ratio (d/tw), and upon the aspect ratio, a/d of the panel. Intermediate transverse
stiffeners are normally employed to increase the shear buckling resistance of the web.
Fig. 5.9 Elevation of typical plate girder
Web buckling should be checked in all cases where the depth to thickness ratio, (d/t w), of the
web exceeds 69 (Art. 4.6.1.2, EBCS 3), as the web will buckle in shear before it reaches its full
shear capacity. EBCS 3 then offers the choice of two methods for plate girder design. The
methods are:
a) The simple post-critical method, which may be applied to both stiffened and unstiffened
girders and is therefore of general application. In this approach the design shear buckling
resistance (Vba.Rd) depends up on the slenderness of the web and the spacing of the
transverse web stiffeners.
Yibeltal Temesgen
In the simple post critical method the design shear buckling resistance V ba,rd should be obtained
from (Art. 4.6.4.2, EBCS 3):
Vba , rd
dt w ba
M1
(5.3a)
Where ba is the simple post critical shear strength determined by:

(5.3b)
f yw
ba
if w 0.8
ba
1 0.625( w 0.8) f yw
if 0.8 w 1.2
(5.3c)
ba
In which
0.9 f yw
w 3
if w 1.2
(5.3d)
is the web slenderness given by:
f yw
cr 3
d / tw
37.4 k
(5.3e)
Where cr is the elastic critical shear strength
k is the buckling factor for shear strength and it is given by:

i)
For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports but no intermediate

transverse stiffeners:
k 5.34
ii) For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners with a/d < 1:
k 4
5.34
(a / d ) 2
iii) For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners with a/d 1:
k 5.34
4
(a / d ) 2
b) The tension field method, which may only be applied to girders with intermediate transverse
stiffeners. Even for such girders its range of application is limited to a range of stiffener
spacing defined by: 1.0 a/d 3.0
The method takes full account of the post-buckling reserve of resistance which arises from the
development of "tension field action" within the girder
Yibeltal Temesgen
Figure 5.10 shows the development of tension field action in the individual web panels of a typical
girder. Once a web panel has buckled in shear, it loses its resistance to carry additional
compressive stresses. In this post-buckling range, a new load-carrying mechanism is developed,
whereby any additional shear load is carried by an inclined tensile membrane stress field. This
tension field anchors against the top and bottom flanges and against the transverse stiffeners
on either side of the web panel, as shown.
Fig. 5.10 Tension field action
The total shear buckling resistance for

design (Vbb.Rd) is calculated in EBCS 3, by
superimposing the post-buckling resistance
upon the initial elastic buckling resistance
as follows:
Total shear resistance = elastic buckling resistance + post-buckling resistance:
The basis for this assumed behavior is shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.11.
Fig. 5.11 Phases in behavior up to collapse of a typical panel in shear
Accordingly, the design shear buckling resistance V bb,rd (in the tension field method) should be
obtained from(Art. 4.6.4.3(1), EBCS 3):
Vbb , rd
dt w ba 0.9( gt w bb sin )
M1
M1
(5.4a)
Where bb is the strength of the tension field, obtained from:
bb
f yw 3 bb 2
2
(5.4b)
Where 1.5 bb sin 2

is the inclination of the tension field (see Fig. 5.12)
G is the width of the tension field (see Fig. 5.12)
bb is the initial shear buckling strength
1) the initial shear buckling strength bb is should be determine as follows :
Yibeltal Temesgen
f yw
bb
if w 0.8
(5.4c)
bb
1 0.8( w 0.8) f yw
if 0.8 w 1.25
(5.4d)
bb
f yw
w
In which
if w 1.25
(5.4e)
is as given in eqn (5.3e).
2) The width of the tension field g is given by:
g d cos (a sc st ) sin
(5.4f)
Where sc and st are the anchorage lengths of the tension field along the compression and
the tension flanges respectively, obtained from:
2
s
sin
0.5
M Nf , Rk
but s a
tw bb
(5.4g)
Where MNf,Rk is the reduced plastic resistance moment of the flange

