Biology Maintaining A Balance 12

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Biology Study Notes 2013-14 HSC

Maintaining a balance
1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range
The internal environment of organisms is active within a limited temperature
range, which ensures optimum functioning. This is despite the large fluctuations
that occur in its external environment, organisms must maintain their internal
environment in this temperature range as well as maintaining a balance in other
factors such as salinity levels, etc. An organism has adaptations that allow them
to survive in its environment while maintaining a balance of chemicals and
factors to allow it to function.
One of the main reasons why the maintenance of a constant temperature and
chemical balance is so important is to ensure efficient metabolism maintaining
optimum conditions for the functioning of enzymes, the organic catalysts that
control all chemical reactions in cells.
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition and use a simple model to describe their specific ity on
substrates
Metabolism is the sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring
within an organism that enables it to function.
Catabolism is the process that involves breaking down of substances (e.g.
respiration where glucose is broken down in humans from food that is
ingested). For example, in the digestion of food, large food molecules such
as proteins are broken down into small units called amino acids, which
can then be easily absorbed from the gut into the bloodstream.
Anabolism is the process of building up substance (e.g. the formation of
muscle tissue) for example a large polysaccharide molecule such as starch
being made from small monosaccharide units such as glucose, a product
of photosynthesis in plants.
Enzymes are proteins that control all the chemical processes of living
systems. They are biological catalysts that dont change in a reaction and
control the rate of reaction. Enzymes are substrate specific. Some
enzymes require a cofactor to initiate the reaction. For example: Amylase
acts on starch, changing it to glucose.
A substrate is the chemical or substance that an enzyme acts on.
An active site is a restricted area of an enzyme molecule, which binds to the
substrate.
A cofactor or coenzyme is a substance (usually a vitamin or a mineral) that
must be present for some enzymes to operate. It helps to create the active site
that allows the binding of the substrate to the enzyme.
Metabolism involves all the chemical reactions that occur in the cell of a living
thing. Enzymes control the rate of these reactions, and also enable the reactions
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to occur at lower temperatures which means the organisms body temperature
can be lower and they can survive in cold climates.
Enzymes can:
Lower the activation energy of reactions
Accelerate reaction rate
And act on only specific substrates
There are two models to represent how enzymes work. The lock and key model
and the induced fit model. The lock and key model describes how an enzyme is
substrate specific because only a substrate of a specific shape will fit together
with the enzyme and cause the reaction to occur. The lock and key model was
proposed as it was thought that the active site is rigid. The induced fit model,
describes the enzyme changing its shape in order to fit the substrate that it is
going to react with.
Induced fit model:
Lock and key model: more recent model
Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance:

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion (H+) concentration
pH of 7 is neutral
<7 is acidic such as hydrochloric acid has a pH of 1
>7 is basic (alkaline is soluble) (oxides and hydroxides are basic) such as
sodium hydroxide has a pH of 14
Enzyme activity is influenced by:
Temperature
pH levels
Substrate concentration
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Salt levels
Presence of cofactors
Coenzymes
Presence of factors that inhibit enzymes
If the optimum conditions for an enzyme are not met then the enzyme will not be
as efficient. If the conditions vary too much the enzyme will be denatured or
destroyed.
Each enzyme operates at an optimal pH. Most work best between 6-8. The
enzyme salivary amylase, found in saliva, helps break down starch and it
functions best in a weak alkaline medium.
Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perfor m a
first- hand investigation to test the effect of the following on the activity
of a named enzyme:
* See practical in booklet 1 *
Increased temperature:
The activity of most enzymes increase as the temperature increases. Once the
temperature rises above a certain level, it becomes inactive and can no longer
bind with the substrate. In living things, enzymes usually function efficiently at
temperatures up to 40C and tend to stop working altogether when over 60C.
This is due to a change of shape that occurs when an enzyme becomes too hot
which is mostly a non-reversible change. However when enzymes become too
cold, they too change shape and become denatured but can often change back
into their original shape.
Change in pH
Each enzyme operates at an optimal pH (e.g. pepsin operates best at pH 2) (e.g.
trypsin is
a protease
that
operates
best at pH
8.5) most
enzymes
work best at
a pH of 68.
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Change in substrate concentration

Enzymes bind with specific substrates, the initial concentration of the substrate
determines the rate of reaction. The higher the concentration of substrate, the
faster the reaction rate until a certain point where all the available enzymes are
being used in the reaction and cannot perform any faster. This is known as the
saturation point. Increasing the substrate concentration beyond this point will
not increase the reaction rate.
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is

important for optimal metabolic efficiency:
Living organisms are made of cells, which must function efficiently to maintain
life. All chemical reactions within cells must occur efficiently and be effectively
coordinated to bring about optimal metabolic efficiency. Each cell is surrounded
by a small amount of fluid called intercellular or interstitial fluid and this,
together with the cytoplasm inside cells, makes up their internal environment.
Cells are extremely sensitive to changes in their internal environment and any
imbalance adversely affects their functioning. The internal environment of an
organism must be maintained within a narrow range of conditions, for example
temperature, volume (the amount of cells or of fluid such as blood or cytoplasm)
and chemical content in the internal environment must be kept stable so that
enzymes can function effectively and metabolic efficiency can be maintained.
Enzymes are extremely sensitive to the temperature and pH of the environment
and changes in concentrations of these, as well as nutrients such as glucose and
oxygen, affect their activity. Cells cannot tolerate any build-up in levels of waste
products such as carbon dioxide or other metabolic wastes, as these inhibit
enzyme functioning. Metabolic efficiency relies on a constant (or almost
constant) level of the following variables in the internal environment:
Temperature and pH (optimal range for enzyme functioning)
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Concentration of metabolites (reactants)

Water and salt concentration (osmotic pressure), which determines the
volume of cells or fluid such as blood)
Absence of toxins that may inhibit enzyme functioning.
All of these variables must be met to allow the enzymes involved with
metabolism to work efficiently and at their potential.
Describe homeostasis as the process by which orga nisms maintain a

relatively stable internal environment:
Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable
internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
Organisms need to control many variables in order to achieve homeostasis
including:
Body temperature
Concentration of dissolved salts and minerals
Concentrations of food (e.g. glucose)
Input and output of water
Quantity of nitrogenous waste (e.g. urea, ammonia)
Metabolic rate
Removal of foreign substances or malfunctioning cells
Summary of major variables that are subject to change to homeostasis in mammals
Variable
Temperature
Normal range
36.1C - 37.8C
Blood glucose
3.6 6.8 mmol per L
Water
Dailey intake must

balance daily loss
Ions e.g. plasma Ca2+
2.3 2.4 mmol per L
pH of arterial blood
7.4
Blood pressurearterial diastolic
13.3 kPa (1000 mm Hg)

5.33 kPa (40 mm Hg)
Comments
Temperature of internal
cells of the body is called
the core temperature
Blood glucose is typically
maintained within
narrow limits regardless
of diet
Body tissues vary in their
water content. Bone
contains about 20%
water and blood about
80% water. In prolonged
dehydration, fluid moves
from cells and tissue into
blood.
Specific ions are required
by some tissues.
This pH is necessary for
enzyme action and nerve
cells.
Transport of blood
depends on maintenance
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(relaxed) systolic
(concentrated)
Urea (nitrogen
containing wastes) in
plasma
<7 mmol per L
Red blood cells

(contain haemoglobin)
Haemoglobin values:
Females 135 g per L
Males 150 g per L
of an adequate blood
volume and pressure.
Waste products of
cellular processes must
be removed by kidneys
to prevent toxic effects
on cells.
Essential for transport of
oxygen. Erythropoietin
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: detecting the change

from the stable state and counteracting changes from the stable state.
1. Detecting changes:
Organisms need to be able to sense information from their surrounding
environment, both internal and external. As a result, organisms have special
receptors that detect changes and information (stimulus). A stimulus is any
information that provokes a response.
Stimuli and receptors
Stimulus
Light
Heat, cold
Sound, touch, pressure, gravity
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, pH,
inorganic ions, nitrogenous wastes,
glucose
Electrical fields, magnetic fields
Type of receptor
Photoreceptor
Thermo receptor
Mechanoreceptor
Chemoreceptor
Other specialised receptors
2. Counteracting change:
Once change has been detected the organism will need to respond. The response
aims to counteract the change and to bring about stability.
For example, when an organism is becoming cold (below the temperature
required to maintain homeostasis) the organism may begin to shiver, to generate
heat in the muscles and raise the temperature.
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to
environmental changes
Coordination is controlled by two systems:
The nervous system: consisting of the brain, nerves and spinal chord,
which create a fast reaction such as in glands and muscles.
The endocrine system: consisting of a series of glands throughout the
body that secrete hormones into the blood (less specific and a slower
form of communication)
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The nervous system acts as a control centre for the rapid coordination of internal
organ systems. The nervous system is responsible for detecting and responding
to environmental changes.
The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system, which consists of
the brain and spinal chord and is concerned with central control and
coordination, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of all the nerves
and connections to all the different parts of the body. It receives information
from sensory receptors and sends out instructions to effector organs such as
glands and muscles.
When the environmental temperature begins to exceed a comfortable
level for the body, temperature sensors in the skin detect the temperature
change and a sensory neuron conducts a nervous impulse to the
hypothalamus found in the brain. Nerve impulses pass this information
from the receptors to
effector neurons then onto
effectors, such as blood
vessels, sweat glands, endocrine
glands
and
muscles
Receptors
sensory
nerves
effectors
effector
nerves
spinal
cord
spinal
cord
brain
Pituitary: Produces hormones, which control growth. Too large an

amount causes giantism, and too little causes dwarfism. Other hormones
produced by the pituitary cause ovaries to release eggs, testes to produce
sperm, the uterus to contract and expel the foetus at birth, and the
mammary glands to produce milk. Other hormones control the amount of
water in urine and the activities of the other endocrine glands.
Thyroid gland: Produces the hormone thyroxine, which has a major
influence on physical and mental development after birth by controlling
the rate of chemical reactions in all body cells. In adults, too little
thyroxine causes overweight, thick skin and course hair and too much
cause underweight, restlessness and mental instability.
Pancreas: One part produces digestive juice, other produce insulin,
which decreases the rate at which the liver releases glucose into the
blood, enables cells to absorb glucose and stimulates the body to change
glucose into fat.
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Adrenal glands: Produce the hormone adrenalin. This prepares the body
for action by raising blood pressure, increasing heart beat and breathing
rates, increasing the amount of glucose released from the liver, and
increasing the supply of blood to the muscles and reducing the supply to
the gut.
Ovaries: produced the eggs required for reproduction as well as
oestrogen which controls development of female secondary sexual
characteristics (breasts, soft skin, feminine voice), prepares the uterus so
that it can receive a fertilized egg, and stimulates the uterus to protect
and nourish a developing baby.
Testes: Produces sperm as well as testosterone, which controls the
development of secondary sexual characteristics (deep voice, more boy
hair than females).
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use
available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
Stimulus:
decrease of
oxygen in the
blood
Feedback:
positive
response
occurs
Receptor:
kidenys
detects the
decrease in
oxygen
Response: Red
blood cells are
produced
Corrdinating
system:
Endocrine
Effector:
kidneys
secrete
erthropoietin
A positive response is when a chemical increases in production or temperature

rises. The response is a continuation of the initial situation.
A negative response is when a chemical decreases in production or temperature
declines. The response is opposite to the initial situation.
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Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found
compared with the narrow limits for individual spe cies
Life, in some form, can be found at extremes ranging from - 200oC to
+120oC.
The great majority of living organisms are found in the - 2oC to +40oC
range and for each individual species the range is even narrower.
Below 0oC, cells risk ice crystals forming in them and above 45oC, proteins
within cells may denature.
Humans are endothermic, meaning that their body temperature remains
constant even with changes in environments.
In endothermic animals, temperature control is achieved by balancing
heat loss from the body with heat gain.
Changes in body temperature are detected by the hypothalamus (gland)
in the brain.
The hypothalamus receives information about the body temperature from
o The blood as it passes through the gland
o Skin temperature receptors, which transfer information along
nerves.
A change in the body temperature is a stimulus.
When a change in temperature is detected, a message is sent via the
nerves and hormones in the blood to a specific effector organ (glands or
muscles), which cause a response in the body.
If a person is too hot, their body is cooled by:
Perspiration
Vasodilation (bringing blood to the surface)
Hair erector muscles relax
Panting
Low metabolism and less activity
If a person is too cold, their body is heated by:
Vasoconstriction (constricted blood vessels)
Piloerection (goose-bumps hairs stand on end)
Shivering
Increase in metabolism
Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic
organisms to changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these
responses assist temperature regulation
Adaptations by endotherms and ectotherms consist of 3 types:
Structural: structures which an organism has which suits it to the
environment (e.g. webbed feet, long beak)
Behavioural: adaptations related to behaviour (e.g. panting, nocturnal)
Physiological: internal body processes (e.g. increased blood flow to
extremities)
Ectotherms are animals that cannot maintain a constant body temperature. The
activity of Ectotherms therefore is greatly affected by the changes in
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temperature of the environment. Temperature is regulated by heat gained from
the environment. Most animals are Ectotherms.
Ectotherm: Eastern Brown snake

Hibernates in winter to keep warm
Stays in burrows at night to keep warm
Shelters during the day to stay cool and stay out of the sun
Basks in the sun while digesting food in order to help digestion through
raising the snakes body temperature.
Endotherms are animals that can maintain a constant body temperature. Body
temperatures are controlled largely by metabolic processes and by adaptive
mechanisms that control the rate of heat exchange with the environment, such as
panting, sweating and insulation, reduced blood flow to extremities, hibernation,
burrowing, nocturnal habit or migration. Most mammals and bird are
endotherms. The ability to maintain a constant body temperature allows for a
broader geographical and ecological distribution.
Endotherm: Emu
Long. Thick, double quilled feathers help keep the emu warm at 40C
Emus fluff their feather in cold weather to trap air and keep warm as well
as reducing heat loss
Emus have no sweat glands so they pant to cool down
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and
responses that have occurred i n Australian organisms to assist
temperature regulation
Ectotherms:
Migration
Hibernation
Nocturnal behaviour
Shelter
Controlled exposure
Endotherms:
Insulation
Metabolic activity
Control of blood flow
Evaporation
Size
Migration
Hibernation
Nocturnal behaviour
Shelter
Counter- current exchange
Identify some responses of plants to temperature change:
Plants may respond to change in temperatures by:
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Dormancy: (extreme hot/ cold) the plant may die, but will leave behind
dormant seeds with thick protective coats. The plant may also die back
above the ground, but leave roots, bulbs, tubers or underground stems.
Transpiration: the evaporation of water from a leaf has a cooling effect
but this option is limited to those plants that can afford to lose water, e.g.
plants in hot and wet areas.
Wilting: if temperatures are too high and the plant has lost too much
water, the cells of the plant lose their TURGIDITY and the plant wilts. This
is an advantage because when the leaves have wilted, much of the leave
surface area is no longer exposed to the sun.
Leaf orientation: some plants have the ability to orientate their leaves
perpendicular to the sun. This reduces the surface area exposed. E.g.
eucalyptus. Plants in cold shady areas do the opposite.
Germination and budding: many plants have seeds which do not
germinate until there are warmer conditions, or even colder conditions
Dropping leaves: some plants can lose their leaves in cold conditions e.g.
deciduous.
Protective: Stomates
2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid

medium
Component
Diagram
Function
Red blood
cells
Transport oxygen
% in the
blood
38-48
White
blood cells
Fight disease
2-3
Platelets
Blood clotting
Plasma
Transport of a
variety of
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50-60

substances
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in
mammalian blood:
Substance
transported
Oxygen
Water
Carbon
dioxide
Salts
Lipids
Nitrogenous
wastes
Other
products of
digestion
Form
Carried from
Carried to
Carried by
Oxyhaemoglobin
Liquid
molecules
Carbonate
ions (CO32-)
Lungs
Tissues and
cells
All body cells
Dissolved ions
(e.g. Na+, K+)
Fatty aids
(glycerol)
Urea
Digestive
system
Digestive
system
Liver
Red blood
cells
Circulatory
system
Circulatory
system (in the
plasma)
Water
Vitamins,
glucose,
amino acids
Digestive
system
Digestive
system
Cells and
tissue
Lungs
Cells and
tissue
Cells
Kidneys and
bladder
Cells and
tissue
Plasma
Plasma
Plasma
Perform a first hand investigation using the light microscope and

prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and
white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each.
*See Booklet 2*
Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is a complex molecule, which gives blood its red colour.
Haemoglobin enables the red blood cells to carry oxygen by combining with it
and forming oxyhaemoglobin. Each molecule of haemoglobin can carry 4 oxygen
molecules.
Haemoglobin is an advantage in the blood by:
Increasing the oxygen carrying capacity: oxygen does not dissolve well in
water and blood plasma is mostly water. Haemoglobin increases the
ability to transport oxygen from 0.2mL per 100mL to 20mL per 100mL.
This is 100x more efficient.
Oxygen is easily released to body tissues: the molecule formed when
haemoglobin bonds with oxygen is bonded loosely. This means that it
easily releases the oxygen to the bodys cells once they arrive.
Perform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved
carbon dioxide on the pH of water
*See Booklet 2*
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Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products
extracted from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products.
Whole blood contains:
46-63% plasma
o 7% plasma proteins
60% albumins
35% globulins
4% fibrinogen
<1% regularly proteins (enzymes and hormones)
o 1% ions, nutrients and wastes
Ions contribute to osmotic pressure of body fluids e.g.
sodium, potassium, chloride
Nutrients are used for ATP production, growth and
maintenance of cells; including lipids, carbohydrates and
amino acids
Wastes include urea, uric acid, bilirubin and ammonium
ions
o 92% water
37-54% blood cells
o 0.1% platelets and white blood cells
Platelets contain factors that control blood clotting
o 99.9% red blood cells
Blood product
Whole blood
Use
Transport system:
- Oxygen, water and nutrients to organs and cells
- Wastes and carbon dioxide out of organs and cells
blood Transport oxygen by haemoglobin
Packed red
cells
Platelets
Plasma
Cryoprecipitate
(clotting factors)
Albumin and globulin
Immunoglobulin
Blood clotting
Transport mechanism
Causes blood clotting
50-60% of plasma proteins; albumin maintains
osmotic pressure and transport of fatty acids/
hormones, etc. Globulin proteins are blood serum
proteins.
Antibodies produced by plasma cells
Donated blood us used for patients who have lost blood through injury, or
surgery, or are deficient in a particular blood product. For example,
cryoprecipitate, which controls blood clotting and is crucial in the body to
prevent high blood loss.
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Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current
technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon
dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain these conditions
under which these technologies are used
Technology
used for
measuring
Pulse
oximetry
Capnometer
Arterial blood
gas (ABG)
analysis
Description of technology
Conditions under which it is

used
Two wave lengths of light; red

(660nm) and infrared
(940nm) measures the
amount of light absorbed as
the light reaches the
photodetection
Measures concentration of
respired gases using an
infrared beam. The light
absorbed depends on the
amount of CO2
Tests blood externally from
blood taken from a body
tested; O2, CO2 and pH levels
When non- invasive

techniques are required or
when rapid continuous
monitoring of arterial blood is
needed. Intensive care units
during mechanical ventilation
Haemodynamically stable
patients but not critically ill
Critically ill patients on

ventilators or undergoing
respiratory surgery.
Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on

progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence
to propose reasons why such research is needed.
Reasons why research is needed:
- There is no threat of disease transmission (AIDS, hepatitis) from artificial
blood
- There is no need for refrigeration and artificial blood can be stores for
long periods (2-3 years compared with 3 weeks for human blood)
- It can be easily carried on ambulances
- There is an increasingly short supply of human blood worldwide; the
number donating is dropping and those that need it most (elderly) are
growing in number
- There is universal acceptance of all blood groups
- It could solve religious and cultural problems with donated blood.
Some examples of artificial blood that have been developed commercially are:
Perftoran: the first blood substitute with a gas- transporting function, and
is used in cases of shock, blood loss, multiple trauma, burns and organ
transplants
Oxygent: picks up oxygen from lungs and transports it to oxygen depleted
areas, and is used to assist oxygen delivery in patients at risk of acute
oxygen deficit due to anaemia or blood loss. It is a perflurocarbon
emulsion of tiny particles that do not bind to the oxygen but absorb it and
releases it via diffusion. It can also pick up CO2 from tissue and deliver it
to the lungs
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Blood
Structure
Function
vessel
Diagram
PHER- O2: is a new blood substitute with particles 1/900th the size of
red blood cells and so it can oxygenate areas inaccessible to red blood
cells. It absorbs 3-4 times more oxygen than human blood and medical
applications could include use in blood transfusions and eye surgery, and
it the treatment of heart attack, stroke, Alzheimers disease, cancer and
parasitic infections.
Artificial blood is designed to:
Increase plasma volume
Carry oxygen
Types of artificial blood have been developed:
Perflurochemicals: that can dissolve 50 x more oxygen than blood plasma.
They are cheap and easy to produce.
Haemoglobin- based oxygen carriers: made from haemoglobin that is
extracted from blood cells. The haemoglobin must be modified before it is
used. The haemoglobin is not contained in a membrane so it does not
need to be cross- matched with the patients blood type.
Compare the structure of arteries, capil laries and veins in relation to their
function
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Arteries
- Thick walls
- Elastic
- Muscular
- No valves
- Small diameter
Transport
oxygenated
blood away from
the heart
Veins
- Thin walled
- Less muscle
- Less elastic
- Valves
Transport blood
back to the heart
when it is low in
oxygen
Capillaries
- Thin walls 1
Provide a large
cell thick to
surface area to
allow diffusion
allow exchange
to occur in and
of materials
out of the
from blood and
capillaries
cells.
Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it
moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
Tissue blood passes through
Lungs
General body tissue
Small intestine
Liver
Large intestine
Kidney tissue
Endocrine system
Stomach tissue
Change in composition of blood

Oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
the blood
Oxygen leaves the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
the blood
Amino acids and glucose enter the blood
Toxins, some waste and drugs are removed. Vitamins
are removed, glucose levels regulated and amino
acids are converted to urea
Water, salt and vitamins are added to the blood
where needed
Excess salt is removed, urea is removed and water is
added
Hormones released into the blood e.g. adrenaline
Water enters the blood as well as nutrients and
alcohol.
There are two systems in which blood passes through the body; the pulmonary
system and the systemic system. The first is where blood passes from the lungs
to the heart and back again. This involves oxygen being diffused into the blood
from the alveoli and carbon dioxide being diffused out of the blood. The systemic
system is where blood travel to the rest of the body, and nutrients are diffused in
and waste out of organs and cells.
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Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of
carbon dioxide from cells is essential
The importance of oxygen
Oxygen is needed by cell for the process of respiration. Respiration is the
process carried by all cells by reacting glucose and oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is the waste product.
If oxygen is not made available to the cell, the cell will die.
The need to remove carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide in the blood reacts with the water to produce carbonic
acid (H2CO3)
This lowers the pH of the blood, which means that it becomes more acidic
To maintain the correct pH of the blood the carbon dioxide must be
removed.
A high level of carbon dioxide in a cell is toxic to cell as a lower pH inhibits
enzyme activity.
The bodys response to carbon dioxide levels
If the body detects an increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the blood
then nerves send a message to the muscles around the ribs and
diaphragm, which stimulates the rate and depth of breathing to increase
(medulla).
If the body detects a decrease in the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood
then the nerves send a message to decrease the rate and depth of
breathing.
Choose equipment or resources to perform a first hand investigation to
gather first-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of
phloem and xylem tissue
See Booklet 2 pages 27-28 *
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement
of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
Movement through the xylem:
As the xylem vessels are not living, the movement of substances through
the xylem are brought about by physical forces.
These forces include;
o The transpiration stream: as water is lost from a plant by evaporation,
from the leaves, the water is replaced by water taken in through the
roots. This constant upward flow of water is called the transpiration
stream.
o Capillary action: the xylem vessels are very narrow and the water
molecules tend to be attracted to each other (cohesive forces) as well
as the walls of the xylem (adhesive forces). These forces combined with
the transpiration stream, moves the water upwards.
Movement through the phloem:
The phloem is made up of living tissue. The movement of the products of
photosynthesis through the plant is called translocation. The materials
transported to the phloem includes: glucose, hormones and amino acids, which
move up and down the plant. They are transported by the sieve tube cells and
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part of the transport is active transport that requires energy. Sugar (mainly
sucrose) is transported from source cells to the sieve tubes. The concentration of
solute increases and water then diffuses into the sieve tubes via osmosis. The
pressure near source cells increases and forces the solution to move to regions of
lower pressure. Sink cells in the lower pressure areas removed the sugar and
osmosis increases through those areas.
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3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and

waste products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid
The Respiratory system and Excretory systems are responsible for
regulating the concentration of gases, water and waste products.
1. The respiratory system is responsible for the removal of carbon dioxide
and the addition of oxygen
2. The function of the human kidney is to remove nitrogenous wastes from
the blood. Wastes are produced as a result of all the chemical reactions
that occur in the cells. These wastes must be removed because they;
a. Can be toxic
b. Take up space
c. Problems with osmosis
Excretory organ
Skin
Lungs
Kidney
Wastes removed
Water, salt
CO2, water
Nitrogenous wastes (urea) water and
salts
Explain the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a
narrow range for optimal function
Water is important for living things because:
It is a solvent for all metabolic reaction
Transport mechanism e.g. CO2 in plasma
Is a raw material for some chemical reactions
Controls temperature
For support
For sexual reproduction
For lubrication (synovial fluid)
The concentration of water in cells must be kept constant because:
Water maintains the shape of the cells (too much can cause a cell to burst
and too little can cause it to collapse). Changes in water concentration are
typically accompanied by changes in concentration of dissolved
substances such as salts. This change can effect metabolic functioning e.g.
if water concentrations in blood decrease, the concentration of CO2
increases.
The key organs responsible for excretion are:
Excretory organ
Skin
Lungs
Kidney
Wastes removed
Water, salt
CO2, water
Nitrogenous wastes (urea) water and
salts
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic

activity
Page 19 of 77

Metabolic wastes must be removed from the body to maintain
homeostasis
The internal environment must remain stable in order to allow enzymes
to function efficiently
For Example:
o Build up of nitrogenous wastes cause an increase in pH within
cells
o Carbon dioxide lower accumulation lowers pH creating a more
acidic environment
o Increased solute concentrations interfere reaction rates and
osmosis balance
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory systems of fish and
mammals
Fish:
The main role of the kidneys in fish is to regulate the salt and water
concentrations in the body. This makes sure that the fishs body has a
constant concentration of internal fluids for the cells.
This process is called osmoregulation.
Fish excrete most of their waste in the form of ammonia, across their gills.
As a result the kidneys are not involved in waste removal
Mammals:
The kidneys in mammals perform two very important functions:
I.
Excretion of nitrogenous waste: Mammals convert their nitrogenous
waste to a substance called urea. The urea is formed in the liver and
then transported via the blood to the kidney. The urea is filtered
from the blood by the kidneys and excreted from the body as urine.
II.
Osmoregulation: the kidneys are also involved in regulating the
internal salt and water concentration in the body.
Perform a first hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney
by dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions
involved in the excretion of waste products
* See Page 10-11 Booklet 3 *
Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the
conservation of water and the production and excretion of concentrated
nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial
mammals
Meat ants are an Australian insect that contains their excretory organs between
the mid-gut and hindgut. These tubules collect water and uric acid from the midgut and empty it into the gut. The intestines reabsorb useful substances and
water, and the wastes leave the body. Uric acid is insoluble in water, which
means insects conserve water while excreting nitrogenous wastes. This is an
important advantage in Australian environments, where water is in a limited
supply.
Leichardts grasshopper is a bright red, blue and orange grasshopper found on
sandstone plateaus in northern Australia. The excretory system is extremely
Page 20 of 77

efficient in conserving water and will remove water from digestive wastes before
it is passed from the body. The waste passes through a tube and is secreted from
the body. Reabsorption occurs mostly via diffusion of substances but sometime
active transport is required to return substances to the body that work against
the natural gradient.
Excretion occurs in insects through malpighian tubules that open directly into
the hind part of the body and the rectum reabsorbs vital substances such as
water and salts.
The kangaroo rat has problems with retaining water, due to the hot, dry areas in
which it resides, with minimal drinking water and a lot of salt ingested through
its food. The kangaroo rat combats these problems by not sweating, staying
underground during the day, gaining some water from its food and relying
heavily on metabolic water. The Kangaroo rat also produces highly concentrated
urine, containing salts and urea.
Koala:
Species
Cinereus
Genus
Phascolarctos
Family
Phascolarctidae
Order
Diprotodontia
Subclass
Marsupialia
Class
Mammalia
Subphylum
Vertebrate
Phylum
Chordata
Kingdom
Animalia
Problems with excretion and solutions
Koalas live in a hot environment of the Australian bush and need to retain
as much water as possible. In response to this they are very sedentary
animals, which sleep for 80% of the day, limiting their movement to a
very minimum to reduce their need for water. Since they move very
slowly, they can be targets for predators on the ground and therefore get
all of their water from their diet; eucalyptus leaves. They also conserve
water by having very concentrated urine with very little water present.
Koalas ingest eucalyptus leaves that contain toxic oils. In order to relive
the koala of these toxins, they are isolated by the liver and passed through
into their faeces and urine.
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
Dialysis is a process, which removes waste products from the blood. Acute
dialysis is needed when potassium levels are high, there is a fluid overload,
pulmonary oedema (liquid in lungs), or to remove medication or toxins from the
blood. Chronic dialysis is needed in chronic renal failure. With end- stage renal
disease (ESRD), less than 10% of nephrons are functioning, which causes high
blood urea nitrogen levels, high levels of creatinine and electrolyte imbalances.
People can survive for several years on dialysis before a kidney transplant
becomes available.
Haemodialysis is the most common method of dialysis and uses dialyzers of
artificial kidneys, which use diffusion, to remove toxins and wastes; osmosis to
Page 21 of 77

remove excess water and ultrafiltration to remove water more efficiently under
high pressure. The bodys buffer system to maintain homeostasis is maintained
by using a dialysate, a solution of all the extracellular ions e.g. bicarbonate,
acetate, heparin, and anticoagulant is administered to stop the blood clotting the
dialysis tubing. The blood flows through tubules, which are surrounded by the
dialysate and the waste removal occurs through the semi-permeable membranes
of the tubules. Dialyzers have changed as technology has improved e.g. new highflux dialysis, which uses newer high permeable membranes.
Another form of dialysis is peritoneal dialysis: a solution rich in minerals is fed
by a tube into the abdominal cavity.
Kidney function
Removes nitrogenous wastes
Via natural processes
Performed by two fist sized organs
Fast process
Continuously removing wastes
Renal Dialysis
Removes nitrogenous wastes
Via artificial/ mechanical processes
Performed by a large machine or fluid
Slow process
Limited (regularly 2-4 times a week)
access
Regulation of salt and water balance No regulation by body, via machine
(osmoregulation)
Filtration, absorption and secretion Filtration
occurs
(passive
by
occurs
diffusions)
Passive and active transport
Passive
Produces urine
Little/ no urine produced
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in
removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms
For any cell, the nitrogenous wastes it makes will diffuse out through the cell
membrane if the concentration of nitrogenous waste is lower in the surrounding
body fluid or environment. Similarly, nitrogenous waste will diffuse out of the
body fluid into another solution making urine if the waste is more concentrated
in body fluid and less concentrated in the other solution.
But when an animal produces concentrated urine (which has a higher
concentration of nitrogenous waste than body fluids), conditions do not exist for
diffusion to move nitrogenous waste from body fluids into urine. Diffusion can
only move the waste from where it is most concentrated to where it is less
concentrated. Therefore, diffusion alone cannot be the mechanism for removing
nitrogenous wastes from these organisms.
The process of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved
nitrogenous wastes because:
Diffusion is too slow
Diffusion is not selective
Osmosis alone is inadequate because waster tends to move to a more
concentrated area of dissolved substances. This leads to the wastes being
diluted and too much water leaving the body.
Page 22 of 77

