Unit VIII

Fourier Series

Unit VIII
Fourier Series
Fourier series are series of cosine and sine terms. Since sine and
cosine are periodic functions we shall study Trigonometric
series representation of what we call periodic functions.
7.1

Periodic Functions; Trigonometric Series.

Definition 7.1 A function f is said to be periodic if there is

some positive number p
such that:
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x dom. f.

The number p is called the period of f and the smallest number

p is called the primitive
(or fundamental) period of f.
Example 1 Let f (x) = sin x.
Now dom. f = , f (x + p) = f (x) x
sin (x + p) = sin x x

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sin x cos p + sin p cos x = sin x x

sin x (1 cos p) = sin p cos x x

If x = , then 1 cos p = 0.
2

Now 1 cos p = 0 p = 2n ,where n N.

Therefore, 2n, where n N is a period of f and 2 is the
primitive period of f.
Example 2 Let g (x) = cos x.
Now dom. g = , g (x + p) = g (x) x
cos (x + p) = cos x x

cos x cos p sin p sin x = cos x x

cos x (cos p 1) = sin p sin x x

If x = , then cos p 1= 0.
Now cos p 1= 0 p = 2n, where n N.
Therefore 2n, where n N is a period of g and 2 is the
primitive period of g.
Example 3. Let f (x) = tan x.
Now dom. f =x x (2n + 1) , n Z.
2

f (x + p) = f (x) x dom. f. tan (x + p) = tan x x

dom. f.

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tan x tan p
1 tan x tan p

= tan x x

dom. f.
tan x + tan p = tan x tan p tan 2 x
x dom. f.
tan p (1 + tan 2 x) = 0 x dom. f.
tan p = 0 x dom. f.
p = n, where n N.
Therefore n, where n N is a period of f and is the
primitive period of f.

Example 4. Let f (x) = sin (x), where 0.

Now dom. f = .
f (x + p) = f (x) x .
sin (x + p) = sin x x .

sin x cos p + sin p cos x = sin x x

sin x (1 cos p) = sin p cos x x

.
If x =

, then 1 cos p = 0.
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Now 1 cos p = 0 p = 2n, where n N.

Therefore

2n

, where n N is a period of f and

is the

primitive period of f.
Graphs of Periodic Functions.
The graph of a periodic function of period p is obtained by
periodic representation of its graph in any interval of length p.
Example 1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = tan x.
Solution. The primitive period of f is .

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Example 2 Sketch the graph of g (x) = sin x .

Solution Dom. g. = .
Now g (x + p) = g (x) x .
sin (x + p) = sin x x .

sin (x + p) = sin x x or sin (x + p) =

sin x x .

p = 2n, where n N or sin x (1 + cos p)

= sin p cos x x .

p = 2n, where n N or p = (2n 1),

where n N

p = n, where n N.

Therefore is the primitive period of g.

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Example 3. Sketch the graph of f, where

f (x) =

if 1 x 0
if 0 x 1

and f (x + 2) = f (x) x .

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Properties of Periodic Functions.

1. If f is a periodic function with period p, then for any n N
np is a period of f.
Proof: (By the principle of mathematical induction)
Since f (x + n p) = f (x) it is true for n = 1.
Assume for n = k, i.e. f (x + k p) = f (x).
We need to show for n = k + 1, i.e. f (x + (k + 1) p) = f
(x).
f (x + (k + 1) p) = f (x + k p + p) = f (x + p + k p) =
f (x + p) = f (x).
Therefore for any n N, np is a period of f.
2. If f and g are periodic functions with period p, then for any
a, b
h (x) = a f(x) + b g(x) x dom. h
is a periodic function of period p.
Proof: h (x + p) = a f(x + p) + b g(x + p)
= a f(x) + b g(x)
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= h (x) x dom. h.
Therefore h is a periodic function with period p.
3. If f (x) is a periodic function with period p, then for any b
and b 0
a) f (b x) is periodic with period

p
b

b) If ( x ) is periodic with period b p.

b

Trigonometric Series.

