Module 5

Heat, Temperature and First Law of

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics (Greek: thermos = heat and dynamic = change) is the study of the
conversion of energy between heat and other forms, mechanical in particular. All those
problems that are related to the inter-conversion of heat energy and work done are studied in
thermodynamics. In thermodynamics, we discuss different cycles such as Carnot cycle,
Rankine cycle, Otto cycle, diesel cycle, refrigerator, compressors, turbines and air
conditioners.

5.1 Temperature and Heat

Temperature is familiar to us all as the measure of the hotness or coldness of objects. It is
observed that a higher temperature object, which is in contact with a lower temperature
object, will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will approach the same
temperature, and in the absence of loss to other objects, they will then maintain a constant
temperature. They are then said to be in thermal equilibrium.
For an example, if you take a can of cola from the refrigerator and leave it on the kitchen
table, its temperature will rise- rapidly at first but then more slowly until the temperature of
the cola equals that of the room (the two are then in thermal equilibrium). In generalizing this
situation, we describe the cola or coffee as a system (with temperature TS) and the relevant
part of the kitchen as the environment (with temperature TE) of that system. Our observation
is that if TS is not equal to TE, then TS will change until the two temperatures are equal and
thus thermal equilibrium is reached.
Such a change in temperature is due to the transfer of energy between the thermal energy of
the system and the systems environment. It may be mentioned that thermal energy is an
internal energy that consists of the kinetic and potential energies associated with the random
motions of the atoms, molecules and other microscopic bodies within an object. The
transferred energy is called heat and is symbolized Q. Heat is positive when energy is
transferred to a systems thermal energy from its environment (we say that heat is absorbed).
Heat is negative when energy is transferred from a systems thermal energy to to its
environment (we say that heat is released or lost).
We are then led to this definition of heat:
Heat is the energy that is transferred between a system and its environment because
of a temperature difference that exists between them.
Recall that energy can also transferred between a system and its environment as work W via
a force acting on a system. Heat and work, unlike temperature, pressure, and volume, are not
intrinsic properties of a system. They have meaning only as they describe the transfer of
energy into or out of a system.
Let us now look into the Molecular Theory of Matter for an explanation of heat and
temperature. Molecular Theory of Matter states that matter is made up of tiny particles called
molecules. These particles are in constant motion within the bounds of the material. Since the
2
relationship between kinetic energy of an object and its velocity is: KE = mv , which means
that the more energy an object has, the faster it is traveling (or vice versa). Thus, when you
provide extra energy to an object, you cause its molecules to speed up. Those molecules, in

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turn, can cause other molecules to speed up. The sum effect of the speed or energy of these
molecules is the phenomenon we call heat. Molecules can go into high-energy motion,
causing heat, from various energy sources such as light, chemical reactions, electrical
resistance, friction and nuclear reactions.
In this way, heat is defined as "the total kinetic energy of all the molecules of a body" and
temperature is a measure of the average internal molecular kinetic energy of an object.

Heat

( KE )
i 1

5.1.2 Units of Heat

Before scientists realized that heat is transferred energy, heat was measured in terms of its
ability to raise the temperature of water. Thus, the calorie (cal) was defined as the amount of
0
0
heat that would raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C.
In 1948, the scientific community decided that since heat (like work) is transferred energy, the
SI unit for heat should be the one we use for energy, namely, the joule. The calorie is now
defined to be 4.1860 J (exactly). The calorie used in nutrition is really is kilocalorie.
1.

Calorie (cal): It is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 g

o
o
of water from 14.5 C to 15.5 C. (1 cal=4.186 J)
Kilocalorie (kcal): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
o
kg of pure water through 1 C.
British Thermal Units (BTU): It is defined as the quantity of heat required to
o
raise the temperature of 1 pound (lb) of pure water through 1 F. It is also referred
to as pound-degree Fahrenheit unit.

2.
3.