3) The reduced plastic moment M Nf,Rk allowing for the longitudinal force N f,sd in the flange
(due to the moment Msd and any axial force Nsd in the member), is given by:
N f , sd
M Nf , Rk 0.25bt f yf 1
(bt f f yf ) / Mo
2
f
(5.4h)
Where b and tf are the width and the thickness of the relevant flange.
4) The inclination of the tension field varies between a minimum of /2 and a maximum of
, where is the slope of the panel diagonal given by:
= arctan(d/a)
5) The minimum value /2 applies when the flanges are fully utitlized in resisting the
bending moment in the member. The maximum value of applies to the complete tension
field condition with s = a.
6) The appropriate value of (between the limits /2 and ) is conservative. As an
approximation = /1.5 may be assumed. Alternatively, iteration may be used to find the
optimum value of
7) Unless a suitable end post is supplied to anchor the tension field, end panels should be
designed using the simple post critical method given in section.
Yibeltal Temesgen
10
Fig. 5.12 Tension field geometry
(a) Web only tension field action
(b) Complete tension field action
Fig. 5.13 Inclination of tension field
Lateral-Torsional Buckling
The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained beam may be calculated using
eqn 4.4, chapter-4 or Art. 4.6.3, EBCS 3)
Interaction between Shear and Bending
In general, any cross-section of a plate girder will be
subjected to bending moment in addition to shear. The
stresses from the bending moment will combine with
the shear stresses to give a lower buckling load and the
resistance should be checked for this interaction.
The interaction between shear and bending can be
conveniently represented by the diagram shown in
Figure 5.14. The interaction represents a failure
envelope, with any point lying on the curve defining the
co-existent values of shear and bending that the girder
can just sustain.
When the shear force exceeds half the plastic
resistance, allowance shall be made for the effect of
both shear force and axial force on the reduced plastic
resistance moment.
Fig. 5.14 interaction of shear buckling

resistance and moment resistance
Yibeltal Temesgen
11
Provided that the design value of the shear force V sd doesnt exceed 50% of the design plastic
shear resistance Vpl,rd no reduction need be made in combinations of moment and axial force.
When Vsd exceeds 50% of V pl,rd the design resistance of cross section to combinations of
moment and axial force should be calculated using a reduced yield strength (1-)fy for the shear
area, where = (2Vsd/Vpl,rd 1)2 .
i)
Interaction using the simple post critical method