Definition 1.2 The system of functions:

1, cos x, sin x, cos 2x, sin 2x, cos 3x, sin 3x,
is called a trigonometric system.
The series

a0 + (an cosnx bn sin nx)

n 1

where a0, ans and bns are constants is called

Trigonometric series, the
constants are called coefficients.

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Definition 1.3 ( Orthogonality of the Trigonometric

System)
1. Let f and g be functions defined on some interval a,
b. f and g are said to be
b

orthogonal on a, b if and only if f ( x) g ( x) dx = 0.

a

2. The set of functions n ( x) : n N is said to be

orthogonal on a, b if and
b

only if n ( x)m ( x) dx = 0 for n m.

a

Example 1. Show that the set of functions

n ( x) : n ( x) sin nx,

where n N

form an

orthogonal set on , .
Solution. Let n, m N and n m.
n ( x ) =

sin nx.

n ( x)m ( x) dx

= sin nx sin mx dx

= 1 cos (n m) x cos (n m) xdx

2

=1
2

sin (n m) x
sin (n m) x

nm

nm

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= 0.
Therefore n ( x) : n ( x) sin nx,

where n N

form an orthogonal set on

, .
Example 2. Show that the trigonometric system 1, cos nx, sin
nx, , where n N,
form an orthogonal set on , .
Solution. We need to show that:
a) sin nx

= cos nx

dx

dx

= sin nx cos mx dx = 0 for n, m N

and m = n.

b) sin nx cos mx dx = sin nx sin mx dx = cos nx cos mx dx = 0 where

n, m N
and m n.
When m = n.

1
cos nx
n

= sin nx

and sin nx cos nx dx =

dx

= cos nx

1
sin 2nx dx
2

dx

1
sin nx
n

1
cos 2nx
4n

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= 0.

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When m n.

1
sin (n m) x sin (n m) xdx
2

sin nx cos mx dx =

sin nx sin mx dx =

cos nx cos mx dx =

cos (n m) x
cos (n m) x

nm
nm

= 0.

1
cos (n m) x cos (n m) xdx
2

1
2

sin (n m) x
1 sin (n m) x

=
nm
2 nm

0.

1
cos (n m) x cos (n m) xdx
2

sin (n m) x
1 sin (n m) x

=
nm
2 nm

0.

Therefore 1, cos nx, sin nx, for n N form an orthogonal

set on , .

Definition 1.4
1. A function f (x) is said to be normal or normalized
in a, b if and only if
b

f ( x)
a

dx

=1

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The norm of a function f (x) denoted by

f (x)

on a,

b is defined by:
b

f (x)

= f ( x) 2 dx
a

2. An orthogonal set of functions n (x): n N is

said to be an orthonormal
set on a, b if and only if
b

a n ( x)

dx =

1 n N.

Example 1. The set of functions n (x): n (x) =

sin nx, n

Nis an orthonormal
set on , .
Solution. Let m, n N and m n.

1
sin nx sin mx dx

1
cos (n m) x cos (n m) xdx
2

sin (n m) x
1 sin (n m) x

=
nm
2 nm

Therefore n (x): n (x) =

0.

sin nx, n Nis an orthogonal

set on , .
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For m = n.