Conversion: 1 B.T.U = 251.996 Cal (or 252 Cal)

1 calorie = 4.186 Joule (or 4.2 joule)

5.1.3 Scales of Temperature

There are three main scales of temperature:
(1) Centigrade or Celsius Scale
(2) Kelvin Scale
(3) Fahrenheit Scale
C F 32 K 273
Conversion:

5
9
5

5.2 Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids

5.2.1 Heat Capacity (The Storage of Thermal Energy)
The heat capacity C (capital C), of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of that substance by one Celsius degree.
For a substance if Q amount of heat is needed to raise the temperature by T then the heat
capacity of the system can be defined as

Q
T
o

-1

-1

From the above equation we find the unit of heat capacity as cal. C or J K .

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5.2.2 Specific Heat

If Q is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of m kg of the substance
through T Kelvin, then

Q m and Q T
Combining these two relation we can write

Q = m c T

c=

Or,

DQ C
=
mDT m

where c (small c) is the constant called specific heat of substance.

Thus the specific heat of a material is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of a substance by one Kelvin or 1 C is known as specific
-1 -1
-1 0 -1
heat of the substance." The unit of specific heat as J.kg K in S.I. system or cal.g C in
C.G.S. system.
-1

-1

-1

-1

The specific heat of water is 1 cal.g C = 4186 J.kg K which is higher than any other
common substance. As a result, water plays a very important role in temperature regulation.
The specific heat per gram for water is much higher than that for a metal, hence it takes a lot
of heat to change the temperature of water.

5.2.3 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

The mechanical equivalent of heat (J) is defined as the amount of work that is necessary to
produce one unit (calorie) of heat.
J = 4.186
joules/cal
7
J = 4.186 x 10 ergs/cal
J = 778
ft-lbs/ B.Th.U

5.2.4 Latent Heat

Latent heat describes the amount of energy in the form of heat that is required for a material
to undergo a change of phase. A solid consists of molecules that are tightly bound to each
other by forces acting between them. Energy must be supplied in the form of heat to
overcome these forces. As the bonding forces weaken, groups of molecules break free, and
as more heat is supplied the solid changes into a liquid, in which small groups of molecules
constantly break apart, and reform and groups slide freely past each other. While this is
happening, the temperature of the substance remains unchanged. All of the heat energy is
used in loosening the bonds between molecules.
If still more energy is applied, it has the effect of making the groups of molecules move faster.
When they move faster they strike harder against any object with which they come into
contact. It is the speed of motion of molecules that a thermometer measures as temperature.
Once a solid has melted to become a liquid, the application of additional heat raises the
temperature of the liquid.
When a liquid is cooled, its molecules lose energy and move more slowly, and the
temperature of the liquid falls. When their energy falls to a certain level the molecules start
bonding together. This requires less energy than moving about, and so heat energy is
released as the liquid solidifies. The temperature of the substance remains unchanged, but
the surrounding medium is warmed by the release of energy.

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For a phase change, the heat liberated or absorbed is given by

Q ml
where m is the mass of the substance and l is the latent heat of fusion (latent heat of melting)
or latent heat of vaporization.

Figure 5.1: Phase changes of water by absorbing and releasing heat.

How much heat does it take to get water to change state? If the water is at a temperature of
100 degrees C (that is, the boiling point, or 212 degrees F) it takes an additional 540 calories
of heat to convert one gram of water from the liquid state to the vapor state. When the vapor
converts to the liquid state, 540 calories of energy will be released per gram of water. If you
are converting solid water (ice) to liquid water at 0 degrees C, it will require about 80 calories
of heat to melt one gram of ice, and the 80 calories will be released when the liquid water is
frozen to the solid state.

5.4.1 Latent Heat of Fusion

When a solid substance changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase, energy must be
supplied in order to overcome the molecular attractions between the constituent particles of
the solid. This energy must be supplied externally, normally as heat, and does not bring about
a change in temperature.