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to
processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
Active transport requires energy for its functioning, since the transport is
moving against the natural gradient. Passive transport does not require energy
for its functioning. Within the kidney, active transport occurs to exist/ allow
secretion of substances to leave the blood such as urea and an excess of ions. The
kidneys function is to filter out substances that are wastes or in excess in order
to maintain homeostasis. In order to secrete substances that need to be disposed
of e.g. urea, active transport is required due to that the kidney cannot rely on
diffusion since all urea must be disposed of. Other substances e.g. water can use
passive transport since osmosis required naturally.
Bowmans
capsule
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the

mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition
In order for the mammalian body to be healthy,
Locations of secretion and
it must be able to remove wastes from the
reabsorption in the nephron
body. This is done within the kidney through
filtering units called the nephron. Wastes
within the body are dispersed into the blood,
Distal
and therefore the blood must be cleansed of
Tubule
these toxic components and levels of other
dissolved substances must be regulated. This
role is undertaken by the nephron. Plasma is
force from the blood vessel into the nephron
under high pressure, along with nutrients that
Proximal
are present within the plasma such as dissolved
tubule
salts, vitamins and wastes. This all occurs in the
Bowmans capsule.
Loop of
Henle
The plasma then moves along to the proximal

tubule where most nutrients, water and salts
are taken by the cells that make up the tubules
and into the cortex or medulla of the kidney.
These substances are they diffused back to the
blood through capillaries.
This is called
reabsorption.
Collecting
Tubule
The remaining plasma then travels to the loop

of Henley where the balance of salts and water
is changed. Hormones control the balance of
substances in the blood and therefor controls the amount of substances
reabsorbed. The distal tubule then reabsorb remaining salts that are required.
The collecting duct is where the body is cleansed of wastes, and any last water
required is reabsorbed into the blood.
Outline the role of the hormones aldosterone and ADH (anti - diuretic
hormone) in the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
Name of hormone
Effect on water level in Effect on salt level in
Blood
Blood
Aldosterone (formed in
Increases water level in Increases the amount of
Page 23 of 77

adrenal glands)
the
blood,
which salt reabsorbed into the
increases blood volume blood. Cell lining of the
and pressure. This water nephron tube actively
is reabsorbed due to salt transport sodium ions
being reabsorbed
into the blood
Anti Diuretic Hormone
More water reabsorbed Increased salt levels
(produced from
into the blood.
prepropressophysin
Increases permeability of
hypothalamus sends a
the membranes lining
message to pituitary
the tubules of the kidney
gland)
nephrons
Present information to outline the general use of hormone replac ement
therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone
Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. There are two adrenal
glands, one above each kidney. The glands are shaped like pyramids and are 35cm in size. The outer part of each adrenal is called the cortex and the inner, the
medulla. The cortex is larger and secretes several steroid hormones including
aldosterone.
Addisons disease is where a persons adrenal glands are unable to produce
hormones that are essential to the efficient functioning of the body. In 98% of
cases this is due to autoimmune disease, in which a persons immune system
causes inflammation in their own glands. Other causes include destruction of the
gland due to tuberculosis or cancer. One of the most important hormones to the
excretory system in the body is created in the adrenal glands. This hormone is
aldosterone, which control the water and salt balance in the blood by controlling
reabsorption in the filtering units of the kidney (nephron). This disruption of
water and salt balance can cause severe dehydration and a drop in blood
pressure. The role of Aldosterone is to reabsorb more sodium ions into the blood
and decrease the reabsorption of potassium ions.
Fludrocortisone is a drug that has been created to try and make up for the lack of
aldosterone in the body. It is mostly used over alternate medication due to its
large sodium retaining action. It aims to assist reabsorption in the nephrons. A
person on Fludrocortisone must be very careful with their dosage because too
much can cause a high blood pressure or heart failure. It is often used with
hydrocortisone, which replaces the lost cortisol from the adrenal glands.
Define Enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological
functions in response to variations in the environment and discuss its
importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt
concentrations.
Enantiostasis: is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to changes in the environment. It occurs in any organism that lives in
an environment that has wide variations in one or more of its physical or
chemical features, and is therefore an important process in estuarine organisms.
An estuary is an area where a fresh water stream or river merges with the ocean,
an area where fresh water is mixed with salt-water acts as a transition zone
between rivers and the sea. Around their fringes are dense beds of sea-grasses
Page 24 of 77

and marine weds which is a vital food source for the marine life, which populates
estuaries.
Estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, but have a
limited number of permanent species because of the physical and chemical
mature of this habitat. Euryhaline animals survive in one of two ways:
Some allow the osmolarity of their blood and interstitial fluid to follow
that of the environment; these animals are called osmoconformers, and
depend on the ability of their cells to tolerate changes in the osmolarity of
their body fluids e.g. most marine invertebrates.
Others regulate the osmolarity of their blood and interstitial fluid despite
variations in the surrounding water, by some form an active transport:
these animals are called osmoregulators e.g. most marine vertebrates.
Behavioural adaptation of euryhaline animals usually involve either:
Burrowing in the mud, where salinities are more stable, which also avoids
the effects of currents e.g. worms
Seeking refuge in a closed shell e.g. mussels
Some fish, including salmon and eels, migrate between the sea and fresh water as
part of their normal breeding cycle. They are able to reverse the direction of salt
transport across the gills and the kidneys can change from producing copious
amounts of dilute urine to produce a more concentrated fluid.
Page 25 of 77

Analyse information form secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and
freshwater fish
Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use

available evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt
regulation in saline environments
One of the most common plants that grow in estuaries is a tree called the
mangrove. Mangroves grow along the edges of estuaries with their roots
permanently embedded in thick, salty mud. One of their adaptations are roots
called pneumatophores, which project above the mud at low tide and function in
the absorption of oxygen. Plants that grow in estuaries must be able to maintain
a constant concentration of salt in their bodies, despite the fact that they are
surrounded by water that varies widely in its salt concentration, and they do so
(in another example of Enantiostasis) using one or more of the following
strategies:
Page 26 of 77

Ion selection: the plant selectively absorbs salts or prevents salt uptake
by roots.
Ion extraction: salts are excreted from the plant e.g. the Grey Mangrove
extrudes salt through glands in its leaves
Ion accumulation: the plant accumulates certain salts and stores them in a
part that is regularly shed e.g. leaves
Ion dilution: also known as succulence, this usually involves hanging
leaves with a low surface area: volume ratio
Increasing storage volume by developing thick, fleshy, succulent
structures. Mainly the result of vacuoles filling with water.
Plants in mangroves and coastal marshes live in the boundary between saltwater
and freshwater. These plants use three main processes for keeping the growing
stems and leaves mostly free of salt.
Salt barriers- special tissues in the roots and lower stems stop salt from
entering the plant but allow water uptake.
Secretion- some plants are able to concentrate salt and get rid of it
through special glands on the leaves. The salt is then washed off by rain.
Salt deposits- some plants deposit salt in older tissue, which is then
discarded.
Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian pla nts that assist
in minimizing water loss
The leaves of plants are covered in tiny pores called stomates, which have to be
open to admit CO2 into the leaf. However, open stomates also loose water in the
process of transpiration. If the water can be replaced at the same rate it is lost
there is no disadvantage, but when water is in short supply, transpiration would
rapidly lead to death by dehydration. Plants cope with this by having guard cells
to control the opening and closing of the stomates, and by having most stomates
on the under surface of the leaf. Stomates are usually open if there is abundant
light and water and a low carbon dioxide concentration inside the leaf, and
closed in temperatures above 30C.
Many Australian native plants are xerophytes: plants that live in dry conditions
and have adaptations to help the, reduce transpiration to a minimum under
conditions of low water availability. Many of these adaptation result in reducing
the number or exposure of stomates, for example.
Sclerophyllous leaves: these are leaves which are usually rigid, hard and
often spiny, and their small size decreases the area over which water can
evaporate by reducing the leads surface area to volume ratio, e.g. Hakae
Sericea, or needlebush, which has spiny, cylindrical leaves.
A waxy coating on leaves: this reduces the transpiration rate, e.g. Acacia
(wattle), Banksia
Flat phyllodes rather than leaves: phyllodes are really leafy stalks and
since lead stalks have less stomates than leaves, transpiration is reduced,
e.g. Acacia (wattle)
Stomates are often located in pits or grooves, or protected by a
dense covering of trichomes (hairs): this reduces direct airflow across
them and therefore reduces diffusion of water out.
Page 27 of 77

Leaves reduced to small scales on the stems: in these plants, the role of
photosynthesis is undertaken by the stem, e.g. Casuarina (she-oak)
Leaves which hang vertically: this reduces heating (as the leaves are not
exposed to the direct rays of the Sun) and therefore water loss, e.g. many
species of Eucalyptus
Leaves which roll up in dry conditions: this encloses the stomates and
creates a humid micro-environment next to them, e.g. spinifex, marram
grass
High root to shoot ratios: this is usually about 5:1, but in some cases
may be up to 50:1, enabling a maximum amount of water to be drawn
from the soil, e.g. Mitchell Grass.
Trees often have leaves and branches that slope upwards: this
funnels water towards the base of the plant when it rains to soak
upwards: this funnels water towards the base of the plant when it rains to
soak into the soil near the roots
Storing water in succulent tissue: this usually occurs in fleshy leaves or

stems containing water-storing tissue, e.g. pigface, saltbush
Page 28 of 77

Perform a first hand investigation to gather information about structures
in plants that assist in the conservation of water
Sample 1: Banksia Serrata
Waxy cuticle
reducing the
transpiration
rate leaves
Tough, spiny
Sample 3:
Callislemon
citrinus
to discourage
predators
Spines to
discourage
Tough leaves
predators
andto
discourage
preserve
water
predators and
retain
waters
Tiny hairs
to
reduce direct air
flow and
Sample
therefore 2: Banksia
diffusion
Waxy cuticle
reducing
transpiration rate
Erisifolia
Small hairs on the

underside of the
leaves reduces
direct air flow and
therefore diffusion
Leaves
hang down
of water
to reduce sun
exposure, which
causes water loss.
Hairs to
reduce
direct air
flow and
therefore
diffusion of
water
Small leaves to
limit exposure
and diffusion of
water
Search for Better

Health
1. What is a healthy organism:
Discuss the difficulties of defining the words health and disease
The definition of health as given by the World Heath Organisation (WHO) is:
health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity.
It is difficult to define health because:
Peoples personal definitions of health vary greatly (culture, etc.)
The definition of health is very broad
Optimal health is limited by gender, age
A person who carries an infectious pathogen may be healthy if the
symptoms of disease are not present.
The definition of disease can be given as: any condition that adversely effects
normal functioning of the body.
It is difficult to define disease because:
Words such as health and disease are different in scientific language and
general conversation
Normal functioning may be different for different people
They term is quite broad and imprecise
Outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and
specialisation assist in the maintenance of health
Genes: the units of inheritance, they are short lengths of DNA that contain coded
information. They assist in the maintenance of health by:
Producing proteins needed for repair
Page 29 of 77

Produce proteins that regulate the cell cycle.
Genes control cell differentiation
Control cells producing enzymes that control cell metabolism.
Mitosis: is the process of cell division where the nucleus divides, resulting in two
daughter cells that are identical. Mitosis assists in the maintenance of health by:
Creating new cells to replace dead or damaged cells
Producing new cells for growth
Cell differentiation and specialisation: the process that cells undergo after
mitosis, which results in them becoming different or specialised for a particular
function. Cell differentiation and specialisation assist in the maintenance of
health by:
Resulting in cells which perform specific functions (e.g. liver cells)
Producing cells which fight disease (e.g. white blood cells)
Most diseases result in damage to some part of the body, and repair to damaged
body parts depends on the production, by mitosis, of new cells with correctly
copied genetic material. Mitosis itself is under to control of genes. Cancer occurs
when cells escape from the control mechanisms that normally limit their growth
and division, and when these proteins function normally they help control cell
division and differentiation. If a mutation occurs in a proto- oncogene it may
become an oncogene: a gene that causes cancer. Cancer cells divide excessively,
and can invade other tissues of the body. This excessive growth can result in
abnormal mass of cells called a tumour.
Cancers can also result from mutations in genes whose proteins normally inhibit
cell division. These genes are called tumour- suppressor genes because they
normally prevent uncontrolled cell division.
The DNA that makes up genes is vulnerable to many spontaneous chemical
changes that result in changes to the DNA molecule, but cells contain DNA repair
enzymes (which are themselves under the control of DNA repair genes) that
recognise and remove any damaged sections of DNA. If mutations occur in the
DNA repair genes the affected individuals are unable to repair their DNA, so that
they suffer from unusually high rates of cancer.
Cell differentiation plays an important role in producing specialised cells that
help protect the body against disease e.g.:
Lymphocytes: are cells produced in the lymphatic system that are
involved in immunity (the ability to resist infection and disease)
Phagocytes: are cells that engulf microorganisms and cell debris.
Cells in the lining of the digestive, reparatory, urinary and reproductive
tracts are responsible for preventing the entry of microorganisms into the
body.
Mitosis and cell differentiation are important processes that contribute towards
the maintenance of a healthy organism.
Use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and
maintenance and repair of body tissues
Page 30 of 77

Health and disease is dependant on information shared within the DNA of each
cell. Each piece of information or gene can be switched on or switched off by a
variety of factors within and outside the body.
A gene is said to be expressed when its switched on
Gene expression refers to the characteristics that can be observed when cells
use information stored by genes.
Gene expression is an obvious factor in the development of organisms
from the zygote (fertilised egg) stage
Gene expression continues throughout the life of an organism and is
particularly involved in repair and maintenance of tissue
Gene expression is controlled so that chemicals are produced at the
required rate within cells. This can increase or decrease in response to
disease so that tissue is maintained and repaired as needed. E.g. skin cells
grow more quickly than usual when needed to repair a cut.
Proteins made by the body are prescribed by the genetic code and these
proteins influence health and disease. If the gene is faulty then disease
results.
Genes are also responsible for controlling the rate of cell division. Fault
control genes can lead to cancer.
Gene expression also influences the way cells become differentiated and
specialised. Cancer cells do not differentiate so do not perform a useful
function.
Cystic fibrosis:
Disease impairs body activities by affecting how organs, tissues and cells
function. Genes control the activities of cells by directing protein manufacture.
Most of the chemicals essential for the survival of cells are proteins. All of us
have inherited a few genes that are faulty in some way. Sometimes the faults may
result in a genetic disease. Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease that affects
about 1 in 2500 Australians. People with this disease have difficulty breathing
and digestive food. They do not usually survive into adulthood. At present there
is no cure for cystic fibrosis and the only treatment involves medication and
physiotherapy.
In 1989, it was shown that the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis is a faulty
version of the gene that codes for a transmembrane chloride channel called the
Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator. The faults in the CFTR
gene have arisen in the past by a gene mutation and have often been transmitted
through families for many generations. It is only when two faulty genes come
together in the one person that CF results.
CF affects the endocrine glands, which secrete bodily fluids such as sweat, mucus
and enzymes. CF involves a change in the nature of mucus and serous (bodily
fluid) secretion throughout the body. The mucus- secreting glands produce
abnormally concentrated secretions. Thick, sticky mucus is produced as well as
high levels of salt and potassium in sweat. (cilia= tiny hair-like particles lining
the respiratory tract)
Page 31 of 77

2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating
cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene
Interest in public health developed a long time ago: ancient civilisations were
encouraged to follow basic sanitation laws. The aim of these laws was to
maintain conditions so that ill health would be avoided.
In ancient China and Egypt, people kept clean in an effort to prevent disease and
they isolated the sick to avoid spreading illnesses. The Greeks understood that
diseases could be transmitted between people, and the Romans proposed that
tiny invisible creatures entered the body to cause disease. The Chinese knew that
if a person were exposed to the tissue of people infected with smallpox, they
would gain protection against further infection by that disease.
The ancient Hebrews practiced personal hygiene by washing and keeping clean,
especially before eating and religious ceremonies. They recognised that a
polluted water source could lead to disease and even death. Consequently, water
supplies were kept clean, free of waste and dead animals and people. Waste was
buried away from any campsite, and eventually drainage systems were
developed for removing sewage from homes and streets. Hebrews also isolated
their sick and burnt used bandages. The sick were carefully nursed with herbs
rather than with dirty surgical equipment.
Unfortunately, the understanding of contagious diseases was not enough to
protect people from the devastating bubonic plague, or Black Death, of the sixth
century. The plague is caused by a bacillus bacteria carried in the fleas found on
rodents- usually rats. The fleas move freely over to human hosts, into whom they
regurgitate the blood form the rat, thus infecting them with the plague.
1m
1cm
1m
1nm
Bacteria
Macro- parasites
Fungi &
protozoa
Viruses
Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease

Infectious diseases: are generally caused by the invasion of the body by
organisms. These disease-causing organisms are called pathogens. There are two
types of pathogens:
Microscopic organisms (microbes) that include:
o Prions- abnormal proteins (do not contain DNA)
o Viruses- contains DNA surrounded by a proteins coat
o Bacteria- one celled organisms without a nucleus
o Fungi- simple organisms such as yeast and moulds
o Protozoa- one celled organism with a nucleus
Viruses
Influenza
Herpes
Poliomyelitis
Bacteria
Tonsillitis
Tuberculosis
Gonorrhoea
Protozoans
Amoebic dysentery
Giardia
Sleeping sickness
Page 32 of 77
Fungi
Ringworm
Dandruff
Tinea
Prions

AIDS
Tetanus
Malaria
Thrush
Macroscopic organisms. These are parasitic organisms that are visible to

the naked eye.
External parasites (ectoparasites)
Head lice
Body lice
Flea
Tick
Itch mite
Internal parasites (endoparasites)

Tapeworm
Flukes
Threadworm
Pin Worm
Malarial parasite
Pathogens can be transferred from one individual to another in a number of

ways:
Air: many respiratory diseases are transferred in this way as infected
individuals breathe out air containing pathogens
Water: water that is not treatment can contain pathogens
Food: careless handling and lack of hygiene in food preparation can lead
to the contamination of food
Contact: contact between infected and non-infected individuals is a
common way of transmitting disease. E.g. skin contact, kissing and even
contact with objects infected by infected person such as a towel or
cutlery.
Vectors: organisms that do not actually cause the disease but can carry
pathogens from one individual to another. E.g. mosquitoes are a vector for
the protozoan that causes malaria
Non- infectious diseases: do not involve pathogens and there is no transfer of
disease from one organism to another. They include a wide range of diseases:
Physiological malfunction: examples include cancer and heart disease
Hereditary: these diseases are due to gene defects and are passed on from
the previous generation. Examples include haemophilia, cystic fibrosis
and Downs syndrome.
Nutritional or dietary factors: these diseases result from deficiencies or
excesses in the diet and examples include scurvy (lack of vitamin C) and
obesity
Environmental factors: the diseases are caused by hazards in the
environment or the intake of dangerous chemicals. Examples include
exposure to the sun, drug and alcohol abuse, asbestos and lead poisoning.
Infectious diseases can be transferred from one organism to another. These
diseases are often referred to as communicable disease. Infectious disease
involves a pathogen. Non- infectious diseases cannot be passed from one person
to another by a pathogen, and therefore are non- communicable.
Explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices
assist in control of disease
Page 33 of 77

It is important that disease is controlled so that there is a reduced risk of the
spread of pathogens to members of the population. Cleanliness is personal
hygiene, food and water practices all assist in the control of disease.
Personal hygiene involves keeping all of our bodies and any openings clean. To
do this we should wash our hands with soap before preparing food and eating,
and after going to the toilet. We should wash our bodies and hair regularly and
clean our teeth daily. These strategies all lead to the control of disease by
reducing the risk of pathogens on or in our bodies, which would lead to disease.
Cleanliness in food practices involves the careful handling, storage, preparation
and serving of food. Some of the procedures to be followed include the washing
of hands before handling food, and when preparing different foods, especially
after touching raw food. Hair should be tired back and cuts covered. This
prevents the transmission of pathogens between food and between the food and
the handler. All utensils should be washed in hot, soapy water and rewashed
before being used for different foods. Different chopping boards should be used
for different types of food. This prevents the growth of pathogens in the food and
therefore reduces the risk of pathogens being transmitted to the consumer.
All of these strategies reduce the growth and spread of pathogens, helping
control disease.
Cleanliness in water practices involves the treatment of water before it is
delivered to customers so that there is no risk of pathogens in the water causing
disease. The treatment of water involves a series of processes including
coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation and disinfection. In each of these
processes any pathogens that are present in the water is greatly reduced; this in
tern controls the spread of disease.
In order to help control disease cleanliness in personal hygiene, food and water
practices is important because it reduces the growth of pathogens as well as
preventing the transfer of pathogens through the population.
Identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a

pathogen
A pathogen is any organism living in or on another organism that is capable of
causing disease. If a pathogen is to cause disease, it must:
Have enough virulence (the number of the particular pathogen needed to
cause the disease). A virulent pathogen will only need to be present in
small numbers to cause the disease
Enter the host through a certain part of the body or survive on the body
without being destroyed by the bodies natural acidity and mucus
Escape from one host to another
Survive transmission from one host to another- some pathogens can only
be transmitted by direct contact because they cannot survive long outside
the host.
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Pathogens can cause disease symptoms in a number of ways:
The large number of pathogens present are too many for the host tissue
to function normally
The pathogens actually destroy cells or tissues
Bacteria produce poisons called toxins
The pathogen may not directly harm the host, by an excessive immune
response by the host may damage tissue
Identify data sources, plan and choose equi pment or resources to perform
a first-hand investigation to identify microbes in food or in water
* See booklet 1 page 20 and onwards *
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to
describe ways in which drinking water can be treated and use available
evidence to explain how these methods reduce the risk of infection from
pathogens
Introduction:
The provision of clean water and the disposal of wastewater is a public health
issue, and water supplied to houses must be pure and safe to drink. Water is
usually treated chemically before it is supplied. However, in many third world
countries treatment of water is minimal. Water is a carrier for many
contaminants that can be the cause of disease. Dysentery, caused by swallowing
contaminated water, can cause fever, nausea, cramps and convulsions.
To ensure that water is of good quality and that dinking guidelines are met,
water quality testing and monitoring takes place at every stage of the supply
system. Samples are taken in the catchment area, after the water has been
treated and in the distribution pipelines. Water is tested for more than 70
different characteristics including taste, colour, odour, microorganisms and
chemical content.
Coliforms:
Coliform bacteria are used as a scientific indicator of the cleanliness of the water
and the possible presence of disease-causing microorganisms. If the coliform
count is above a certain level, the water is condemned for drinking purposes.
These bacteria is very resistant organisms are harder to kill off than actual
disease producers. If samples tested contain no coliforms then health authorities
can be reasonably sure that no other pollution bacteria are present. Chlorine is
often used to kill bacteria.
Cryptosporidium and Giardia:
These microorganisms occur in the gut of infected warm-blooded animals. They
can be introduced into the water supply through dead animal carcasses and
faeces.
Turbidity:
Turbidity is a measure of suspended material in water that may cause it to look
muddy or discoloured.
Colour:
Water should be virtually colourless
Chlorine:
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To ensure good quality drinking water, chlorine is added to kill bacteria that may
cause disease. Tests are carried out for the residual level of chlorine, which
needs to be present after treatment to make sure that the water is disinfected all
the way to the tap.
Fluoride:
Small amounts of fluoride are added for dental health reasons in accordance with
legislation
Aluminium, iron and manganese:
These substances occur naturally in water at low levels and may be responsible
for taste and staining problems with water.
Drinking water guidelines:
Australian drinking water guidelines are set by the National Health and Medical
Research Council (NH&MRC). They are specific standards that must be met for
the water to pass as sale to drink. The units used are:
Mg/L = thousandths of a gram per litre of water
g/ L = millionths of a gram per litre of water.
Class
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Grading of drinking water

Excellent
Satisfactory
Suspicious
Unsatisfactory
Additive/ test
Colour
Turbidity
Chlorine
Fluoride
Coliform test
Coliform count per 100 mL

0
1-3
4-10
>10
Reason
Water should be colourless and indicators foreign material
Measure of suspended particles
Kill bacteria and other microorganisms
For dental health reasons
To indicate the water- cleanliness to detect
microorganisms. (If the test comes up with none or very
little there will be no other micro-organisms)
Between late July and mid September 1998, cryptosporidium and giardia created
problems for Sydney siders consuming tap water. These parasites are usually
transmitted through water contaminated with faeces of an animal or person, or
by direct contact with a carrier or contaminated food. Some of Australias water
catchments are closed (protected from contamination by humans, livestock, and
from agriculture, timber harvesting and other human activities. In contrast
Sydneys catchments were open to multiple uses including grazing and
agriculture. If the catchment area is protected, there is less risk of faecal
contamination and other dangers, and therefore an outbreak of cryptosporidium
and giardia is less likely. Sydney water blamed the contamination on either the
existence of a dead animal in a water catchment or a defect in the water filtration
system. Ozone is the only chemical that can eliminate the single-celled organisms
that contaminated Sydneys water system and the cost of a filtration plant would
be $10 million.
Description of pathogen
Cryptosporidium
Protozoan: approximately 5m in
size
Giardia
Pear shaped protozoan: 10-20m
in length
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Transmission of pathogen
Name of disease caused by

pathogen
Symptoms of disease caused
by pathogen
Treatment of the disease
Nucleus and polar ring on one end Two large nuclei usually visible
of cell
Flagella for locomotion
No flagella, cilia or pseudopods
The cryptosporidium parasite lives in The giardia parasites can exist for
the intestine and is passed out of the
many months in the environment
body with the faeces. It is found in
within protective cysts. When they are
soil, water, food and surfaces that
ingested the cyst breaks down and the
have been contaminated with infected parasites are released. The parasites
human or animal faeces.
then reproduce and damage the wall
Ingesting water that is contaminated
of the intestine, affecting the ability to
with sewage or faeces from infected
absorb the food. The parasite will
organisms can transmit the pathogen. again form cysts. The giardia
It can also be transmitted by direct
pathogen is most commonly
contact and through food infected by
transmitted when water that has not
the pathogen
been sufficiently treated is ingested.
This water may be in streams, lakes,
contaminated tap water, swimming
pools and spas.
The pathogen can also be transmitted
through food and by direct contact.
Cryptosporidiosis
Giardiasis
The most common symptom is watery
diarrhoea. This could be accompanied
by:
Stomach cramps or pain
Dehydration
Nausea
Vomiting
Fever
Weight loss
Most healthy individuals will recover
on their own in one to two weeks.
Fluids should be maintained to
prevent dehydration.
In more severe cases, drugs will be
administered to treat the diarrhoea
associated with this disease.
Symptoms include
Watery, sometimes foul-smelling
diarrhoea
Abdominal cramps and bloating
Nausea
Fatigue
Weight loss- as much as 4.5 to 6.8
kg in adults
Many people with giardiasis will
recover on their own within a few
weeks. If the ingestion is persistent it
will be treated with antibiotics that
are specific for this disease.
3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur
and Koch and other scientists stimulated the search for microbes as
causes of disease
Describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of
infectious disease
Robert Koch:
The work of Robert Koch enabled scientists to prove that a particular disease is
caused by a particular microorganism; this idea had been suggested as early as
the first century B.C, when a Roman named Varro suggested that disease might
be caused by invisible things that are breathed in or swallowed with food.
Koch worked specifically on the cattle and sheep disease anthrax. Using the work
of French physician, Casimir Davaine, who found small organisms in the blood of
anthrax- infected sheep, Koch was able to carry out the investigation further by
identifying these organisms as bacteria under the microscope. He developed a
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way to grow pure cultures of the bacteria, inoculate cattle with the bacteria and
recover the same microbes from the disease animals. Kochs method of growing
bacteria in pure cultures in a mixture of gelatine and meat broth enabled him to
isolate the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in 1882 and the cholera
bacterium, in 1884. In addition to these finding, he later discovered the
bacterium that causes typhoid fever. His research procedure is now called Kochs
postulates.
Kochs postulates: a specific microorganism is the cause of a specific disease if:
That microorganism is always found in association with disease
The microorganism can be grown in the laboratory in pure culture (i.e. by
itself)
The culture will produce the original disease when placed in a new
susceptible individual
The microorganism can be recovered from the newly diseased individual
and grown again in culture.
Louis Pasteur:
Louis Pasteur (1822-95) contributed towards our understanding of microbes as
a cause of disease and food spoiling. He proved that food goes back because of
the activity of microbes; his famous meat broth experiment demonstrated that
food spoiling could be prevented by first sterilising (for example boiling) the
food and the sealing the food from the air to prevent microbes entering. This
helped towards ruling out the idea of spontaneous generation and improve
hygiene standards for the future.
Pasteur also demonstrated that the souring of milk was due to the action of
certain bacteria, which produced lactic acid as a by-product or respiration. He
developed a method to prevent this same process occurring in wine by heating
the wine to around 60C, killing the bacteria without spoiling the wine. This
process, now known as pasteurisation, is also used to destroy the harmful
tubercule bacillus, and other bacteria that can multiply rapidly in milk. Milk is
heated to 72C for just 15 seconds which kills most bacteria without spoiling the
flavour of the milk.
Pasteur conjectured that microbes may also be responsible for many diseases,
and was in fact one of the first scientists to vaccinate a person against disease: in
1885 he inoculated Joseph Meister for rabies. In addition, he also demonstrated
that the disease anthrax was caused by a rod-shaped bacterium.
Perform an investigation to model Pasteurs experiment to identify the
role of microbes in decay
* See booklet 2 Page 6 *
Distinguish between:
Prions
All pathogens were thought to contain some form of nucleic acid but it is possible
for a protein alone to be an infectious agent. Called prions, they are capable of
replication and of causing infection. Prions are spread by eating contaminated
meat and, because of they resist normal sterilisation methods, they can also be
spread on surgical equipment. Prions are produced by mutations in the gene
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coding for a normal cell protein. They cause a group of a group of degenerative
nervous disease in mammals called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
Examples include:
Mad cow disease: 10-15% of cases are cause by a gene mutation and the
rest by acquiring the disease from accidental consequence. This disease
causes dementia, shaky movements and sudden, jerky or involuntary
movement of the head, face or limbs.
Kuru: creates loss of coordination often followed by dementia. Infection
through cannibalism (stopped in 1958). Known only in the highland of
PNG, where after death, women and children would eat the dead.
Viruses
Viruses are found as parasites in all kinds of organisms including humans and
other animals, plants, fungi, bacteria and protists. Antiviral drugs are difficult to
design because they must kill the virus without killing host cells. Viruses cannot
be attacked when in an inert state. Antiviral drugs work by preventing entry of
virus into the host cell or by interfering with their replication. Immunisation is
still regarded as the most effective way in which to control viral disease. New
strains of viruses develop as pre-existing strains acquire mutations. These
mutations allow the viruses to change their surface proteins and thus evade
immediate immune system detection.
Examples include:
HIV: the human immunodeficiency virus causes AIDS, a complex
assortment of secondary infections that result after HIV has severally
weakened the bodys immune system.
Hepatitis viruses: the viruses responsible for hepatitis A, B and C are not
related and are from different viral families.
Influenza virus: this virus causes influence (the flu) in humans. The ability
of this virus to rapidly mutate results in many strains.
Bacteria
Of the many species of bacteria that exist in the world, relatively few cause
disease. Bacteria infect a host to exploit the good potential of the hosts body
tissues. The fact that his exploitation causes disease is not in the interest of the
bacteria- a healthy host is better than a sick one. The natural reservoir (source of
disease) of a disease caries from species to species- ranging from humans to
contaminated water.
Examples of bacterial diseases:
Streptococcus bacteria: these bacteria can cause scarlet fever, sore
throats and a form of pneumonia. They exist as chains or in pairs. They
cause more illness than any other group of bacteria.
Yersinia Pestis: this bacterium caused the Black Death or the bubonic
plague of medieval Europe. Fleas from urban rats and ground squirrels
transmit the bacteria among animals and to humans. Direct contact with
animals and respiratory droplets form infected people can be involved in
transmission
Salmonella bacteria: this group is not divided up into species, but
comprises of over 2000 varieties. They cause gastrointestinal diseases
such as typhoid.
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Protozoans
Protozoans are single celled, eukaryotic organisms that belong to the Kingdom
Protista. Relatively few of the 20 000 species cause disease. Under certain
adverse conditions, some protozoans produce a cyst, allowing the organism to
survive when temperatures are not suitable, when oxygen, food or moisture is
lacking, or when toxic chemicals are present.
Amoebae: move by extending projections of their cytoplasm. Several
pathogenic amoebae infect humans and mainly feed on red blood cells.
Entamoeba is transmitted through ingestion of cysts that are passed in
the faeces.
Apicomplexa: not mobile and tend to be intracellular parasites. They use
special enzymes to penetrate the hosts tissue..
Microspora: lack mitochondria and are intracellular parasites.
Flagellates: move in a whip-like manner that pulls the cells through their
environment. They must be transferred directly from host to host quickly.
Fungi
All fungi are chemo- heterotrophs, requiring organic compounds for energy and
carbon. Most fungi require oxygen to live, and are found in the soil and water,
where they mainly decompose plant material. Only about 100 species are
pathogenic to humans and other animals. Fungal infections are divided into 4
categories depending on the degree of tissue involved and the mode of entry into
the host.
Types:
Opportunistic infection: generally harmless but can become pathogenic if
the host has been weakened in some way (e.g. thrush)
Subcutaneous infection: occurs by direct implantation of spores into the
skin via a wound. (E.g. sporotrichosis)
Systemic infection: occurs deep inside the body, often beginning in the
lungs and spreading (e.g. histoplasmosis)
Cutaneous infection: occurs when fungi break down the protein keratin in
hair, skin and nails. (E.g. tinea; athletes foot)
Macro-parasites
Some endoparasites are highly specialised to live inside their host. Parasitic
forms differ from their free-living relatives since they have no digestive system,
their nervous system is reduced, they have little means of motion, and their
reproduction system is complex. Some insects can also act as vectors.
Platyhelminthes (flatworms): these flatworms are flattened from front to
back. They have an incomplete digestive system and one opening through
which they feed and expel wastes
Nematofes (roundworms): have a complete digestive system.
Ticks and mites: blood-sucking arthropods that can burrow into skin.
They may be vectors
Insects: biting insects that feed on blood, which is rich in protein.
Gather and process information to trace the historical development of our
understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria
Page 40 of 77