1
sin 2 nx dx

1
(1 cos 2nx) dx
2

Therefore n (x): n (x) =

1
sin 2nx
x

2
2n

sin nx, n Nis an orthonormal

set on , .
Exercises. 1.1
1. Show that the following functions are non-periodic
functions.
i) f (x) = x
ii) g ( x) = 2x2
iii) h (x) = e x
2. Sketch the graphs of the following functions, which are
assumed to be periodic of
period 2 and, for x , are given by the formulas:
1. f (x) = e x

2. f (x) = x2

3. f (x) = x
if x 0

4. f (x) =

5. f (x) =

if x 0
0

sin x if 0 x

if 0 x

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3. For the trigonometric system find the corresponding

orthonormal system on , .
1.2 Fourier Series of Functions of Period 2

Let us assume that f (x) is a periodic function of period 2 that

can be represented by a trigonometric series.

f (x) = a0 + an cos nx bn sin nx

n 1

(1)
i.e. the series converges and has f (x) as its sum.
Now we need to determine the coefficients a0, an and bn .
i) To determine a0 integrate (1) from to .

f ( x) dx = a0 dx + n1 an cos nx bn sin nx dx

f ( x) dx = 2 a0

a0 =

f ( x) dx

ii) To determine an, n N. Multiply (1) by cos mx and

integrate from to where
m N, fixed.

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f ( x) cos mx dx = a0 cos mx dx +

an cosmx cos nx bn sin nx cosmx dx

n 1

If m n, then

cos mx dx = cosmx cos nx dx = sin nx cosmx dx = 0.

If m = n, then

sin nx cosmx dx = sin nx cosnx dx = 0.

and cos nx cosmx dx = cos 2 nx dx

=
=

1
1 cos2 nx dx
2

1
x

1
sin 2nx

4n

= .

Therefore an =

1
f ( x) cos nx dx

n N.

iii) To determine bn , n N. Multiply (1) by sin mx where m

N and integrate from
to .

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f ( x) sin mx dx =

a0 sin mx dx

+ an sin mx cos nx bn sin nx sin mx dx

n 1

If m n, then

a0 sin mx dx

= sin mx cos nx dx = sin nx sin mx dx = 0.

If m = n, then

a0 sin mx dx = 0,

sin nx cosmx dx

= sin nx cosnx dx = 0.

and sin nx sin mx dx = sin 2 nx dx = .

Therefore bn =

1
f ( x) sin nx dx

n N.

Therefore we get what we call Eulers Formulas.

a0 =

f ( x) dx

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an =

1
f ( x) cos nx dx

bn =

1
f ( x) sin nx dx

, where n N.

Definition 1.5 The numbers a0, an and bn are called the

Fourier coefficients of f (x).
The trigonometric series

a0 + an cos nx bn sin nx
n 1

Where a0, an and bn are called the Fourier

coefficients is called the Fourier
Series of f (x) (Regardless of convergence).

Remark: In the Eulers Formulas the interval of

integration may be replaced by any
interval of length 2.

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Example 1 Find the Fourier coefficients of each of the

following periodic functions.
i) f (x) =

ii) f (x) =

x2
4

Solutions i) a0 =

if x 0

for 0 x 2 and f (x + 2) = f (x).

f ( x) dx

an =

1
f ( x) cos nx dx

k dx +

kx
=
2 0

k cosnx dx +

=
=
Thus bn =

1
f ( x) sin nx dx

4k

kx 0
2

=
and bn =

and f (x + 2) = f (x)

if 0 x

2k
n

0
k
sin nx
n

2 0

k dx

0,

1
k cosnxdx
0

k
sin nx
n
0

k sin nx dx

0
k
cosnx
n

= 0,

1
k sin nxdx
0

k
cos nx
n
0

( 1 cos n)

if n is odd

if n is even

Therefore the Fourier series of the square wave function f is:

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ii) a0 =
an =

4k sin 2n 1x

n 1 2n 1

f ( x) dx =

x2
4 cos nx dx
0

x2
dx
0 4

1
2 n

x3 2
2 4 0

2
3

x sin nx dx =

1
n2

and bn =

x2
sin nx dx
0 4

Therefore f (x) =

2
3

1
2 n

+ ( 12 cosnx
n
n
n 1

x cos nx dx =

sin nx) .

Convergence and Sum of Fourier series

Suppose f is any function of period 2 for which the integrals
a0 =

f ( x) dx

an =

n N.