Figure 5.2: Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid. In the process of fusion, the
molecule absorbs energy. This energy is latent heat.
The units of heat of fusion are usually expressed as joules per mole (the SI units) or calories
per gram or Btu per pound-mole

l fusion 80 cal/gm or 334 kJ/kg

The specific latent heat of fusion is defined as

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"The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of heat required to
convert unit mass of the solid into the liquid without a change in temperature."
-1

The specific latent heat of fusion of ice at 0 C, for example, is 334 kJ.kg . This means that to
convert 1 kg of ice at 0 C to 1 kg of water at 0 C, 334 kJ of heat must be absorbed by the
ice. Conversely, when 1 kg of water at 0 C freezes to give 1 kg of ice at 0 C, 334 kJ of heat
will be released to the surroundings.

5.4.2 Latent Heat of Vaporization

How did you make the water evaporate? Probably you added heat. You might have set it out
in the sun, or possibly put it over a fire. To make water evaporate, you put energy into it. The
individual molecules in the water absorb that energy, and get so energetic that they break the
hydrogen bonds connecting them to other water molecules. They become molecules of water
vapor.

Figure 5.3: Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to vapor. In the process of evaporation,
the molecule absorbs energy. This energy is latent heat.
For water,

lvaporization 540 cal/gm or 2260kJ/kg

The definition of the specific latent heat of vaporization is
'The specific latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert unit
mass of a liquid into the vapour without a change in temperature."
For water at its normal boiling point of 100 C, the latent specific latent heat of vaporization is
-1
2260 kJ.kg . This means that to convert 1 kg of water at 100 C to 1 kg of steam at 100 C,
2260 kJ of heat must be absorbed by the water. Conversely, when 1 kg of steam at 100 C
condenses to give 1 kg of water at 100 C, 2260 kJ of heat will be released to the
surroundings.

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5.4.3 Heating / Cooling Curves

Figure 5.4: The diagram shows the uptake of heat by 1 kg of water, as it passes from ice at -50
C to steam at temperatures above 100 C, affects the temperature of the sample.
In the graph,
A: Rise in temperature as ice absorbs heat.
B: Absorption of latent heat of fusion.
C: Rise in temperature as liquid water absorbs heat.
D: Water boils and absorbs latent heat of vaporization.
E: Steam absorbs heat and thus increases its temperature.
The above is an example of a heating curve. One could reverse the process, and obtain a
cooling curve. The flat portions of such curves indicate the phase changes.

5.5 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The "zeroth law" states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then
they must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Figure 5.5: Zeroth Law: If bodies A and B are each

in thermal equilibrium with a third body C (the
thermometer), then A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

This law states that if object A is in thermal equilibrium with

object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C,
then object C is also in thermal equilibrium with object A.
The message of the zeroth law is: Every body has a property called temperature. Two
objects are defined to have the same temperature if they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This law allows us to build thermometers. For example the length of a mercury column
(object B) may be used as a measure to compare the temperatures of the two other objects.
The zeroth law, which has been called a logical afterthought, came to light only in 1930s, long
after the first and second laws of thermodynamics had been discovered and numbered.
Because the concept of temperature is fundamental to those two laws, the law that
establishes temperature as a valid concept should have the lowest number-hence the zero.
The zeroth law has a fairly straightforward statistical interpretation and this will allow us to
begin to establish the equivalence between the statistical definitions and the conventional
thermodynamic ones.

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5.6 First Law of Thermodynamics

The energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. This principle is
based on experimental observations and is known as the first law of thermodynamics or the
conservation of energy principle.

Mathematical Representation: Let a system absorbs Q amount of heat energy.

Addition of heat energy increases the internal energy of system from U 1 to U2 and some
useful work is also performed by the system.
Increase in internal energy is given by:
U = U1 U2 and work done is W
According to the first law of thermodynamics:

Q = U + W

(+)

Sign Convention:

(-)

Q = positive if heat is added to a system

Q = negative if heat is released from a system
W = positive if work is done by the system
W = negative if work is done on the system

SYSTEM
(-)

(+)
Figure 5.6: Sign Convention of heat
and work done.