1.
The cross section my be assumed to be satisfactory, with out investigating the effect of
the shear force on the design moment resistance, if both the following criteria are
satisfied:
Msd MF,rd
And
(5.5a)
Vsd Vbs,rd
Where Mf,rd is the design plastic moment resistance of a cross section consisting of the
flanges only, taking account of the effective width b eff of the compression flange, see
Section 4.6.4.2 of EBCS 3.
When an axial force Nsd is also applied, the value of M F,rd should be reduced accordingly,
see Section 4.6.2 of EBCS 3.
2. Provided that Vsd does not exceed 50% of Vbs,rd, the design resistance of the cross
section to bending moment and axial force need not be reduced to allow for the shear
force.
3. when Vsd exceeds 50% of Vbs,rd the following criterion should be satisfied
2V
M sd M f , rd ( M pl , rd M f , rd ) 1 ( sd 1) 2
Vbs , rd
(5.5b)
If an axial force Nsd is also applied, then Mpl,rd should be replaced by the reduced plastic
resistance moment MN,rd (see Section 4.6.2, EBCS 3).
ii) Interaction using tension field method
1.
The cross section may be assumed to be satisfactory, without investigating the effect of
shear force on the design moment resistance, if both the following criteria are satisfied:
Msd Mf,rd
Vsd Vbw,rd
(5.5c)
Where Msd and Vsd are each taken as the maximum respective value within the panel
between adjacent transverse web stiffeners.
Mf,rd is as given in eqn
Vbw,rd is the web only shear buckling resistance
Yibeltal Temesgen
12
When an axial force Nsd is also applied, the value of Mf,rd should be reduced accordingly,
see Section 4.6.2, EBCS 3.
2. For a section with equal flanges and no axial force, Vbw,rd should be calculated assuming Sc
and St to be zero and = /2.
3. Provided that Vsd does not exceed 50% of V bw,rd, the design resistance of the cross
section to bending moment and axial force need not be reduced to allow for the shear
force.
4. when Vsd exceeds 50% of Vbw,rd and deos not exceed V bw,rd the following criterion should
be satisfied
2V
M sd M f , rd ( M pl , rd M f , rd ) 1 ( sd 1) 2
Vbw, rd
(5.5d)
When an axial force Nsd is also applied, then Mpl,rd should be replaced by the reduced
plastic resistance moment MN,rd (see Section 4.6.2, EBCS 3).
5. When Vsd exceeds Vbw,rd the following criteria should be satisfied:
Where Vbb,rd is obtained from eqn(5.4a) , taking account of M sd and Nsd in eqn(5.4h)
Resistance of webs to transverse Forces
The resistance of an unstiffened web to forces from concentrated loads or support reactions
will be governed by one of three possible failure modes:
-
Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the
flange.
Crippling of web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the
flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange.
Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.
Crushing resistance (Art. 4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

The design crushing resistance Ry,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:
Ry , rd
( ss s y )t w f yw
(5.6a)
M1
In which sy is given by:
s y 2t f
bf
tw
)(
f yf
f yw
)[1 (
f , Ed 2
)
f yf
(5.6b)
But bf should not be taken as more than 25tf and f,Ed is the longitudinal stress in the
flange.
At the end of a member sy should be halved
Crippling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.4, EBCS 3)
Yibeltal Temesgen
13
The design crippling resistance Ra,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:
( Ef yf )[(
Ra , rd 0.5tw
tf
tw
) 3(
t w ss
)( )]
tf d
(5.7)
M1
Where Ss is the length of stiff bearing (see Section 4.6.6.2, EBCS 3)

Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2
Buckling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3)
1) The design buckling resistance Rb,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained
by considering the web as a virtual compression member with an effective breadth b eff
obtained from:
b eff
h2 s 2
2) Near the ends of a member (or at openings in the web) the effective breadth b eff should
not be taken as greater than the breadth actually available, measured at mid-depth, see
Fig. 5.15.
3) The buckling resistance should be determine from chapter three using buckling curve c
and BA = 1.
4) The buckling length of the virtual compression member should be determined from the
conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the flanges at the point of load
application.
5) The flange through which the load is applied should normally be restrained in position at
the point of load application. Where this is not practicable, a special buckling
investigation should be carried out.
Transverse stiffeners (Art. 4.6.6.6 and 4.6.4.4, EBCS 3)
1.
When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross section of a stiffener should
be taken including the width of web plate equal to 30tw, arranged with 15tw, each side
of the stiffener(see Fig. 4.3, chapter-4). At the ends of the member (or openings in the
web) the dimension of 15tw, should be limited to the actual dimension available.
2. the out of plane buckling resistance should be determined by considering them as