Ancient
China &
Mesopotamia
5th century
BC
Ancient
Romans
Medieval
Italians
Late 15th
Century
17th Century
1820
1880
1885
1894
1897
1898
1939
1956
1970
1971
1970- mid
1980s
2000present
Earliest known records of malaria, with reference to armies and populations

decimated with recurrent fevers contracted in swampy areas.
The Greek physician Hippocrates described the three describes the three different
types of fever caused by the disease.
Attempted to control malaria by draining swamps around ancient Rome, one of the
first successful public health measures every recorded.
Believed that the occurrence of the disease in the humid, swampy regions of the
country was due to the air there. The name malaria is derived from the Italian
words mal are aria meaning bad air
Malaria introduced into the Americas by European explorers
The bark of the South American cinchona tree was introduced to Europe by Spanish
explorers. It was found to contain a substance, quinine very effective in reducing
malaria fevers.
Quinine isolated from bark and used to treat malaria until WWII
The French physician, Charles Laveran, while stationed in Algeria, discovered a
protozoan parasite in the red blood cells of malaria patients. (Better microscopes
and investigation into blood)
Marchiafava and Celli show that malaria can be transmitted from person to person
in infected blood.
Sir Patrick Manson, a Scot, announces the role of the mosquito.
The British Army physician, Ronald Ross, demonstrates the role of the mosquito.
While stationed in India, he found cysts in the stomach walls of mosquitoes that had
bitten malaria-infected sparrows. Although he was working with birds, Ross
showed that the malaria parasite could be transmitted through the blood stream
through the bite of the female mosquito in genus Anopheles
Italians investigators Grassi, Bignami and Bastianelli first infected humans with
malaria by mosquitoes, described the full development of the parasite in humans,
and noted that malaria is only transmitted by anopheles mosquitoes.
Malaria control advanced greatly by the introduction of DDT by the Swiss chemist,
Paul Miller, which proved to be extremely effective in killing mosquitoes.
Major anti-malaria campaign launched by the United Nations World Health
Organisation. Scientists believe that complete eradication of the disease may not be
possible.
The use of drugs as prophylactics (taken as a preventative measure before
exposure) to prevent the disease was also employed
The active ingredient of the Quinghoa plant, artemisin was isolated by Chinese
scientists.
Anti- malarial drugs used, but parasite becomes resistant. DDT was discontinued,
mosquitoes developed a resistance towards it.
Artemisinine is the only continually successful treatment. Netting treated with long
lasting insecticides is now used.
Identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from

secondary sources to describe one named infectious disease in terms of
its:
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency virus) virus:
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Cause
HIV significantly weakens the immune system so that it is unable to defend itself
against infections. AIDS is the term used when HIV overpowers the body and the
immune system cannot cope. The immune system is incapable of fighting off
infection and often leads to deteriorating health due to numerous opportunistic
diseases overpowering the body. Drugs can be used to prolong life, but HIV often
causes shorter life expectancy and a deterioration of health. HIV can mutate very
quickly which often causes drugs to become useless against the virus.
Transmission
Infected blood, semen or vaginal fluid must enter an uninfected individual from
an infected individual. HIV cannot be transmitted through water, air or insect
bites. Transmission occurs mainly through:
Sexual relations: through ay form of sexual interaction, HIV can be
transmitted through vaginal secretions, and semen. The virus must be
directly exposed to another, and have access to the internal features of
the uninfected for that person to become infected e.g. sores, abrasions.
Blood transfusions from a person who is infected with HIV, although
there is close monitoring of HIV transmission in hospitals, and a person
with HIV is not legally able to donate blood
Through sharing needles. This is mostly present through sharing of
needles to inject drugs, but can occur by accidently coming into contact
with a used needle. Therefore needles must be disposed carefully.
Through pregnancy, delivery or breast-feeding. Mothers can significantly
reduce their chances of giving their baby HIV through treatment.
Host response
HIV destroys the T helper lymphocytes and as the virus increases in number, it is
able to overpower the T cells. This takes years, within the first months to years,
there will be a minimal decrease in T cells, and an almost normal rate will be
maintained. Then after a number of years, almost all will be destroyed.
The body produces HIV antibodies at first as well as killer T cells. After 2-4
weeks, the body attacks the HIV virus in the body. HIV numbers will reduce.
The next phase lasts up to 10 years, where there is a little amount of HIV in the
body. The body then becomes over powered at AIDS occurs. The body is
incapable of defending itself and major symptoms become recognisable.
Major symptoms
At the time of acquiring the virus:
Flu- like symptoms: fatigue, nausea, sweating, cough, headache, etc.
Fever
Rash
Severe sore throat
After acquiring the virus:
Always being sick
Fatigue
Numerous infections
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Rapid weight loss

Diarrhoea
Memory loss
Reoccurring fever
Treatment
There is no cure for HIV, but there is a treatment to reduce the level of HIV in the
body and allow almost- normal functioning of the body. ART (antiretroviral
treatment) or combination therapy prevents the development of late stage HIV
infection, which can cause significant health impacts. People who use these drugs
often life longer and have much more ability than if they did not. There is also
treatment for the diseases that may be acquired due to the weakened immune
system. Although often a person infected with HIV has great chance of acquiring
numerous diseases at one time, often much medication is used to treat the most
severe illness at the time.
Prevention
Ask partners before sexual interaction if they are HIV positive
Be aware of those you are having sex with
Do not share needles
Cover sores or abrasions
Do not have tattoos or piercings with a needle that is not sterilised and go
to a profession to get them done.
Use condoms
Control
By being aware of the infection and the risks associated, those who are sexually
active can take measure to prevent them from being infected. Those who are HIV
positive are recorded in the Australian health database for the disease and their
progress can be monitored. Laws prevent those who are HIV positive from
donating blood and therefore the chances of acquiring the disease through blood
transfusion has decreased. Law into the sterilisation of surgical, piercing and
tattoo equipment can help to reduce the spread as well as needle disposal units
in public bathrooms.
Identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease
Antibiotics are substances capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of
bacteria that cause disease. They are chemicals or drugs that act selectively- they
kill the pathogen but not the host. Antibiotics work internally at the cellular level.
They interfere with, damage or destroy the cells of the microorganism.
Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic,
penicillin, which is derived from the penicillium mould. For their discovery they
received the Nobel prize for physiology and medicine in 1945. Penicillin became
available in 1941 to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
Some antibiotics act on the structure of the microorganism. For example,
penicillin destroys cell walls. Others attack the cell wall, some disrupt the cell
membrane and others inhibit the resynthesis of DNA, RNA or proteins. All
Page 43 of 77

antibiotics share the property of selective toxicity: they are more toxic to
invading bacteria than they are to an animal or human.
Penicillins: bactericidal (kill bacteria) prevent cell wall formation.
Tetracyclines: bacteriostatic (stops growth of bacteria) inhibiting protein
synthesis
Sulphonamides: synthetic bacteriostatic.
Process information from secondary sources to discuss problems related
to antibiotic resistance
When someone does not take an entire dosage of antibiotics until completion,
the bacteria involved can mutate and create a new strand that is immune to
antibiotics. Therefore these new infections cannot be stopped with antibiotics,
and therefore many of the antibiotics that previously worked on bacterial
infection no longer do. It is become an increasing problem, with many diseases
mutating into new strands, and most of the original antibiotics no longer are
successful in killing or preventing growth of existing bacterial infections.
Research continues to create new strands of antibiotics, and eradicating new
disease strands in order to continue resistance and improve health.
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4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The

immune response is not so obvious, until we recover
Invasion by Pathogen
Natural resistance
(non- specific
mechanism)
First line of defence

(barriers)
Skin
Mucous
Cilia (hairs)
Chemicals (acids)
(Lisosomes in tears
break down
pathogens
Acquired resistance
(specific
mechanisms)
Second line of
defence
Phagocytes
(engulfs invading
particles- white
blood cells)
Inflammation/
fever, (swelling)
more blood to area
Cell mediated
immunity
Antibody mediated
immunity
Identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans:

Skin
The skin forms a tough outer barrier covering the body. The outer layers of skin
contain keratin, and microorganisms cannot penetrate it unless it is broken. The
skin has its own population of normally harmless bacteria living as commensals.
Their presence helps keep invading pathogens from multiplying. Sebaceous
glands in the skin secrete sebum
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary
tracts. The mucous membrane allows the exchange of substances when needed
and also protect against invasion. The protection is aided by the presence of an
antibody called IgA in mucous, which reacts with potential pathogens,
preventing them from invading the surface. Fluids such as saliva, tears, nasal
secretions wash over the mucous membrane. These fluids contain lysosome,
which breaks down the cell walls of some types of bacteria.
Cilia
Cilia are minute hairs that project from the cells lining the respiratory surfaces of
the nose, trachea and bronchial tubes. The cilia beat and sweep the mucous
along, so that any particles breathed in and trapped in the mucous are
transported to the nose opening or to the pharynx where they are coughed out of
swallowed.
Chemical barriers
Chemical barriers are provided with conditions that make the surface
inhospitable for the potential pathogens. For example in the alimentary canal,
pathogens entering the body with food and drink are usually destroyed by the
Page 45 of 77

acid environment in the stomach or the alkaline environment in the small
intestine.
Other body secretions
Other body secretions also protect the body from invasion. For example:
There are populations of harmless microorganisms in the vagina. They act
on cells shed from the walls of the vagina to create acidic conditions,
which inhibit the growth of some bacteria and fungi.
Urine is a sterile, acid fluid. It flushes the ureters, bladder and urethra and
helps prevent the growth of microorganisms.
Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show
how a named disease results from an imbalance of microflora in humans
Thrush:
Cause: Candida Albicans (fungus). At periods when the defense system is
down that is can cause a problem.
Transmission: not usually an issue: can be passed from baby to mother
Host response: second line of defense- inflammation and swelling occur,
and the body produces a number of white blood cells called macrophages
Symptoms:
o Oral: sore mouth and throat, redness and white discharge
o Vaginal: itch, pain, redness and thick, white discharge.
Treatment: antifungal medication- creams, tablets, lozenges or gels
Prevention and control: avoid unnecessary antibiotics, rinse out mouth
after using inhalers, if common check for diabetes, cotton underwear
Identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response
An antigen is any substance that is usually foreign to an organisms own body
that triggers an immune response (they are usually protein molecules, either on
the surface of the pathogen, or produced by the pathogen). Each pathogen has a
specific antigen.
Explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response
The immune system is not always helpful. Patients who receive organ or tissue
transplants from other people or animals must take drugs to reduce their
immune response. This is because the transplant tissue is identified by the body
to be a foreign antigen and this tissue or immune response. The human immune
system achieves self-recognition through the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). This is a cluster of tightly linked genes on chromosome 6 in humans.
These genes code for protein molecules that are attached to the surface of body
cells. They are used by the immune system to recognize its own or foreign
material, and therefore the activation or suppression of the immune response.
Identify defence adaptations,
Including:
Dilation of blood vessels
Redness
Heat
Allows antimicrobial factors in blood to
reach affected area
Page 46 of 77

Invasion of
tissues by a
pathogen
Chemicals are released

which attract phagocytic
cells
Increased permeability
of walls of blood vessels
allow fluid to leave
circulation
I
and enter
n
tissue
f
Phagocytosis (engulf foreign particles)

Releases chemicals, which affect the control
of temperature by the hypothalamus- fever
Antibodies
Oedema (swelling)
Pain (caused by oedema and substance
released from injured tissue)
lammation response
Inflammation is usually characterised by pain, swelling, redness and heat. The
inflammation response has the following functions:
Destroy the cause of infection and remove it from the body
Limit effects on the body by confining the infection
Replacing or repairing tissue damaged through infection.
Phagocytosis
Human cells that ingest microbes and destroy them by the process of
phagocytosis are called phagocytes. All are types of white blood cells. During
many kinds of infections, especially bacterial infections, the total number of
white blood cells increases by two- four times the normal number. The ratio of
various white blood cell types changes during the course of an infection.
The 6 steps involved include:
Detection: chemotaxis is released by infecting microbes.
Ingestion
Phagosome forms: closes the microbes in a membrane
Fusion with lysosomes: digestion of microbe occurs by lysosomes
Digestion: broken down into chemical constituents
Discharge: indigestible material is discharged.
Lymph system
Lymph glands are swellings along to lymph vessels. As lymph flows
through them, harmful substances are engulfed by phagocytes (filtered
out). Lymph glands also make lymphocytes- white blood cells.
Thoracic lymph duct: duct through which lymph drains into blood
circulatory system.
Lymph fluid contains: white blood cells, protein and hormones.
Lymphocytes are a name for white blood cells
Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell
Cell death to seal off pathogen (Apoptosis)
For some pathogens, macrophages and lymphocytes completely surround
a pathogen so it is enclosed in a cyst. The white blood cells involved die so
that the pathogen is isolated from its food supply and dies. This also
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prevents the diseased caused or pathogens from spreading and
reproducing.
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5. MacFarlane Burnets work in the middle of the twentieth century