For a gas, the internal energy, U, is directly proportional to its temperature measured in
Kelvin. This means that U only reflects a change in the kinetic energy of the gas molecules.
Remember that the potential energy can not change except when there is a phase change:
liquid to solid or liquid to vapor.

5.6.1 Work Done by Gas (Pressure-Volume work)

Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless and weightless non-conducting piston of area of
cross-section "A" as shown in Fig. An ideal gas is enclosed in the cylinder. Let the volume of
gas at initial state is "V1". An external pressure "P" is exerted on the piston.
If we supply "Q" amount of heat to the system then it will increase its internal energy by U.
"After a certain limit gas exerts pressure on the piston. If piston is free to move, it will be
displaced by "h" & volume of system increases from V1 to V2.

We know that pressure is the force per unit

area i.e.
We also know that the work done by the
gas on the piston for a displacement h is
given by
But Ah = change or increase in volume =
V
Hence
W = PV
Figure 5.7: Work done by gas by absorbing heat
and increasing the volume.

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5.6.2 Application of the First Law to Gas Processes, Four

Special Cases
The variables that give the state of the gas P, V, and T are seen to be important, along with
the thermodynamic variables Q, U, and W. In principle, all six of these could change, but
there are some interrelations that reduce the freedom of independent adjustment. With one or
more variables being kept constant, we select four to illustrate the versatility of
thermodynamics:

Quantity held constant

Type of process

Constant volume, Isochoric

Constant pressure, Isobaric

Constant temperature, Isothermal

No heat flow, Adiabatic

In discussing each of these cases, we shall make reference to the trends of pressure and
volume on the P-V diagram.

5.6.2.1. Constant volume, V = 0, Isochoric

Heat supplied at constant volume is also known as "ISOCHORIC
SYSTEM". An isochoric process is one in which the volume of
system during the supply of heat does not change. This is
achieved only when the piston of cylinder is fixed.
Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. An ideal gas is
enclosed in the cylinder. The piston is fixed at a particular
position so that the volume of cylinder remains constant during
the supply of heat.

(a)

Let Q amount of heat is added to the system. Addition of heat

causes the following changes in the system:
Internal energy increases from U1 to U2.
Volume of the system remains unchanged.
Temperature increases from T 1 K to T2 K.
Pressure increases from P1 to P2.
No work is performed.

(b)

Applying First Law of Thermodynamics

But
Thus ,
As ,

Q U W
W P V
Q U P V
V 0
Q U P (0)
Q U

Figure 5.8: For isochoric process:

(a) Work done and (b) P-V diagram.

This expression indicates that the heat supplied under isochoric process is consumed in
increasing the internal energy of the system but no work is performed.

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5.6.2.2. Constant Pressure P = 0,

Isobaric Process
A thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system
remains constant during the supply of heat is called an
ISOBARIC PROCESS.
Explanation:
Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. The piston
is free to move in the cylinder. An ideal gas is enclosed in the
cylinder.

(a)

Let the initial volume of the system is V1 and initial internal

energy is U1. Let QP the gas is heated from T1 K to T2 K. Addition of
heat causes the following changes in the system:
Internal energy increases from U1 to U2.
Volume of the system increases from V1 to V2.
Temperature increases from T 1 K to T2 K.
Work (W) is done by the gas on the piston.

(b)

According to the first law of thermodynamics:

Q U W

But
Thus ,
As ,

W P V
Q U P V
V (V 2 V1 )

Figure 5.9: For isobaric process:

(a) Work done and (b) P-V diagram.

5.6.2.3. Constant Temperature T = 0,

Isothermal Process
A thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system
remains constant during the supply of heat is called an ISOTHERMAL
PROCESS.