compression members using buckling curve C and a buckling length L of not less than
0.75d, or more if appropriate for conditions of restraint.
3. For both the simple post-critical method and tension field method , the compression
force Ns in an intermediate transverse stiffeners should be obtained from:
N s Vsd
dt w bb
M1
but Ns 0
(5.8a)
In which bb is the initial shear buckling strength from eqns (5.4c, 5.4d &5.4e)); the lower
value of for the two panels adjacent to the stiffener should be used.
Yibeltal Temesgen
14
4. The second moment of area of an intermediate stiffener, I s, should satisfy the following:
If aa
I s 1.5 d 3 w t 33w / a 2
if d w 2 : I s 0.75 d w t w
dw
5. End
stiffeners and stiffeners at internal
supports should normally be doubled sided and symmetric about the centre line of the
web.
6. Where single sided or other asymmetric stiffeners are used, the resulting eccentricity
should be allowed for.
7. In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross section resistance of a load
bearing stiffener should also be checked adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of the
web plate included in the effective cross section should be limited to S y (see Section
4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)
Flange Induced Buckling
1. To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in the plane of the web,
the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the following criterion:
d
E
k
tw
f yf
Where
Aw
A fc
(5.9a)
Aw is the area of the web

Afc is the area of the compression flange
fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange
The value of the factor k should be taken as follows:

For class 1 flanges = 0.3
For class 2 flanges = 0.4
For class 3 or class 4 flanges = 0.55
2. When the girder is curved in elevation, with the compression flange on the concave
face, the criterion should be modified to:
K ( E / f yf ) Aw / A fc
d
tw
dE
1
3rf yf
(5.9b)
Where r is the radius of curvature of the compression flange
3. When the girder has transverse web stiffeners, the limiting value of d/t w may be
increased accordingly.
Yibeltal Temesgen
Fig. 5.15 Effective breadth for web buckling resistance
Limit State Design, AISC-LRFD
Yibeltal Temesgen
15
16
According to the LRFD Specification, a flexure member is considered a beam if the slenderness
of the web h/tw does not exceed 970
f y . If h/tw > 970
f y , the member is considered a
plate girder. Because of the large web slenderness, plate girders are often designed with web
stiffeners to reinforce the flexural buckling strength of the web and to allow for post-buckling
(shear) strength (i.e., tension field action) to develop. Table 5.1 summarizes the requirements
for web stiffeners for plate girders based on the web slenderness ration h/t w.
Table 5.1 Web Stiffener Requirements
Range of web slenderness
h
260
tw
h
260
tw
14,000
f yf f yf 16.5
14,000
f yf f yf 16.5
h
200
tw
f yf
Stiffener requirements
Plate girder can be designed without web
stiffeners.
Plate girder must be designed with web
stiffeners. The spacing of stiffeners, a,
can exceed 1.5h. The actual spacing is
determined by shear criterion.
Plate girder must be designed with web
stiffeners. The spacing of stiffeners, a,
cannot exceed 1.5h.
a= clear distance between stiffeners

h= clear distance between flanges when are used or the distance between adjacent lines
of fasteners when bolts are used
tw= web thickness
fyf= compression flange yield stress, ksi
Flexural Strength Criteria
According to the AISC-LRFD Specification, doubly or singly symmetric single-web plate girders
loaded in the plane of the web and designed to resist a factored moment M u, calculated using the
appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the flexural strength criterion condition:
Mn Mu
For the limit state of yielding of tension flange, the plate girder design flexural strength given
by:
bMn = 0.90 (SxtRefyt)
(5.10b)
For the limit state of buckling of compression flange,
bMn = 0.90 (SxtRefyt)
(5.10c)
Where
Sst = section modulus referred to the tension flange = Ix/Ct.
Sxc = Section modulus referred to the compression flange = Ix/Cc
Ix = Moment of inertia about the major axis
Ct = Distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber of the tension flange
Cc = Distance from neutral axis to extreme fiber of the compression flange
RPG = Plate girder bending strength reduction factor
=
1 a r / 1200 300a r h 960 / f cr 1.0

tw
Yibeltal Temesgen
17
Re = Hybrid girder factor
12 a 3m m /12 2a 1.0
3
(Re = 1.0 for non-hybrid girder)