contributed to a better understanding of the immune response and
the effectiveness of immunization programs
Macfarlane Burnet was one of the founders of the science of immunology. He
spent most of his work studying viruses such as poliomyelitis, Q fever, cholera
vibrio, myxomatosis, herpes, Murray Valley encephalitis and smallpox-like
viruses.
In 1935, he isolated a strain of influenza A virus and in 1946 developed an
experiment where he injected the influenza into chicken eggs, enabling it to be
developed into a vaccine. He also investigated the reasons for which the immune
system fights off foreign invaders such as viruses while not reacting against its
own cells. He concluded that the ability to recognise self- substances cannot be
inherited, but is gradually acquired in the course of foetal development.
Therefore he was able to determine why the body rejected transplant tissue, and
contributed towards modern transplant developments.
Identify the components of the immune response:
Antibodies
Antigens are any substance that is usually foreign to an organisms own body
that triggers an immune response (they are normally protein molecules either
on the surface of pathogen or produced by the pathogen). Each pathogen has a
specific antigen. Some examples of antigens: potentially damaging microbes and
their toxins, pollen grains, dust and foreign transplant tissue.
Antibodies: (also known as immunoglobulins) are proteins made in response to
antigens. They are secreted into the plasma where they circulate and can
recognise, bind to and help to destroy antigens. Each antibody is specific to only
one particular antigen.
The ability of the immune system to recognise and ignore the antigenic
properties of its own tissues is called self-tolerance. When the immune system
malfunctions and the body attacks its own tissues, an autoimmune disorder is
said to occur.
An antibody can react with an antigen by:
Combining with the antigen to cover its active site so it has no effect on
the body
Dissolve parts of the cells walls of bacteria to destroy them
Neutralise the toxins released
Cause bacteria to clump together, making them less active
Make it more susceptible to phagocytosis.
T cells
Cell mediated immunity, which is associated with the production of specialised
lymphocytes called T cells, which can destroy pathogens or stimulate
macrophages to ingest and destroy invading pathogens. This form of immunity is
most effective against bacteria, fungi, cancer, transplanted tissue, protozoa and
viruses in a host cell.
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T cells complete their development in the thymus, which is the gland
situated under the sternum (shrivels up in adulthood).
They are programmed for a specific antigen.
Type of T cell
Role
Killer (cytotoxic)
Destroy non-self cells by inserting
toxin
Helper
Stimulates production of plasma cells
and activates B cells to produce
antibodies: stimulate macrophages
Suppressor
Turn off immune response
Memory
Provide immunity
B cells
Antibody mediated immunity involves the action of antibodies secreted by the
B cell lymphocytes. This response protects the body from viruses and their
toxins as well as bacteria and their toxins.
B cells mature in the bone marrow
Form plasma and memory cells
Plasma cells secrete antibodies that are compatible to specific antigens
Describe and explain the immune respons e in the human body in terms of
their interaction between B and T lymphocytes and the mechanisms that
allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes
Antigen presenting B cells or macrophages move to the lymph nodes
These antigen-presenting cells are inspected by helper T cells that have
the antigen receptor that corresponds to the antigen being presented
Helper T cells release cytokines to stimulate the cloning of millions of
the B cells that are specific to the antigen being presented
Millions of memory B cells that are specific for that antigen are also
cloned
The activated B cells produce plasma cells that remain in the lymph
nodes
Plasma cells secrete antigen- specific antibodies that then move via the
blood and lymph to the infected areas
The antibodies then combine with the antigens to form the antigenantibody complex, which inactivates the pathogen or its toxin
The pathogen is then destroyed in a variety of ways depending on its type
The inflammatory response is activated, attracting phagocytes and
leading to the clearing of debris
Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection
Immunisation provides a person with an acquired
immunity against a particular disease
Vaccine
A vaccine is used to encourage the body to make its own antibodies.
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Outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ
transplant patients
The body rejects organ transplants due to it does not recognise the tissue as self,
and therefore aims to destroy infecting antibodies (the ability of the body to
ignore antigenic properties of it own tissue is called self-tolerance). The organs
being transplanted are often life- saving and the rejection of an organ can cause
serious health impacts. Therefore the immune response, especially the T-cells
must be supressed in order to avoid interference and allow the transplant to be
accepted into the body.
To prevent tissue rejection, even though tissue proteins have been matched with
the donor, the patient is given immunosuppressant drugs e.g. antilymphocyte
globulin. Most rejection occurs due to T- cells. Once the immune system is
supressed the patient is more susceptible to other infections. The implantation of
artificial devices does not stimulate the production of antibodies.
Process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to
evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the
spread and occurrence of once common diseases, including smallpox,
diphtheria and polio
Many diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria and polio, were once very
common and caused widespread suffering and many deaths. Vaccination
programs have been once of the most successful programs used in preventing
the spread and occurrence of these diseases.
Since the introduction of vaccinations programs such as the Expanded Programs
on Immunization launched by the WHO in 1974, the percentage of the worlds
infants immunised against six target diseases has increased from 5% in 1974 to
80% in 1997. This has prevented approximately 3 million deaths per year. Mass
immunisation programs not only are effective in reducing the occurrence of
disease in the individual, but also have decreased the spread of disease through
the population.
Vaccination programs have been very effective in preventing the spread and
occurrence of the disease smallpox. Smallpox has killed more people than any
other infectious disease and was responsible for 10% of all deaths in Europe in
the 19th century and more than 300 million deaths in the 20th century. Each year
until 1968, there were 10-15 million cases of smallpox, resulting in 2 million
deaths. A vaccine for smallpox was developed by Edward Jenner in 1796, but
was not widely used. In 1967 there were still 33 countries in the world where
smallpox was a major health problem. The WHO carried out a worldwide
immunisation program that involved routine mass immunisation with
supplementary doses given on special immunisation days. People who missed
out on the routine immunisations were then targeted and special surveillance
Modified Microbes:
Killed microbes: this
Modified toxins:
microbes that have been contains dead microbes, contains toxins that have
altered and made
which cannot cause
been altered to be
harmless. They are still
disease but still carry
harmless. E.g. tetnus
recognised as an antigen
antigens. E.g. typhoid
and the body produces
antibodies. E.g. smallpox
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teams were sent out to all possible cases of smallpox infection. In 1979, WHO
declared that it had eliminated the virus from the world population and
eradicated the disease smallpox.
Diphtheria is a deadly disease, often killing its sufferers within a week. Mortality
rates were very high with two thirds of the deaths being children under 5 years
of age. In 1921, there were 206 000 cases with 15 500 deaths in the USA.
Immunisation programs introduced in Australia, Europe and other developed
countries in the 1930s and 40s resulted in a rapid decrease in the incidence of
diphtheria. However, in 1980 there were still nearly 100 000 cases worldwide.
When WHO introduced the EPI programs in 1974, only 5% of children in the
world were immunised against diphtheria. By 1990, the number of children
immunised increased to 80% and resulted in a greatly decreased mortality rate
worldwide. By 2005, the incidence of diphtheria has dropped to just over 8000
cases. This vaccine program was very effective as the global incidence dropped
92% from 1980 to 2005.
Polio is an extremely serious disease, with death occurring in 50% of cases and
nerve damage and paralysis in 50% of sufferers. After a safe vaccine was
developed by Albert Sabin, and following widespread immunisation, there was a
60-70% reduction in the incidence of the disease. Polio had become very rare in
industrialised nations, and the incidence further decreased after the EPI was
introduced in 1974. A global Polio Eradication Initiative was launched in 1988 by
the World Health Assembly. When this program began, there were 350 000 cases
in 125 countries of the world with more than 1000 children being paralysed
each day. In 1997, almost 450 million children under 5 years of age were
immunised during National Immunisation days. By 2000, there were only 719
cases of polio, a 99% reduction in cases. At the end of 2006, only four countries
that have experience uninterrupted transmission of polio remained and fewer
than 700 cases were reported. The WHO aims to completely eradicated polio by
the year 2010.
The types of vaccination programs and the planned implementation of these
vaccination programs have been extremely effective in reducing the spread and
occurrence of the once- common diseases; smallpox, diphtheria and polio.
Smallpox has been completely eradicated and the occurrence and spread of
diphtheria and polio have been drastically reduced due to the successful
implementation of planned vaccination programs.
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6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical

analysis of large quantities of data. Such studies assist the causal
identification of non-infectious diseases
Epidemiology is the association of scientific methods to the study of disease
(epidemics) in populations for the purpose of prevention and control of disease.
It is based on careful collection and analysis of statistical information and is
based the prevalence (existing cases) and incidence (new cases) of disease and
infirmary.
An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that affects a large number of people in
a particular place at the same time. The study of epidemics led to the
development of a broader discipline, called epidemiology, which plays a vital role
in public health and preventative medicine. (Endemic: localised, pandemic: large
scale).
Epidemiological studies need to investigate cause and effect of a disease. To be
valid they must:
Focus on large groups of people and relate to a target population that can
be identified.
Use populations where there is occurrence of the disease and where there
are unequal exposures to the suspected or possible causes (carcinogens
for lung cancer)
Allow for analysis of factors that might contribute to the occurrence of the
disease: gender, age, occupation, etc.
Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer
as an example/ Gather, process and analyse information to identify the
cause and effect relationship of smoking and lung cancer
Lung cancer:
Epidemiologists have had great success in determining that people who develop
lung cancer are much more likely to have smoked or to be a smoker than those
who do not. 83% of lung cancers are associated with and probably caused by
smoking. Epidemiological studies have also shown a correlation between the
number of cigarettes smoked per day and the earlier age at which smoking was
started and the risk of lung cancer. Passive smoking has also been linked to 3000
people per year getting lung cancer. High levels of pollution, radiation and
asbestos exposure have also been linked to incidences of lung cancer.
In 1878, malignant lung tumours represented only 1% of all cancers seen in
autopsy within the Institute of Pathology of the University of Dresden in
Germany. By 1918, this had risen to 10% and by 1827 to more than 14%. In the
1930 edition of the authoritative Springer Handbook of Special Pathology it was
noted that malignant lung tumours had begun to increase at the turn of the
century, more so after WWI and that possibly they were on the increase. It was
suggested that there was a link to industrialism and the decrease in air quality,
increase in infrastructure and automobile reliance, but in countries where these
factors were not increasing, the rates of lung cancer were too increasing.
Smoking was mentioned, but there was no enough evidence to link smoking to
the rise in lung cancer cases. In the new edition of the handbook in 1969, there
was in depth links made between lung cancer and smoking, as well as air
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pollution and the link between carcinogenic chemicals and lung cancer was
made apparent.
Lung cancer is now deemed to be the most common form of cancer, and to have
the highest mortality rate of all cancers. It is also known that most lung cancers
originate in the lining of the bronchi and are caused by the exposure to
carcinogenic chemicals, especially those in cigarettes, air pollution and asbestos.
Identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of
the following categories:
Non- infectious diseases do not involve pathogens and there if no transfer of
disease from one organism to another. There are four main types: physiological
malfunction, hereditary, nutritional/ dietary and environmental.
Inherited diseases
These diseases are caused by gene defects and are passed on from the previous
generation. Examples include: haemophilia, Cystic Fibrosis and Downs
syndrome.
Nutritional deficiencies
These diseases result from deficiencies or excesses in the diet and include:
scurvy, obesity, anorexia and bulimia.
Environmental diseases
The diseases are caused by hazards in the environment or the intake of
dangerous chemicals. Examples include sun cancer, drug and alcohol abuse,
Asbestosis and lead poisoning.
Physiological malfunction:
Cancer and heart disease
Identify data sources, plan and perform a first-hand investigation or
gather information from secondary sources to analyse and present
information about a named non-infectious disease:
Cystic Fibrosis
Occurrence
CF affects the exocrine glands, which secrete bodily fluids such as sweat, mucous
and enzymes. CF involves a change in the nature of mucous and serous (bodily
fluid) secretions throughout the body. The mucous- secreting glands produce
abnormally concentrated secretions that affects a number of organs, but in
particular most seriously the lungs and the pancreas. The amount of salt and
potassium in the sweat is also abnormally high.
The pancreas produces and releases enzymes needed for the breakdown of food
so that the bodys cells can absorb the nutrients and vitamins it need for normal
growth. The process of digestion is affected in cases of CF by the dense and sticky
secretions that block the flow of digestive enzymes through the ducts, resulting
in an intestinal malabsorption.
Symptoms
The thick mucous makes it difficult for the cilia to move the mucous
towards the throat and results in a slow resolution of infections
Tissue damage in the airways can occur
The size and number of mucous glands are increased
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Chronic cough
Progressive breathlessness
Respiratory infections
Production of phlegm
Bulky, foul smelling stools
Cause
In 1989, it was shown that the gene responsible for Cystic Fibrosis is a faulty
version of the gene that codes for a trans-membrane chloride channel called the
Cystic Fibrosis Trans-membrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR). It is a recessive
characteristic and only when two genes from both parents coding for Cystic
Fibrosis occur that the child obtains the genetic disease. Problems arise due to
the malfunction in the CFTR protein, which plays a role in the transporting of Clacross the cell membranes.
Treatment and management
A variety of medication are used including those for:
o Preventing mucous build up in the liver (Ursodeoxycholic acid)
o Indigestion and heartburn and to prevent stomach ulcers
(Ranitidine)
o Preventing bacterial infections and destroying existing infections
(antibiotics) Prevent lung inflammation (inhaler: ventolin)
o Thin mucous (nebulizer)
o Bring mucous up out of the lungs (physiotherapy vest) it oscillates
and blows up so the air can push the mucous so it can be coughed
up.
o Dietary supplements to put on weight
o Dietary enzymes
There is no cure, and often organ transplants are required to replace damaged
organs. Since those with cystic fibrosis are often very sick, they often are not
eligible for the transplants and often die due to organ complications.
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7. Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide range

of strategies to prevent and control disease
Discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and
plants and animals into Australia or across regions of Australia
Australias natural isolation has not only protected many native species in the
past from predation and competition, it has also served to prevent the
introduction of some plants and animal diseases. As an island continent, the flora
and fauna of Australia evolved in isolation and so that the introduction of other
species can have a drastic impact on native organisms. This protection would not
have continued without quarantine services at Australias entry points.
Quarantine is a word derived from the Latin quaranti giorni, which means 40
days since ships would have to stay ported for 40 days before those on-board
could access dry land.
Successful Quarantine regulation initiatives undertaken by the AQIS (Australian
Quarantine and Inspection Services) run by the federal government include:
Preventing food and mouth disease form killing livestock
Some areas are free of bunchy top virus in bananas
Preventing fruit and plant stock from being transported to other regions
Certification for commodities for export
Supervision of first-port ship aircraft and container arrivals
Public awareness campaigns
Fines and penalties for breaches in laws
Management of ballast water from visiting international ships.
The first quarantine stations were set up at marine entry points and now apply
to importations and customs at airports and shipping terminals. North head in
Sydney served as a quarantine station from 1828-1984 and helped prevent the
entry of plague, typhoid fever, yellow fever, smallpox, cholera and leprosy. The
station was used to isolate victims of disease and therefore prevent the spread of
disease.
Plant diseases include:
Citrus greening disease:
Animal disease include:
Foot and mouth disease:
Explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or
prevented disease:
Public health programs
Pesticides
Genetic engineering to produce disease-resistant plants and
animals
Perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather

first-hand information of evidence of pathogens and insect pests
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Plants have several defence mechanisms to prevent infection by pathogens. For
example, waxy cuticles on leaves and stems or thick bark provide a physical
barrier against penetration while thorns and hairs discourage ectoparasites. The
cellulose cell wall is the next line of defence preventing pathogens from entering
plant cells. Open stomates provide easy access and many plants protect this
opening with hairs or locating stomates in crypts. If a pathogen manages to
enter, plants produce resins or produce a physical barrier around the site of
infection. Leaves and even branches may be shed. Some plants secrete
phytoalexins, an antibiotic- like substance, or enzymes that affect a range of
pathogens.
Plant pathogens often cause an increase in respiration near the infected area. For
example, infection by the rust-causing fungus Puccinia gramminis increases the
respiration rate nearly three-fold compared to unaffected leaves. Many plants
produce an abscission layer or zone at the base of the organ prior to abscission
of leaves or fruit. This layer separates from the vascular system and cells division
occur in the stump where substances are deposited in the walls and intercellular
spaces to prevent the entry of pathogens and excessive loss of water.
Plant pathogens include:
Fungi: decomposers that get their food from living or dead organic matter
Bacteria: single celled prokaryotes
Virus: protein coat surrounding genetic information
Insect pests: obtain their food from the plant and causes harm to the
plant.
Queensland Kauri Pine: Agathis robustis:
Mealy bug: pseudococcus longispinus
The mealy bug inserts its mouthpiece into the plant tissue and removes the
plants fluid and nutrients and excrete toxic salivary compounds, poisoning the
plant and depriving it of nutrients.
Sydney wattle: acacia longifolia:
Gall wasp: trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae
Adult females insert their eggs into the plant, and when they hatch, chemicals are
secreted by the grubs to cause bud galling where the grubs then geed and eat in
these hollow chambers.
Native Daphne: Pittosporum undultum:
Native fly: Pittosporum chermid or Trioza vitrerodiata
Nymphs penetrate lead with mouthparts to feed. Plants react by creating a
blister or scar (pitting). During heavy attacks sooty mould grows on the
honeydew deposits.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the
effectiveness of quarantine in preventing the spread of plant and animal
disease into Australia or across regions of Australia
Australia is fortunate to be free from a range of diseases caused by pathogens
that are widespread in other countries. An example of this is foot and mouth
disease (FMD) caused by a virus that is easily transportable through imports of
meat and diary products. The virus affects cattle and if it entered Australia would
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result in huge losses for our agricultural industry. It is the responsibility of the
AQIS to ensure strict controls and regulations are enforced to prevent such
diseases entering the country.
Foot and mouth disease:
Recent outbreaks of food and mouth disease in Japan and Korea have led to
increase quarantine measures in Australia to prevent the infections transferring
to Australian livestock. The AQIS is playing increased attention to:
Inspecting mail from Korea and Japan
Processing airline passenger arriving from Japan and Korea
Helping visitors form those countries understand what they can and cant
bring into Australia.
Because Australia is free from FMD its beef, lamb, pork and dairy fetch a
premium price in overseas markets. It is therefore a very successful campaign in
Australia.
Smuggled Meat:
On the 8th of March 2000, a 20-year-old overseas student was convicted and
fined $1000 for attempting to smuggle 6kg of pork and poultry meat into
Australia which could have introduced deadly livestock diseases. Australias
international reputation could have bee severely damaged by this serious breach
of Australias quarantine requirements- Dr Koh; quarantine officer.
Gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the
changing methods of dealing with plant and animal diseases, including
the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to management or
prevention of disease
There are many different approaches when dealing with disease. Initially when a
disease occurred, attempts were made to treat the symptoms of the disease and
try and cure it. Early attempts were also made to try and control the spread of
the disease. As knowledge about the cause of disease increased, as medical
techniques improved and our knowledge of the way the immune system defend
the body increased, our methods of dealing with disease have evolved from
treatment and control to management or prevention.
It is only in recent times that the cause of disease has been determined. This then
led to the development of successful methods of treatment/ control and
prevention. Prior to this, individuals who suffered from disease were treated to
relieve the symptoms, but if their body did not fight the disease successfully they
would die. Many of these deaths were young children. As our knowledge of the
causes of disease improved, our methods of treatment and control also
improved. Early methods of prevention such as quarantine and some vaccines
were also used.
Methods used to treat and control diseases include the use of drugs such as
antibiotics, surgical procedures and the use of pesticides to help control plant
diseases. When the use of antibiotics became more widespread from the middle
of the 20th century, the major emphasis in relation to disease was to try to treat
the diseases as they occurred. The use of antibiotics and the development of
other drugs for treatment along with improving medical procedures allowed
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many diseases that would normally result in death to be cured. The use of
pesticides to control plant disease was widespread and quite successful in
reducing the spread of disease from one area to another. Many have developed
due to the use of drugs and pesticides to control plant and animal disease.
Even though drugs such as antibiotics and the use of surgical procedures are able
to cure disease, the patients still suffer symptoms of the disease, possible side
effects of the drugs and the after effects of surgery. If the disease is chronic and
there is no successful treatment, the patient will have a poorer quality of life and
a reduced life expectancy. They will probably suffer financial burdens as well,
due to high health-care costs and an inability to work.
With the widespread use of antibiotics to treat disease there has also been a
problem with bacteria developing resistant strains. More resources then have to
be directed towards the development of new types of antibiotics. There are now
some strains of bacteria that are resistant to all known antibiotics. The use of
pesticides as a control measure, while successful for a time, has also led to
problems with resistant strains of the pests developing. The pesticide is then
ineffective and different types of pesticides have to be developed.
As these problems become more apparent and our understanding of the immune
system and genetics developed, the emphasis in relation of disease shifted away
from treatment/ control to methods of prevention and management. Prevention
methods include:
Vaccination
Quarantine
Public health programs
Genetic engineering
If diseases were prevented in the first place, the use of drugs such as antibiotics
would be reduced, leading to a decrease in the number of resistant strains of
bacteria. Individuals would not have to suffer symptoms of disease or any of the
effects associated with the treatment of disease. Vaccination has proved to be
very effective and leading to a better quality of life.
There are an increasing number of examples where the approach to dealing with
disease has changed from treatment to and control to management or
prevention. There are many advantages to the prevention of disease, including a
reduction in incidence of the disease in the population, lower costs associated
with treatment of the disease, less suffering and a better quality of life for
individuals, decreased rate of development of resistant strains of bacteria and
pests, and less damage to the environment due to pesticide use. There are
concerns however is using resistant genetically engineered species as their effect
on the environment and biodiversity is unknown.
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Option: Biotechnology:
1. The origins of biotechnology date back at least 10 000 years
Biotechnology: The use of naturally occurring processes, chemicals or products
in order to gain a benefit in the manufacturing of a particular product,
production of new products, improve ease in which items are acquired, or to
improve management of an environment. A desired trait is isolated in order to
become useful. Biotechnology is used to improve the quality of life, overall
wellbeing and the environment in which we live.
Describe the origins of biotechnology in early societies who collected
seeds of wild plants and domesticated some species of wild animals
Evidence has been found from as early as 10 000- 5 000 BCE where people have
used Biotechnology to benefit their personal situations and access to food.
Rather than leaving the security of shelter for long distances to hunt or search
for food, communities began to grow food closer to home by planting the desired
flora in an easily accessible place. The first example of this was potatoes, which
due to its success, led to the experimentation with grain and other easily grown
crops. The success of this experimentation led to large scale attempts to grow
crops and colonisation of fertile land with prosperous growth. The control of
plant biotechnology provoked an interest into the detainment of wild animals in
order to reduce risk associated with hunting. The basic requirements of the
animals were beginning to be understood as well as their reproductive
processes. This allowed contained breeding to occur.
Timeline: the early uses of Biotechnology
Use available evidence to describe changes in a species of grain or animal

as a result of domestication and agricultural processes
Explain why the collecting of seeds and breeding of animals with desired
characteristics could be described as early biotechnology
Although they didnt know about genetics, early cultures knew that they would
get desirable characteristics if they collected the seeds of the best plants and use
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these for the next crop or only allowed those animals with desirable
characteristics such as the strongest, most meat, best wool, etc. to breed. They
were in effect controlling the genetic makeup of the next generation of plants or
animals to suit their own needs. Biotechnology is the use and application of
processes and products to benefits or improve human life, therefore select
breeding is a form of biotechnology.
Process information to outline an ancient Australian Aboriginal use of

biotechnology
One plant that was of particular use to the ancient Aboriginals was Acacia
Mearnsii (Black Wattle), which was known commonly as Bidhudhu. This tree
was of particular interest to the Aboriginals due the property of the crushed
flowers to stun fish in small pools by decreasing the amount of oxygen in the
water. This allowed the aboriginals to collect the stunned fish with great ease,
rather than going to the difficulty of catching fast moving fish with nets. The use
of the Black Wattle trees did not stop there. The young, outer bark could be used
for rope due to its flexibility and the older, inner bark could be used for fishing
line due to its strength and ability to be reduced to thin pieces. The roots could
be fashioned into boomerangs that were used for hunting and leisure due to the
particular angle, which they grew from the earth. The characteristics that the
Acacia Mearnsii naturally possessed made them useful to the ancient Aboriginals
and therefore these characteristics were isolated for their purposes, an example
of biotechnology.
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2. Biotechnology has come to be recognised as the use of living

organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals
or to utilise micro-organisms for specific uses
Bread: sugars in the dough are fermented by yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
producing alcohol and CO2. The gas causes the dough to rise, while to alcohol is
converted to flavour compounds during baking.
Antibiotics and Pharmaceuticals: These produced as by- products of microbial
metabolism using fermentation technology. E.g. antibiotics from Penicillium
mould.
Outline the key events that led to the use of biotechnology practices,
including:
Fermentation
process
Bread
Alcohol Beer
History
Leavened bread first made
in the ancient Near East
and Egypt in brick ovens.
Ancient Egypt, wild yeasts
from sourdough were used
to start beer fermentation.
Wine
Known from the Caucasus,

6000-4000 BCE.
Solvent Relatively
recent
& fuel
development
Yoghurt &
Cheese
Milk
was
developed
accidently
(serendipity)
from carrying in calve
stomachs. Then processed
into yoghurt and cheese
Main ingredients and

micro-organisms used
Flour, water and yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
Sourdoughs use wild yeasts
and lactic acid bacteria
(Lactobacillus acidophilus)
High starch grains such as
barley converted to malt,
hops
and
yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Juice of grapes and yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Bioenergy crops include
Maize, sugar cane and
wood
Milk and bacteria
Use of the product

Bread in many forms has
been a staple in the human
diet for many civilisations.
Ancient Egypt had at least
15 types of bread.
Popular alcoholic drink
Popular alcoholic drink

Ethanol produced is a
renewable fuel, that is very
clean burning.
Cheese
is
a
safe
preservation
of
milk,
however yoghurt is more
nutritionally beneficial.
Plan, choose equipment or resources, perform a first hand investigation

to demonstrate the use of fermentation processes in bread or alcohol
production
* See Booklet *
Page 62 of 77

3. Classical biotechnology exploited knowledge of cell biochemistry to

produce industrial fermentation procedures
Describe the expansion of fermentation since the early 18 th century to
include the production of several organic compounds, including glycerol,
lactic acid, citric acid and yeast biomass for bakers yeast
The industrial production of alcohol (and the fermentation of dough to produce
carbon dioxide) usually involves the addition of pure yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae) cultures to grape juice, malt or another source of sugar for
fermentation. Alcohol is now also used by the fermentation method is used for
the production of chemical reagents, aromatic chemical foods and beverages.
(C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H6O (aq) + 2CO2 (g))
In the early 20th century, Neuberg developed a method of modifying the basic
fermentation reaction to produce glycerol as a major product instead of ethanol
by the addition of sodium bisulfite. Glycerol has a wide range of uses, including
the production of explosives, but is now mainly produced using other methods.
The production of lactic acid on a commercial basis, however, still mainly relies
upon the fermentation of lactose (milk sugar) by bacteria (Glucose 2 Lactate +
2 ATP). Lactic acid is used in pharmaceuticals, food, textile dyeing, solvents,
plastics, lacquers and in the production of yoghurt, sour cream and cottage
cheese.
Another use of fermentation involves yeast that is cultured by fermenting lactose
or glucose, to produce yeast extracts for food production and baking. Citric acid
can also be produced when the fungi Aspergillus niger undergoes fermentation
in very acidic conditions. Citric acid is used in jams, soft drinks and other foods
to provide tangy flavour, and in the emulsification of cheese.
Gather and process information from secondary sources to
Identify and describe a named industrial fermentation process
Lactic acid has been produced industrially for over 100 years. Carbohydrates
especially sugars and molasses, are fermented in bioreactors, which can hold
several thousand litres of the fermentation mixture. Bioreactors contain
nutrients, stirrers, pH and temperature controls and aeration devices.
Identify the micro-organism used in the fermentation and the

products of the fermentation
Lactobacillus Bulgaricus/ Lactobacillus Lactis/ Strephtococcus bovis/
Streptococcus thermophiles
Outline the use of the product of the fermentation process
Pharmaceutical products, solvents, leather tanning, inks, lacquers and PLA. PLA
is a biopolymer that is GRAS and is a good replacement for plastics produced
from crude oil.
It is also used in the production of yoghurt, cheese, kefir, poi (fermented starch),
sauerkraut and pickles.
Page 63 of 77

Use available evidence to assess the impact of the use of the

fermentation product on society at the time of its introduction
There is an increasing world demand for lactic acid products, especially plastics
made from PLA. These plastics are expected to replace many of the plastics made
from fossil fuels in the future. Their biodegradability means they can be used to
make surgical sewing thread and screws/ plates to repair broken bones. The
decreasing cost of PLA from $2 US per lb. in 2000 to $0.50 US per lb. in 2002
means that it will become affordable in the future.
Describe strain isolation methods developed in the 1940s
The strain isolation method combines the streak culture technique with repeated
picking and restreaking on enrichment plates. Because microbes rely on
different food sources, a particular species can often be isolated by using only a
particular nutrient in culture media such as agar. For example, a sample of soil
can be added to a liquid broth containing lactate and ammonia, and the main
type of bacteria expected to grow will be Pseudomonas fluorescens. The broth
can then be streaked onto agar plates and that also contains the nutrients lactate
and ammonia and incubated for a specified period. A pure culture of
Pseudomonas will eventually be obtained by picking and re-streaking isolated
colonies several times. The pure culture can then be transferred to a liquid
medium and stored as a master culture for later use.
Pure cultures of microbes can also be obtained using the liquid dilution method,
in which a suspension is repeatedly diluted and cultured until a point is reached
beyond which no microbial growth occurs.
Describe, using a specific example, the benefits of strain isolation
methods used in biotechnology in the 20 th century
One of the most notable instances of strain isolation was the discovery and
isolation of the fungus Penicillium by Alexander Fleming in 1929. Fleming
accidently found that the staphylococcal colonies he was culturing did not grow
in the vicinity of Penicillium colonies that had contaminated his agar plates. He
subsequently concluded that the fungus produced a substances that destroyed
the cell walls of the bacteria, and named the substance Penicillin. Using
rudimentary stain isolation techniques, he produced subcultures of Penicillium
to isolate his antibiotic. More sophisticated isolation procedures were later used
by Howard Florey who developed a process for the large-scale production of
penicillin for use on casualties during WWII.
Identify that developments in the 1950s led to biotransformation
technologies that could produce required organic compounds such as
cortisone and sex hormones
Biotransformation involves the use of micro-organisms or the enzymes derived
from living organisms to create specific chemicals for precursor molecules.
Industrial research development teams have harnessed this phenomenon since
the 1950s to produce specific chemicals on a commercial basis. Examples of
biotransformation technologies include the production of hormones such as
cortisone, hydrocortisone and testosterone using microbes of enzymes.
Hydrocortisone for instance, can be produced for cortexolone by the bacterium
Cunninghamella echninulata, while Bacillus sphaericus can be used to convert
Page 64 of 77

hydrocortisone to prednisolone. Microbes that provide natural antibiotics can
now also be genetically engineered to produce more effective, modified forms of
these antibiotics (ampicillin, amoxicillin).
Another example of biotransformation technology being used in the
pharmaceutical industry includes the use of plant enzymes to produce
cinnamates, which can be used in sunscreens. In the food industry, examples of
the use of biotransformation include the production of vanillin for artificial
vanilla flavouring, by various fungi and bacteria.
Process and analyse information from secondary s ources to demonstrate
how changes in technology and scientific knowledge have modified
traditional uses of biotechnology, such as fermentation
Changes in technology/ scientific
knowledge
Discovery and understanding of yeasts
Impact on traditional uses of biotechnology

Change from the sourdough breads that rely on wild yeasts
to the deliberate incorporation of specific cultures of yeast
in bread- making
Bacteria that caused harmful fermentation could be
eliminated
Safer, more consistent products, large scale production
possible
Pasteurs discovery that bacteria could be

killed by heating
Knowledge and ability to isolate and grow
pure culture strains of micro-organisms
Development of instrumentation to
measure and control fermentation/ alcohol
concentrations
Development of technologies to allow for
anaerobic fermentation
New technologies for crushing and filtering Better quality, more consistent wines
wines
Ancient Chinese developed distillation
Production of all fortified wines and spirits became
possible. Products could be kept after being exposed to air.
Genetic engineering of rennet
Vegetarian cheeses can be produced
Development of refrigeration
Widespread production of products such as lager that was
once restricted to the icy lake areas in parts of Europe.
Page 65 of 77

4. Cell chemistry is utilised in biotechnology

Outline the steps in the synthesis of a protein in the cell, including:
The difference between DNA and RNA
Shape
Nitrogen Bases
Sugars
Location
DNA
Double stranded helix
AGCT
Deoxyribose
Nucleus
RNA
1 strands
AGCU
Ribose
Anywhere in the cytoplasm
The production of messenger RNA

The 2 single DNA strands separate, by breaking the hydrogen bonds that
hold the base pairs together. This is often referred to an Unzipping.
mRNA copies the code from the single strand of the DNA molecule in the
nucleus. This is called TRANSCRIPTION
The role of transfer RNA
The role of tRNA is to carry amino acids to the ribosomes to allow
TRANSLATION to occur.
The formation of the polypeptide chain(s)

A section of DNA unzips exposing unpaired nitrogen bases
mRNA copies the code from the single strand of the DNA molecule in the
nucleus. This is called TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA moves from the nucleus and attaches itself to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
tRNA molecules carry amino acids to the ribosomes and allows
TRANSLATION to occur.
Eventually the amino acids are joined to each other by peptide bonds and
a chain in formed
The resulting chain of amino acids is called a polypeptide and it is
released into the cytoplasm.
Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to test the conditions that

influence the rate of enzyme activity
* Maintaining a balance *
Page 66 of 77

5. Modern biotechnology includes recombinant DNA technology

Perform a first-hand investigation to extract and identify DNA from a
suitable source
Strawberries: * See Booklet *
Describe the three essentials of gene manipulation as
Cutting and joining DNA
Required DNA is cut from the chromosome using a restriction enzyme
The restriction enzyme is then used on a plasmid removed from a
bacteria cell
The required gene is mixed with the bacterial plasmid
Ligase is added to join the ends
Monitoring the cutting and joining (electrophoresis)