Isothermal Compression:
Figure 5.10: P-V diagram for
Consider a cylinder of non-conducting walls and good heat conducting
isothermal process.
base. The cylinder is fitted with a frictionless piston. An ideal gas is
enclosed in the cylinder. In the first stage pressure on the piston is increased and the cylinder
is placed on a cold body. Due to compression, the temperature of the system increases but at
the same time Q amount of heat is removed from the system and the temperature of the
system is maintained.
According to the first law of thermodynamics:
Since temperature is constant, therefore, there is no change in internal energy of the system,
i.e. U=0.
As the work is done on the system, therefore, W is negative,
Q 0 W

But

W PV

Thus,

Q W

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Isothermal Expansion:
In another situation the cylinder is placed over a hot body and the pressure on the system is
decreased. Due to expansion, the temperature of the system is decreased but at the same
time
again maintained.
According to the first law of thermodynamics:
Q U W
Since temperature is constant, therefore, there is no change in internal energy of the system,
i.e. U = 0
As the work is done by the system, therefore, W is positive,

Q 0 W
Thus, Q W

5.6.2.4. No Heat Flow Q = 0, Adiabatic

Process

Insulation

A thermodynamic process in which no heat flows to or from the

system and hence

QAB 0
Sometimes we say that the system is thermally isolated but this
condition does not mean that temperature is constant. In fact all
the thermodynamic variables P, V, and T change in an adiabatic
process.
Applying First Law of Thermodynamics:
Q = U+ W

Q=0

Adiabatic
System

(a)

U A B W A B
This tells us that if work is done by the system (that is, if W is
positive), the internal energy of the system decreases by the
amount of work. Conversely, if work is done on the system
(that is, if W is negative), the internal energy of the system
increases by that amount.
In an idealized adiabatic process, heat cannot enter or leave
the system because of the insulation. Thus, the only way
energy can be transferred between the system and its
environment is by work. If we remove shot from the position
and allow the gas to expand, the work done by the system
(the gas) is positive and the internal energy of the gas
decreases. If, instead, we add shot and compress the gas,
the work done by the system is negative and the internal
energy of the gas increases.

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(b)

Figure 5.11: For adiabatic process:

(a) Heat flow and (b) P-V diagram.

5.7 Reversible and Irreversible Process

Reversible Process: A process that, once having taken place, can be reversed and in
doing so leaves no change in either the system or the surroundings. Net work and net heat
transfer must be zero. A reversible process is an ideal that we never achieve all processes
are irreversible.
Why do we study reversible processes?
They are ideals that we can shoot for. They are standards to which we can compare different
processes.

Irreversible Process: An irreversible process is such that it cannot be traced in the

opposite direction by reversing the controlling factors. Causes of irreversibility:
- Friction
- Unrestrained expansion
- Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
- Mixing of different substances
- Others (chemical reactions, inelastic deformation of solids, electric resistance)
During an irreversible process heat energy is always used to overcome friction. Energy is also
dissipated in the form of conduction and radiation. This loss takes place whether the engine
works on one direction or the reverse direction. Such energy cannot be regained. In actual
practice all engine is irreversible.
If electric current is passed through a wire, heat is produced. If the direction of current is
reversed heat is again produced. This is also an example of an irreversible process.

5.8 Carnot Reversible Engine

Heat engine are used to convert heat into mechanical work. Sadi Carnot (French) conceived
a theoretical engine which is free from all defects of practical engines. Its efficiency is
maximum and it is an ideal heat engine.
For any engine, there are three essential requisites:
(i) Source (ii) Sink and (iii) Working substance

Conducting

Piston
Cylinder

Conducting

Working
Substance

Source

Insulating

Conducting

Sink

Stand
At T1

At T2

Figure
5.12:
Carnots
Reversible
Engine.
Fig:
Carnots
Reversible
Engine

(i) Source: The source should be at a fixed high temperature T1 from which the heat engine
can draw heat. It has infinite thermal capacity and any amount of heat can be drawn from it at
constant temperature T1.