Ar = Ratio of web area to compression flange area 10
M = Ratio of web yield stress to flange yield stress or to f er
fyt = Tensiton flange stress
fcr = Critical compression flange stress (see Table 5.2)
and
br = Compression flange width
tf = Compression flange thickness
Lb = Lateral unbraced length of the girder
t f b 3f / 12 hc t w3 / 72
rT =
b f t f hc t w / 6
hc = Twice the distance from the neutral axis to the inside face of the
compression flange les the fillet
tw = Web thickness
fyf = Yield stress of compression flange, ksi
Cb = Bending coefficient
Table 5.2 Web Stiffener Requirements
Flange local buckling
bf
65
2t f
f yf
65
f yf
bf
2t f
bf
2t f
150
f yf
65
f yf
fcr
fyf
b f 2t f 65 f yf
f yf 1 0.5
150 f 65 f
yf
yf
26,200 4
h tw
2t f
,0.35
4
h tw
f
yf
0.763
Lateral torsional buckling
Ib
300
rT
f yf
300
f yf
Ib
756
rT
f yf
Ib
756
rT
f yf
I b rT 300 f yf
C b d yf 1 0.5
756 f 300 f
yf
yf
286,000C b
Ib
rT
f
yf
The critical compression flange stress, f cr, must be calculated for both flange local buckling and
lateral torsional buckling. The smaller value of fcr is used in Eq. (5.10c).
Yibeltal Temesgen
18
The plate girder bending strength reduction factor R PG is a factor to account for the reduced
ability of the section to carry bending moments as a result of web buckling due to flexure.
Because of the high web slenderness, web buckling usually occurs prior to reaching the full
nominal moment strength.
The hybrid girder factor is a reduction factor to account for the lower yield strength of the
web when the nominal moment capacity is computed, assuming a homogeneous section made
entirely of the higher yield stress of the flange.
Shear Strength Criterion
Plate girders can be designed with or without consideration for tension field action. Tension
field action refers to the post-buckling (shear) strength of the girder that develops when
sufficient web stiffeners are provided for the girder to carry the applied loads by truss-type
action. If tension field action is considered, intermediate web stiffeners must be provided and
spaced at a distance, a, such that:
260
a
min 3,
h
h t w
(5.12)
Also, one must check the flexure-shear interaction of Eq.(5.15), if appropriate. Consideration of
tension field action is not allowed under the following situations:
The panel is an end panel
The plate girder is a hybrid girder
The plate girder is a web-tapered girder, or
260
a
min 3,
h
h t w
The design shear strength of a plate girder should exceed the factored shear. If tension field
action is not considered, vVn is the same as for a beam and is given by:
Shear Yielding of Web. For
tw
187 k v f yw
vVn = 0.09 (0.60fywAw)
(5.13a)
Inelastic Shear Buckling of Web. For
187
f yw h t w 234
187 k v f yw
h tw
vVn 0.09 0.60 f yw Aw
Elastic Shear Buckling of Web. For 234
26400k v
vVn 0.09 Aw
h tw
f yw :
f yw h t w 260 :
(5.13b)
(5.13c)
The variables used in the foregoing equations are defined as follows:

h= clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius
tw = web thickness
Yibeltal Temesgen
19
fyw = yield stress of web

Aw = dtw
d = overall depth of section
kv = 5 + 5/(a/h)2
a = distance between adjacent transverse stiffeners
The web plate coefficient kv is taken as 5 if a/h exceeds the smaller of 3 or [260/(h/t w)2], or if
no stiffeners are present. Transverse stiffeners are not required when h/t w 418/
f yw . If
tension field action is considered and h t w 187 k v f yw :
1 Cv
vVn 0.90 0.60 Aw f yw C v
2
1.15 1 a h
Where
(5.14)
kv = 5+5/(a/h)2; kv shall be taken as 5.0 a/h > min (3,[260/(h/tw)]2)

Aw = dtw
fyw = web yield stress, ksi
Cv = shear coefficient, calculated according to Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Determination of shear coefficient Cv