1
f ( x) cos nx dx

and bn =

1
f ( x) sin nx dx

n N.

exist. Then the Fourier series of f (x) is given by:

a0 + (an cosnx bn sin nx)

n 1

(1)

i) If the series in (1) converges to f (x), then we write:

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f (x) = a0 + (an cosnx bn sin nx) .

n 1

ii) If the series in (1) doesnt converge to f (x), then we write:

f (x) a0 + (an cosnx bn sin nx) .

n 1

Question. When is the Fourier series in (1) converges to f

(x)?
To answer this question first we need to define
piecewise continuity.

Definition 1.6 Piecewise Continuity.

A function f (x) is said to be piecewise continuous
on an interval I if
i) the interval can be divided into a finite number
of subintervals in each of
which f (x) is continuous.
and ii) the limits of f (x) as x approaches the end points
of each subinterval are
finite.

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Remark: A piecewise continuous function is one that has only

a finite number of jump
discontinuities.
Examples Consider the following functions.

i)

f (x) =

ii) g (x) =

0
4

for x n 1, n where n N and n 2.

for x 0
for x 2

x 1
x2 1

if 1 x 0
if 0 x 1
if 1 x 2

f and g are examples of piecewise continuous functions.

Example. h (x) = tan x for x ( ,
4

Since h (x) is discontinuous at x =

lim h ( x)
x

( ,
4

and

3
2

lim h ( x)
x

3
2

).

and

h is not piecewise continuous on

).

Theorem 1.1 (Representation by a Fourier series)

If a periodic function with period 2 is piecewise
continuous in the interval
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x and has a left hand derivative and a right

hand derivative at each
point of that interval, then the Fourier series (1) of f (x)
is convergent. Its sum
is f (x) except at a point x0 at which f (x) is
discontinuous and the sum of the series
is the average of the left and the right hand limits at x0.
Example 1. Find the Fourier series of the function f where
f (x) =

if x 0

if 0 x

and f (x + 2 ) = f (x).
Solution. The Fourier coefficients are:
a0 = an = 0 and bn =

4k

if n is even.
if n is odd .

n N

Therefore the Fourier series of f (x) is

a0 + (an cosnx bn sin nx) =

n 1

sin 2n 1 x
.
n 1
2n 1

4k

Since f is piecewise continuous on ( , ) this series

converges to f (x) for each
x ( , ) \ 0.
For x = 0, the Fourier series is given by
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f ( x)
lim f ( x)
1

lim

x 0
x 0
2

and indeed at x = 0,
Therefore f (x) =

sin 2n 1 x
n 1
2n 1

4k

sin 2n 1 x
n 1
2n 1

4k

= 1 k + k = 0

= 0.

x ( , ) \ 0.

If x = , then f ( ) = k.
2

Hence k =

4k

1
1 n 2n 1

n0

1 n 2n 1 = 4 .

n0

Therefore

1
1 n 2n 1 =

n0

.
4

Example 2. For each of the following, find the Fourier series

expansion of the function f (x)
that has period 2.
i)

f (x) = x2 , x .

ii) f (x) = x sin x , 0 x 2.

iii) f (x) = x x2 , x .
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Solutions. i) a0 =

1
x 2 dx

x3
6

an =
1

2
x cos nx dx

2x
2
x

sin nx 2 cosnx 3 sin nx

n
n
n

4
2 cos n .
n

bn =
1

2x
2
x

cosnx 2 sin nx 3 cosnx

n
n

2
x sin nx dx

= 0.
Therefore f (x) =
For x = ,

2
3

n 1 n

cosn cos nx

for x .