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(ii) Sink: The sink should be at a fixed lower temperature T 2 to which any amount of heat can
be rejected. It has infinite thermal capacity and its temperature remains constant at T 2.
(iii) Working Substance: A cylinder with non-conducting sides and conducting bottom
contains the perfect gas as the working substance.
A perfect non-conducting and frictionless piston is fitted into the cylinder. The working
substance undergoes a complete cyclic operation.
A perfectly non-conducting stand is also provided so that the working substance can undergo
adiabatic operation.

5.8.1 Working Principle of a Carnot Engine

T1
adiabatic
Q=0

An ideal cycle of reversible engine operations in which a

substance maintain the following four processes:
-

isothermal
Q in
Net work
done

adiabatic
Q=0

T2

Reversible isothermal expansion

Reversible adiabatic expansion
Reversible isothermal compression
Reversible adiabatic compression

isothermal
Q out

FigureFig:
5.13:
Carnots
Carnon
Cycle Cycle.
Step-1: Place the engine containing the working substance over the source at temperature
T1. The working substance is also at temperature T 1. Its pressure is P1 and volume is V1 as
shown by the point A in Fig. Decrease the pressure. The volume of the working substance
increases. Work is done by the working substance. As the bottom is perfectly conducting to
the source at temperature T 1, it absorbs heat. The process is completely isothermal. The
temperature remains constant. Let the amount of heat absorbed by the working substance be
Q1 at the temperature T1. The point B is obtained.
Consider one gram molecule of the working substance work done from A to B (Isothermal
Process)

W1

V2

P .dV (1)

PV RT1

RT1
V

RT1
dV
V
dV
RT1 VV2
1 V
V
RT1 ln 2 (2)
V1

W1 VV2
1

Step-2: Place the engine on the stand having an insulated top. Decrease the pressure on the
working substance. The volume increases. The process is completely adiabatic. Work is done
by the working substance at the cost of its internal energy. The temperature falls. The working
substance undergoes adiabatic change from B to C. At C the temperature is T 2.
Work done from B to C (adiabatic process)

PV Cons tant

12 | P a g e
P

Cons tant
V

W2 V 3 P .dV (3)
2
V

W2

V3 Cons tan t

cons tan t

V3 dV

V2

dV
V3

V 1
cons tan t
1V

PV P1V1 P2V2 cons tan t

PV RT

V 1
V 1
P3V 3 3
P2V 2 2
1
1
PV
P V P2V 2 R (T2 T1 )
PV
3 3 2 2 3 3

1 1
1
1

Here

Cp
Cv

R(T1 T2 )
( 4)
1

W2

(iii) Step 3: Place the engine on the sink at temperature T2. Increase the pressure. The
work is done on the working substance. As the base is conducting to the sink, the process is
isothermal. A quantity of heat Q2 is rejected to the sink at temperature T 2. Finally the point D
is reached.
Work done from C to D (isothermal process)

W3

V4

P .dV (5)

RT2
dV
V
dV
RT2 VV4
3 V
V
RT2 ln 4
V3

PV RT2 P

W3 VV4
3

RT2 ln

RT2
V

V3
(6)
V4

The ve sign indicates that work is done on the working substance.

(iii) Step 4: Place the engine on the insulating stand. Increase the pressure. The volume
decreases. The process is completely adiabatic. The temperature rises and finally the point A
is reached.
Work done from D to A (adiabatic process)

W4

V1

P .dV

R(T1 T2 )
(7)
1

W 2 and W 4 are equal and opposite and cancel each other.

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Net work done = W 1 + W 3

V
V
RT1 ln 2 RT2 ln 4
V1
V3
V
V
RT1 ln 2 RT2 ln 3 (8)
V1
V4

5.8.2 Efficiency of a Heat Engine

In common-sense language,

efficiency =

output
input

For a heat engine, we are giving heat energy as input and we are getting work as output. So
the efficiency of a heat engine can be written as
Efficiency of a heat engine

W net
------------------------ (9)
Q in

From First Law of Thermodynamics we know that Q = U+ W.