Range of h/tw
187
Cv
kv
h
234
f yw t w
h
234
tw
kv
f yw
187
k v f yw
h tw
44,000k v
kv
f yw
h t w 2 f yw
Flexure-Shear Interaction
Plate girders designed for tension field action must satisfy the flexure-shear interaction
criterion in regions of high moment and shear. In regions where:
0.6Vn Vu Vn and 0.75M n M u M n the following flexure-shear interaction
equation must be checked:
Mu
V
0.625 n 1.375
M n
Vn
(5.15)
Where = 0.90
Bearing Stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners must be provided for a plate girder at unframed girder ends and at points of
concentrated loads where the web yielding or the web crippling criterion is violated. Bearing
stiffeners must be provided in pairs and extend from the upper flange to the lower flange of
the girder. Denoting bst as the width of one stiffener and tst as its thickness, bearing stiffeners
must be proportioned to satisfy the following limit states:
Local Buckling
Yibeltal Temesgen
bst
95
t st
fy
20
(5.16)
Compression
The requirements for compression members, must be satisfied. The design compressive strength
cPn is to be determined based on an effective length factor K of 0.75 and an effective area,
Aeff, equal to the area of the bearing stiffeners plus a portion of the web. Effective area is
determined from as follows:
i.
For end bearing:

2
Aeff = 2 (bsttst) + 12t w
(5.17a)
ii. For interior bearing:

2
Aeff = 2 (bsttst) + 25t w
(5.17b)
Where, in both case, tw is the web thickness.

The slenderness parameter, c, is to be calculated using a radius of gyration as follows:
I st
r
Aeff
Where
I st t st
0.5
(5.18)
2bst t w
12
Bearing
The Criteria for concentrated loads presented in Chapter Four-Flexural Members must be
satisfied: i.e. Rn Ru. The bearing strength Rn on milled surfaces is given by:
Rn 0.751.8 f y A pb
Where
(5.19)
fy = the yield stress

Apb = the bearing area
Intermediated Stiffeners
Intermediate stiffeners must be provided under any one of the following situations:
a.
The shear strength capacity is calculated based on tension field action

The shear criterion is violated; i.e. when Vn > Vn
b.
c. Web slenderness
h t w 418
f yw
Intermediate stiffeners can be provided in pairs, or on one side of the web only, in the form of
plates or angles. They should be welded to the compression flange and the web, but they may be
stopped short of the tension flange. The following requirements apply to the design of
intermediate stiffeners.
Local Buckling
Yibeltal Temesgen
21
The width-thickness ratio of the stiffener must be proportioned so that Eq. (5.16) is satisfied
to prevent failure by local buckling.
Stiffener Area
The cross-sectional area of the stiffener must satisfy the criterion:
Ast
Where
f yw
Vu
18t w2 0
0.15 Dt w 1 C v
fy
vV n
(5.20)
fy = Yield stress of stiffeners
D = 1.0 for stiffeners in pair
= 1.8 for single-angle stiffener
= 2.4 for single plate stiffener
The other terms in Eq. (5.20) are defined as before in Eq. (5.13a) and (5.14a).
Stiffener Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia for stiffener pairs taken about an axis in the web center, or for single
stiffeners taken the face of contact with the web plate, must satisfy the criterion:
I st at w3
2.5
a h
2 0.5at w3
(5.21)
Stiffener Length
The length of the stiffeners Ist, should fall within the range:
(h-6tw) < Ist < (h-4tw)
(5.22)
Where
h = The clear distance between the flanges less the width of the flange-to-web
welds
tw = The web thickness
If intermittent welds are used to connect the stiffeners to the girder web, the clear distance
between welds must not exceed 16tw or 10 in. If bolts are used, their spacing shall not exceed 12
in.
Stiffener Spacing
The spacing of the stiffeners, a, shall be determined from the shear criterion vVn Vn. This
spacing shall satisfy the following condition:
260
a min 3,
h t w
(5.23)
Yibeltal Temesgen

Chapter Five, Plate Girders

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