lim f ( x)
lim f ( x)
2 and
2

x
x

Hence 2 =

2
3

n 1 n

cos 2n

Therefore

n 1

n2

ii) a0 =

1
x sin x dx
2 0

2
6

2
1
x cos x sin x 1.
2
0

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2

an =

x sin x cos nx dx

If n 1, then an =
1

bn =

1
x sin x nx sin x nx dx
2 0

and if n = 1, then a1 =

n 1

1
.
2

x cosx nx cos x nx dx
2 0

x sin x sin nx dx

2
2

If n 1, then bn = 0 and if n = 1, then b1 =

Therefore f (x) =

1
2
cos x sin x 2
cosnx .
2
n

1
n2

If x = , then f () = 0.
n

Thus 21 =
n 1
n2

1
4

Therefore
1 n =
2

1
4

n2 n 1

iii) a0 =

an =

bn =

1
x x 2 dx

x x 2 cos nx dx

x3
2
x

3
3

1
2

x cos nx dx

cos nx dx

4
1 x
1
4

2 cos n 2 cos n .
sin nx 2 cos nx
n
n
n
n

x x 2 cos nx dx

x sin nx dx

sin nx dx

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2
cos n
n

Therefore f (x) =

+ 2 1 n 1 2 cos2 nx
n

n 1

sin nx
n

x ,

If x = 0, then

n 1

n2

n 1
1

12

Therefore

n 1

n2

n 1
1

12

1.3 Functions of any Period p = 2L

Theorem 1.2 If a function f of period p = 2L has a

Fourier series representation, then
the series is:

f (x) = a0 + (an cos n x bn sin n x)

L
L
n 1

where the Fourier coefficients of f (x) are given

by the Euler formulas:
a0 =

1
2L

f ( x) dx

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an =
and bn =

1
L
1
L

f ( x) cos

L
L

f ( x) sin

n
x dx
L

n
x dx
L

n N,
n N.

Proof. (Refer page 578 Kreyszig)

Remark: The interval of integration in the above formulas

may be replaced by any
interval of length p = 2L.

Example 1. Find the Fourier series of the function f (x) with

period p = 4, where
f (x) =

if 2 x 1

2
0

and f (x + 4) = f (x)

if 1 x 1
if 1 x 2

Solution. p = 4 L = 2.
Now a0 =

1
f ( x ) dx
4 2
2

1
2 dx
4 1

1
1
x
=
2 1

1.

an = 1 f ( x) cos n x dx cos n x dx .
2 2
2
2
1

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2
n
sin
n
2

4
1
n
x

sin
, nN ,
1 n
2

0
n 1 4
1

if n is even.
i f n is odd.

bn =

1
n
n
f ( x) sin
x dx sin
x dx .

2 2
2
2
1

2
n 1
cos
x
0, nN.
n
2 1

Therefore f (x) = 1 +

1 n 1

n 1 2n 1

cos 2n 1

x.

If x = 0, then f (0) = 2.

1 n 1

n 1 2n 1

= .
4

Example 2. Find the Fourier series representation of the

periodic function f (x) with period
p = 1, where
f (x) = sin x for 0 x 1 and f (x + 1) = f
(x).
Solution. p = 1 L = 1 .
2

Thus a0 = sin x dx cosx

2.

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1

an = 2 sin x cos2nx dx
0

1
1
cos2n 1x
2n 1
0

= sin 2n 1x dx sin 2n 1x dx
=

2
2n 1

1
1
cos2n 1x
2n 1
0

2
2n 1

4
1 4n 2

Thus an =

n N.

4
1 4n 2

bn = 2 sin x sin 2nx dx

0
1

= cos2n 1x dx cos 2n 1x dx
=

1
1
1
1

sin 2n 1x
sin 2n 1x
2n 1
2n 1
0
0

= 0.

Thus bn = 0 n N.

Therefore f (x) = 2 + 4 cos2n2x .

1 4n
n 1

If x = 0, then

n 1

1
2

4 n 1

1
.
2

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If x = 1 , then
2

1 n

n 1 1 4 n

2
4

1.4 Even and Odd Functions.

Definition 1.7 (Even and Odd
Functions)
1. A function f (x) is
even if
f ( x) = f (x) x
dom. f.
2. A function g (x) is
odd if
g ( x) = g (x)
x dom. g.