But over the course of a cycle, the gas returns to its original state, so there can be no net
change in the internal energy. Thus U = 0, so we have Q = 0+ W
But the net heat added Q = Qin - Qout.
So, the net work done by the gas "W net". So we have
Therefore, the efficiency of a heat engine

Wnet = Qin - Qout.

Qin Qout
Q
1 out ---------------------- (10)
Qin
Qin

Efficiency in terms of temperature:

Qin RT1 ln

V2
V1

Q out RT2 ln

V4
V3

V
ln 4
Q out T2
V3

Qin
T1 ln V2
V1

Since ln

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V2
V
= ln 4 , then we can write,
V1
V3

Q out
T
1 2 (11)
Q in
T1

Solved Problems
Problem 1: Given that the specific heat capacity of water is 11 times that of copper,

calculate the mass of copper at a temperature of 100 C required to raise the

temperature of 150 g of water from 30.0 C to 34.0 C, assuming no energy is lost to
the surroundings.
Solution:
Let specific heat capacity of copper, Sc cal/gC. Then specific heat capacity of water, Sw =
11Sc cal/gC.
Since no energy is lost to the surroundings, we can write
Heat lost by the hot body = Heat gained by the cold body
mcSc(100 34) = mwSw(34 30)
or mcSc 66 = 150 11Sc 4
or mc = 100 g

(Ans.)

Problem 2: A series of thermodynamic processes is shown in the pV-diagram of

adjacent figure. In process ab, 150 J of heat are added to the system, and in
process bd, 600 J of heat are added. Find [1] the internal energy change in process
ab; [2] the internal energy change in process abd; and [3]
the total heat added in process acd.
P
b
4
8.0 x 10 Pa
Solution:
[1] Since, no volume change occurs during process ab, so W ab
= 0 and Uab = Qab= 150 J.
[2] Process bd occurs at constant pressure, so the work done
by the system during this expansion is
4
-3
3
-3
3
W ab=p[V2 V1]=[8.0x10 Pa][5.0x10 m 2.0x10 m ] = 240
J

3.0 x 10 Pa

The total work for process abd is

c
-3

2.0 x 10 m

W abd = W ab + W bd =0 + 240 J = 240 J

and the total heat is
Qabd = Qab + Qbd = 150 J+ 600 J = 750 J
Applying First law of thermodynamics, we get
Uabd = Qabd W abd = 750 J 240 J = 510 J
[3] Since, U is independent of path, the internal energy change is the same for path acd
as for path abd ; that is,
Uacd= Uabd = 510 J.
The total work for the path acd is
4

-3

-3

W acd = W ac+ W cd = p[V2 V1] + 0 = [3.0x10 Pa][5.0x10 m 2.0x10 m ]= 90 J

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-3

5.0 x 10 m

Therefore, total heat added in the process acd :

Qacd = Uacd + W acd = 510 J + 90 J = 600 J
3

Problem 3: One gram of water [1 cm ] becomes 1671 cm of steam when boiled at a

5
constant pressure of 1 atm [1.013x10 Pa]. The heat of vaporization at this pressure
6
is LV = 2.256x10 J/kg. Compute [a] the work done by the water when it vaporizes;
[b] its increase in internal energy.
Solution: [a] For a constant pressure process, work done by the vaporizing water:
5

-6

-6

W = p[V2 V1] = [1.013x10 Pa][1671x10 m 1.0x10 m ] = 169 J

[b] The heat added to water is the heat of vaporization:
-3

Q = mLv = [10 kg] [ 2.256x10 J/kg] = 2256 J.

Therefore, change in internal energy:
U = Q W = 2256 J 169 J = 2087 J.
So, to vaporize one gram of water, we have to add 2256 J of heat. Most of this added
energy [2087 J] remains in the system as an increase in internal energy. The remaining
169 J leaves the system again as it does work against the surroundings while expanding
from liquid to vapor.