DNA is placed on the end of agar gel
Electrodes are placed at either end of the gel (to form an electric field)
DNA fragments move towards the positive end and are separated by size
due to the speed by which it travels (smaller move faster)
Transforming hosts, such as bacteria, with the recombinant DNA

(Replacing the plasmids that contain the gene in E.coli)
Recombining the plasmid with the bacteria using calcium chloride
The high concentration of Ca ions makes the bacteria membrane more
porous
The plasmids then move into the bacteria cells
Page 67 of 77

Process information to produce a flow chart on the sequence of events

that result in the formation of recombinant DNA
Donor DNA e.g. a human gene: This may have been
extracted from a genome library, been manufactured from
messenger RNA using reverse transcription or,
synthesized in an automatic polynucleotide synthesizer.
Human regulatory gene: has been replaced by a bacterial

regulator. This will ensure a high rate of transcription and
if the synthesis of gene product in a bacterial system
'Sticky ends" have been added to the donor DNA. These are
short nucleotide sequences (3-6 bases long) which will
locate complementary sequences in the recipient plasmid
DNA. For example the sticky ends AGCT must be added to
locate the complementary sticky end TCGA on the opened
recipient plasmid
Recipient DNA, typically a bacterial plasmid has been

'opened' at the sequence complementary to the donor DNA
sticky ends by a specific restriction endonuclease. The
recipient plasmid also contains a gene which confers
resistance to a particular antibiotic.
The donor DNA is now attached to the open plasmid using

the enzyme ligase. The resulting recombinant DNA
typically carries a human gene within a plasmid: this is
then called a plasmid vector.
The recipient bacterial cell, typically a non-pathogenic

species such as E.coli is treated with CA2+ ions to make it
'leaky'. Such a cell may take up the plasmid vector. The
incubation mixture contains few plasmids per cell to
encourage uptake of single plasmids, but usually only
about 1% of the E.coli cells will be transformed in this way.
Page 68 of 77

Describe the following recombinant DNA techniques used in

biotechnology, including
Gene splicing using restriction enzymes and ligase to produce
recombinant DNA
The gene for insulin production in humans can be passed into the DNA of
E.coli bacterium that inhabits the human digestive tract. This is done by
cutting the appropriate gene from human DNA and splicing in a plasmid.
It is cut using restriction enzymes that cut a specific base sequence of the
DNA molecule.
This segments is attached into place using DNA ligase. The result if a
recombination molecule.
Each new E.coli possesses this gene
Polymerase chain reaction to amplify or modify DNA sequences
The most successful method of amplifying DNA sequences.
This is done in a test tube
o The DNA is isolated, fragmented with restriction enzymes and
separated by gel electrophoresis.
o The DNA fragments are denatured by heating to 95C.
o The single stranded DNA is exposed to a solution containing a
radioactive DNA probe. (The probe consists of single stranded
DNA or RNA with a sequence chosen to base pair with the required
DNA.
o At 50-65C, salt and the correct pH, the probe will bind to its
corresponding sequence of target DNA.
The DNA doubles after each cycle (30 cycles= over 1 billion copies)
PCR has been used to indicate the presence of HIV infection and has been
used to amplify degraded DNA for use in forensic science
Use of DNA vectors and microinjection for carrying genes into

nuclear DNA in the production of transgenic multicellular
organisms
Commonly used are plasmids or viruses
o A viral vector is first modified so that it will not replicate or cause
disease in the target cell of a host embryo
The gene of interest is incorporated into the viral genome and the virus is
then used to infect an early stage embryo or a pronuclear embryo. The
viral vector binds with the embryonic cells and offloads its transgene into
the host genome.
Pronuclear embryo= all cells have altered gene, embryonic cell= some
Retroviruses are commonly used because of their ability to infect host
cells
A plasmid can be used via microinjection
The major disadvantage is that the time and labour intensive process to
prepare the viral vector. Microinjection doesnt always work either, and
sometime viruses can become pathogenic again.
Page 69 of 77

Gather and analyse information to outline the purpose of a current
application of transgenic technology naming the organism and gene
transfer technique involved
Gene therapy for insulin production:
Purpose:
For those who are insulin deficient to be able to maintain a normal and
relatively healthy life. To replace previous forms of insulin from animals
that can cause allergic reactions.
Organism:
Plasmid and E.coli as a host. Uses human gene for insulin production
Gene transfer:
Gene splicing
Process and analyse secondary information to
identify that complementary DNA is produced by
reverse transcribing RNA or the polymerase chain
reaction
Reverse transcription is a procedure used to produce a
selected section of DNA from its complementary mRNA
within the cell. The benefit of using this process is that
long, often useless non-coding sections (introns) of the
DNA are not included in the resulting gene. After the
removal of the introns by restriction enzymes, the
enzyme reverse transcriptase is used to produce a
single strand of complementary DNA from the mRNA.
In the presence of DNA polymerase, a double strand of
the complementary DNA is then formed.
Double stranded DNA containing

introns and exons.
Transcription naturally occurs of

DNA to form mRNA
introns are removed and mRNA

extracted
Reverse transcriptase forms a DNA

molecule that is complementary to
the mRNA
With the help of DNA polymerase the
single strand of DNA is used as a
template to make more strands
(process of PCR)
Page 70 of 77

6. There are many applications and areas of research in biotechnology

Outline one way that forensic scientists can use DNA analysis to help
solve cases
DNA fingerprinting is a technique used to compare DNA from two sources to
determine whether they are identical. DNA is taken from tissue samples such as
hair, skin, sperm and blood. The DNA is cut into fragments using restriction
enzymes. The segments used for DNA fingerprinting are using the introns (noncoding), as these tend to vary greatly among individuals. The DNA fragments are
then separated according to their weight using electrophoresis, a process in
which the fragments move up the electrically charged gel. The location of these
fragments is indicated using radioactive or florescent probes, which have a
complementary base sequence to the fragments. The resulting band patterns can
then be compared to determine whether the tissue of a suspect matches that
found at a crime scene. DNA fingerprinting can be used to determine a crime
suspects innocence, but cannot be used to conclusively prove their guilt.
Identify data sources, gather, analyse and process information to present
one case study on the application of biotechnology in each of the
following:
Medicine
Describe the process used
First a plasmid is removed from a bacterium cell, and part of the DNA
sequencing is removed using enzymes. The gene for insulin production is
isolated from human DNA by intercepting messenger RNA and coding for a DNA
copy. This copy is cloned and placed into the gap of DNA sequencing. This
modified plasmid is then placed into a new bacterium (E. coli). This bacterium
divides and these cells produce insulin. Once this is fermented and the bacteria
have grown in their nutrient rich medium, they are harvested. The harvesting
process involves opening the bacteria cells and removing the insulin while
discarding the bacteria. This insulin is then placed into a slow centrifuge to
create a more concentration solution of 50% insulin from the 20%. This is then
treated with cyanogen bromide in formic acid and then later purified to produce
the insulin that is used for diabetes patients.
Identify the organism or tissue involved
Page 71 of 77

The genetically modified plasmids are injected into an E.coli bacteria cell in
order for insulin to be manufactured. This insulin is chemically identical to the
naturally occurring insulin in the human body and therefore is not rejected by
the body. E. coli is naturally occurring in the digestive tracts of many animals.
The E.coli used in the insulin creating process are a form that do not cause
severe biological interferences, and are not contained in the medical insulin
diabetics use. E. coli is discarded during the insulin purification process.
Describe the outcome of the biotechnological process
The produced insulin is chemically identical to that produced naturally by the
body and therefore allows the pure insulin to be injected into those who are
deficient and suffer from diabetes.
This process has also allowed the biotechnology to be used in production of
other bodily chemicals through the isolation of particular genes. The technology
is not yet easily obtained due to the great complexity of DNA, but in the future,
there is a possibility that human chemicals can be produced by a similar means.
Discuss advantages, disadvantages associated with either the product/
process
Advantages:
Allows diabetics to experience a higher quality of life.
This form of insulin is less likely to cause allergic reaction than the
previous forms of animal acquired insulin
It will also allow diabetics to avoid diseases such as kidney diseases, heart
attack, low blood pressure, etc. that have an increased risk associated
with diabetes.
Insulin in now much more accessible due to the unlimited supply
involved in isolating genes and growing E. coli.
Insulin comes under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS)
Disadvantages:
This insulin production is much more expensive than using insulin from
existing animals killed for meat, and the economic burden placed on
families can cause hardship.
Evaluate the efficiency of the process
This process is very efficient and allows access for insulin to all diabetics that
require it.
Animal biotechnology
Antibodies are made by B-lymphocytes as part of the immune system. Each
antibody is specific to a particular antigen. Antibodies bind to the antigen and
inactivate it so that it cant harm the animal host. Thus antibodies bring about
immunity to as disease.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing the antibody producing
mammalian cells (B- lymphocytes) with cells that will continue to replicate
endlessly. These latter cells are usually harmless tumour cells. The result of this
Page 72 of 77

cell fusion is called hybridoma. The hybridoma can then continue to produce
antibodies in culture as long as they are needed.
picture from phone *
Attach to specific proteins on the surface of cells. Each monoclonal antibody

recognises one particular protein.
Aquaculture
The main focus of genetically modified salmon is however to create faster
growing in order to increase supplies and keep up with the demand.
The process used
The process of genetically modified salmon works by interrupting the growth
cycle so that instead of the salmon growing faster in the warmer seasons and
slower in the winter, the natural growth hormones are active year-round. Aqua
Bounty Technologies are one such company that uses, a promoter from an
antifreeze gene derived from the ocean pout... The new promoter thus disrupts
the salmons normal growth cycle. Essentially, the modification works by making
the salmon growth cycle continuous rather than seasonal, as is the case in
unaltered varieties. As a result, the fish grows to a marketable size within 18
months instead of 3 years. These transgenic salmon are all sterile and female in
sex, in order to prevent reproduction of escaped fish that will be unable to
consume the same food as natural salmon. The genetically modified salmon do
not require as much food and therefore is much less economically straining on
companies breeding the salmon and the consumers.
The organism/ tissue involved
The transgenic salmon contain one gene from ocean Pout and another from
Chinook salmon. The growth hormone is derived from the antifreeze gene from
Ocean Pout and a growth hormone gene from Chinook salmon. This is exposed to
the Atlantic salmon during early development by injecting it into the egg and the
resulting salmon grow much faster than regular free salmon.
The outcome of the biotechnological process
The resulting Transgenic salmon are able to grow faster, allowing the fishing
industry to keep up with their demands and satisfy their consumers. The salmon
will be of high quality, just as the natural salmon continues to be. These fish are
sterile, so they are unable to breed with naturally occurring salmon if the
transgenic salmon escape, allowing the populations of natural salmon to thrive
and re-establish a sustainable population. This biotechnological process is not
only beneficial to the consumers and profitable to the salmon fishing companies,
but also to the natural salmon populations. This form of salmon is also deemed
safe to consume by the FDA in their assessment report, "We looked for direct
food consumption hazards. None were found."
Advantages and disadvantages associated with the product and process
Advantages:
Page 73 of 77

Transgenic salmon are fast growing and take 18 months to grow the same
size that previously took 3 years to achieve. This allows the consumers to
have access to more salmon faster and therefore lowers the price.
The genetically modified salmon require less food than regular salmon
and therefore it is much cheaper for salmon to be produced and the
money saving process is continued through to the consumer, making
salmon much more accessible for all economic groups.
These altered species of salmon are unable to reproduce with the
unmodified salmon and therefore these characteristics are contained
within their population, allowing free salmon to remain natural.
Disadvantages:
Legally the new processes do not have to be disclosed when purchasing
the salmon and therefore consumers will be unable to tell the difference
between the transgenic and natural salmon.
The transgenic salmon are sterile and therefore natural salmon are still
required in order to produce more genetically modified salmon.
The efficiency of the process
The process is much more efficient than the original unmodified salmon. The
transgenic salmon are available much faster, which allows the worldwide
demand to be met.
Animal biotechnology:
Monoclonal antibodies
Cell fusion
Medicine: synthetic
insulin
Gene splicing: recombinant
DNA
E.coli
Plasmid
Human DNA
Aquaculture: transgenic
salmon
Process used
Gene splicing &
microinjection
Organism/
Pacific Chinook: Growth
Spleen from mouse
tissue
hormone regulating gene
Tumours from mice
Ocean Pout: regulating
Antigen
gene
Outcome of the Trigger the immune
Synthetic insulin that is
A genetically modified
process
identical to that produced
Atlantic salmon that
response to attack
naturally by the body.
becomes mature faster.
cancer cells
Gains weight 30% faster
Block signals telling
than and average salmon
cancer cells to divide
and therefore matures in
Carry cancer drugs or
18 months rather than 3
radiation to cancer cells
years.
Evaluation of
Takes a long time to
Efficient:
Advantages:
the efficiency of develop this treatment due Advantages:
Fast growing
the process/
to complicated process.
PBS
Less food required
advantages/
Advantages:
Higher quality of life for Economically viable
disadvantages Cancer treatment
diabetics
30% faster growth
Allows survival rates of Avoid diseases linked to Prevents overfishing
cancer to increase
diabetes, e.g. high BP
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Unlimited supply
Lack diversity (disease
Causes the body to fight
(unlimited E.coli)
prone)
its own tissue and can
Disadvantages:
Sterile (5% may be
cause hair loss, illnesses
Page 74 of 77

and weakness
Complicated process
that is time consuming
Side effects
More expensive then

extraction from farmed
animals already killed
for meat
Page 75 of 77
fertile)
Ethics
Does not have the be
disclosed that
transgenic
Efficient

7. Ethical issues relevant to the use of biotechnology are important and

need to be considered
Explain why different groups in society may have different views about
the use of DNA technology
Reasons for different views:
Levels of understanding of the information about DNA technology
Values lined to the risks of what could go wrong with the technology
Opportunities to make financial gains or losses or to obtain or lose
employment through the new technology
Values about the need to conserve/ preserve the environment and
present-day communities
Experiences as to whether the benefits/ problems have a direct impact on
an individuals lifestyle or health
Attitudes towards change
Experiences and attitudes about the potential for misuse of power that
the technology may allow
Social values associated with potential increase in the gap between those
that are socioeconomically disadvantages and those that are
socioeconomically well off
Viewpoints on the levels of concerns of the individual, community, state,
country and globally
Identify and evaluate ethical issues related to: development of genetically

modified organisms (GMOs)/ Use available evidence to identify and
discuss ethical and social issues associated with the use of biotechnology
Ethical considerations
Genetically modified organisms can be seen as
interfering with nature
People may not have equal access to the benefits
of these organisms
The cloning of transgenic species may result in a
loss of biodiversity
Transgenic crops may cross pollinate with
nearby plants, affecting the incomes of
neighbouring farms
Canola for example, could pass its herbicide
resistance onto weeds that are growing in
adjacent fields
Social and environmental concerns

Genetically engineered salmon could affect the
balance of natural ecosystems if released into
the wild, as they will compete for food and
shelter.
Genetically modified food may not be labelled as
such, resulting in confusion and lack of
consumer choice
Transgenic organisms could be used as
biological weapons
Many GM products are marketed without sound
evidence of their safety.
Page 76 of 77

Page 77 of 77

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Biology Study Notes 2013-14 HSC

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Lock and key model: more recent model

Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance:

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Change in substrate concentration

Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is

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Concentration of metabolites (reactants)

Describe homeostasis as the process by which orga nisms maintain a

3.6 6.8 mmol per L

Dailey intake must

Ions e.g. plasma Ca2+

2.3 2.4 mmol per L

Blood pressurearterial diastolic

13.3 kPa (1000 mm Hg)

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<7 mmol per L

Red blood cells

Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: detecting the change

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Pituitary: Produces hormones, which control growth. Too large an

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A positive response is when a chemical increases in production or temperature

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Ectotherm: Eastern Brown snake

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2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid

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Perform a first hand investigation using the light microscope and

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Conditions under which it is

Two wave lengths of light; red

When non- invasive

Critically ill patients on

Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on

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Change in composition of blood

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3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic

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Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the

The plasma then moves along to the proximal

The remaining plasma then travels to the loop

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Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use

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Storing water in succulent tissue: this usually occurs in fleshy leaves or