Example 1. f (x) = cos nx , x , where n N is even.

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2. g (x) = sin nx , x , where n N is odd.

Note that:
1. If f (x) is an even function, then
L

f ( x) dx = 2 f ( x) dx

2. If g (x) is an odd function, then

L

g ( x) dx = 0

3. The product of
i) even and odd functions is odd.
ii) two odd functions is even.
iii) two even functions is even.

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Theorem 1.3 (Fourier series of Odd and Even Functions)

a. The Fourier series of an even function f of period
2L is a Fourier cosine series.

f (x) = a0 + an cos n x
L
n 1

a0 =

1
f ( x) dx
L 0

with coefficients

and an =

n
2
f ( x) cos
xdx

L
L 0

nN

b. The Fourier series of an odd function f of period 2L

is a Fourier sine series.

f (x) = bn sin n x
L
n 1

bn =

n
2
f ( x) sin
xdx

L
L 0

with coefficients

n N.

Theorem 1.4 (Sum of Functions)

The Fourier coefficients of a sum of two function f1
and f2 are the sum of the
corresponding Fourier coefficients of f1 and f2.
The Fourier coefficients of cf are c times the
corresponding Fourier

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coefficients of f.

Example 1. Let f (x) =

2k

if 0 x
if x 0

and f (x +2) = f (x) x

dom. f.
Find the Fourier series of f (x).
Solution. Let f1 (x) =

if 0 x
if x 0

and f1 (x +2 ) = f1 (x)

x dom. f
and let f2 (x) = k x . Then (f1 + f2) (x) = f (x) x
dom. f.
But f1 (x) =

4k sin 2n 1x

n 1 2n 1

Therefore f (x) = k +

and f2 (x) = k.

4k sin 2n 1x

n 1 2n 1

x dom. f.

Example 2. Find the Fourier series of the function f (x) where f

(x) = x + if x
and f (x + 2) = f (x) x dom. f.
Solution. Let f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = if x and be
periodic functions with period 2.

Now f1 (x) = 2 1 n 1 sin nx and f2 (x) = .

n
n 1

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Therefore f (x) = + 2 1 n 1 sin nx x dom. f.

n
n 1

Example 3. Find the Fourier series representation of

f (x) = x + x2 on , .
Solution. Let f1 (x) = x and f2 (x) = x2 for x , and f1
and f2 be periodic functions with
period 2.
Now f1 (x) is odd hence it has a Fourier sine series
1 x
1

x sin nx dx cos nx 2 sin nx

n
n

1

and bn =

= 1 n1 n2 n N

Thus f1 (x) = 2 1 n 1 sin nx .

n
n 1

f2 (x) is even, hence it has a Fourier cosine series

representation.
Now a0 =
and an =

1
1 2
x3
2
x
dx

x
dx

2
0
3

2
3

2

1
2 cos nx dx x sin nx 2 x cosnx
x

cos nx dx
2
2
n

= 1 n
Thus f2 (x) =

2
3

4
n2

nN

+ 4 1 n
n 1

cosnx
n2

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Therefore f (x) =

2
3

n 1

+ 1 n 42
n

cos nx

2
sin nx .
n

Note that:
If g (x) is defined x ,
then the function
P (x) = 12 g ( x) g ( x) is even
and q (x) = 12 g ( x) g ( x) is odd.
Hence g (x) = p (x) + q (x) and g (
x) = p (x) q (x).