Problem 4: (i) How much heat is needed to take ice of mass m = 720 g at -10 C to a
o
liquid state at 15 C? (ii) If we supply the ice with a total heat only 210 kJ, what then
is the final state of the water?
Solution:
o
Heat needed to reach the temperature 0 C for ice,
Q1 = miceSiceT = 7200.5( 0 ( -10)) cal= 3600 cal = 15120 J = 15.12 kJ
Heat needed to melt ice,
Q2 = miceLice = 72080 cal = 57600 cal = 241920 J = 241.92 kJ
o
Heat needed to raise the temperature of water to 15 C,
Q3 = mwSwT = 7201(150) cal = 10800 cal
Now the total heat required,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 3600 + 57600 + 10800 = 72000 cal = 302400 J = 302.4 kJ
But the supplied heat is 210 KJ.
Now we see that total ice will not melt because of supplying heat is smaller than
required to melt total ice.
Now the remaining heat = 210 15.12 = 194.88 kJ = 194880 J = 46400 cal
Now we consider that m g ice will melt.
So we can write
mLice = 46400 cal
m 80 cal/g = 46400 cal
or m = 580 g
So the remaining mass of the ice = 720 580 = 140 g

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(Ans.)

Problem Sheet 05
1. A certain diet doctor encourages people to diet by drinking ice water. His theory is
that the body must burn off enough fat to raise the temperature of the water from 0.0
0
0
C to the body temperature of 37.0 C. How many liters of ice water would have to be
consumed to burn off 454 g (about 1 lb) of fat, assuming that burning this much fat
requires 3500 Cal (kcal) be transferred to the ice water? Why is it not advisable to
3
3
3
follow this diet? (One liter = 10 cm , the density of water is 1.00 g/cm )
2. How much water remains unfrozen after 50.2 kJ is transferred as heat from 260 g of
liquid water initially at its freezing point?
3. A small electric immersion heater is used to heat 100 g of water for a cup of instant
coffee. The heater is labeled "200 watts" (it converts electrical energy to thermal
0
energy at this rate). Calculate the time required to bring all this water from 23.0 C to
0
100 C, ignoring any heat losses.
3

4. An insulated Thermos contains 130 cm of hot coffee at 80.0 C. You put in a I2.0 g
ice cube at its melting point to cool the coffee. By how many degrees has your coffee
cooled once the ice has melted and equilibrium is reached? Treat the coffee as
though it were pure water and neglect energy exchanges with the environment.
5. Determine the change in the internal energy of a system that (i) absorbs 580 cal of
thermal energy and 620 J of work is done by the system. (ii) releases 720 cal of
thermal energy while 680 J of external work is done on the system. (iii) maintains at a
constant volume while 1430 cal of heat is removed from the system.
0

6. A Carnot engine operates between 240 C and 100 C, absorbing 3.35x10 J per
cycle at the higher temperature. (i) What is the efficiency of the engine? (ii) How
much work per cycle is this engine capable of performing?
7. A Carnot engine has a power output of 120 kW. The engine operates between two
o
o
reservoirs at 42 C and 550 C. (i) How much thermal energy is absorbed per minutes?
(ii) How much thermal energy is lost per minutes?
o

8. The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B and C are 12 C, 19 C

o
o
and 28 C respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 16 C and when B
o
and C are mixed is 23 C. What would be the temperature when A and C are mixed?
0

9. What would be the final temperature of the mixture when 5 gm of ice at -10 C are
0
0
mixed with 30 gm of water at 20 C? (Sp. heat of ice = 0.5 cal/gm- C; latent heat of
fusion of ice = 80cal/gm.)
0

10. An aluminium container of mass 150 gm contains 250 gm of ice at -12 C.Heat is
added to the system at the rate of 420 joules per seconds. What is the temperature of
o
the system after 3.5 minutes? Specific heat of aluminium = 840 J/(kg C).

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