Exercises 1.4
Represent the following functions as a sum of even and
odd functions.
i)
+

1
1 x

1
1 x

1
1 x2

x
1 x2

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Fourier Series

ii)

1 x 2

1 x 2

1 x2

1 x2

2x
1 x2 2

iii)

kx

kx

= cosh

kx + sinh kx.
1.5 Half-range Expansion.
Sometimes it is required to extend a function f (x) in the range
(0, L) in a Fourier series of period 2L, and it is immaterial what
the function may be outside the range 0 x L. We could
extend f (x) with period 2L and then represent the extended
function by a Fourier series.
i) If we extend the function f (x) by reflecting it in the
y-axis, then the Fourier series
expansion contains only the cosine terms.
ii) If we extend the function f (x) by reflecting it in the
origin, then the Fourier series
expansion contains only the sine terms.

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Fourier Series

The cosine halt-range expansion is:

f (x) = a0 + a
n 1

cos

n
x
L

where a0 =

1
f ( x ) dx
L 0

and an =

2
n
f ( x) cos
x dx

L0
L

nN
The sine halt-range expansion is:

f (x) = bn sin n x , where bn =

L
n 1

2
n
f ( x) cos
x dx

L0
L

nN

Example. Find the two half-range expansions of the function

f (x) =

2k

2k L x
L

if 0 x

L
2

L
if
x L
2

where k 0.

Solution. f (x) can be extended to (L, L) into two ways.

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I. Make f (x) even on (L, L). i.e. f (x) = f ( x) x (L,

L), to get Fourier cosine
expansion.
II. Make f (x) odd on (L, L). i.e. f ( x) = f (x) x (L,
L), to get Fourier sine
expansion.
Fourier cosine expansion
L

Now a0 =

1
f ( x) dx
L 0

L
2

1 2k
x dx
L 0 L

1 2k
L x dx
L L
L
2

k
2

L
1 2k
1 2
k
Lx x =
L L
2 L
4

k
4

k
2
L

an =

1
n
f ( x) cos
x dx

L L
L
L
2

n
x cos
x dx
2
L
L 0

4k

2
n
f ( x) cos
x dx

L
L
0

4k

( L x) cos
L2
L
2

n
x dx
L

xL
n
L2
n
(
sin
x

cos
x) 2
L
L
L2 n
(n )2

4k

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Fourier Series
L

L2
n
xL
n
L2
n
2 (
sin
x
sin
x
cos
x) L
2
L
n
L
L
L n
(n )
4k

2
cos
cosn 1

2
2

n
4k

Thus an =

2 n
cos

cos

2
n 2 2
8k

+ 8k 2 cos n
2
n 1 n

k
2

Therefore f (x) =

n N.
cos 2

n
2

x.
cos
L

II. Fourier sine expansion.

L

1
n
f ( x) sin
x dx

L L
L

Now an =

L
2

n
x sin
x dx
2
L
L 0

4k

2
n
f ( x) sin
x dx

L
L
0

4k
2

( L x) sin

L L

n
x dx
L

xL
n
L2
n
(

cos
x

sin
x) 2
2
2
n

L
L
L
(n )

4k

L2
n
xL
n
L2
n
2 (
cos
x
cos
x
sin
x) L
2
n
L
n
L
L
L
(n )
4k

8k

sin
2

Thus bn =

n
2
8k

Therefore f (x) =

sin

8k

n
2

n N.
1

n 1 n

sin

n
n
sin
x.
2
L

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Since f (x) is piecewise continuous and

lim f ( x)
x

lim f ( x)
L
x

= k.

n
sin 2
2
2
2
n 1 n

8k

Thus
=
2
n 1 2 n 1

= k, but
2
8

sin 2

0
n

2
1

if n is even
if n is odd

Therefore

2
n 0 2n 1

2
8

Exercises 1.5
1. Represent each of the following functions by a Fourier sine
and cosine series extensions,
where L + .
0 x L.

i) f (x) = x,

0 x L.

ii) f (x) = x2,

iii) f (x) = sin x,

L

0 x L.

2. Obtain a half-range sine and cosine series for

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Fourier Series

i) ex in 0 x 1.
ii) x2 x

in 0 x .

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