WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 1.3
Pressure Altimeter
Introduction
The earth is surrounded by a gaseous envelope, which is divided into several concentric layers
that extend outwards from the earth's surface, up to a height of approximately 900 km
(500 miles). The lowest layer is called the Troposphere, and extends to an altitude of
approximately 36,000 ft in temperate latitudes, whilst the outer layer is called the Exosphere.
The atmosphere is held in contact with the earth by the force of gravity, which decreases
steadily with increasing distance from the earth's surface, as does the atmospheric pressure,
eg. at the Tropopause, the pressure is approximately one quarter of its sea level value. Air
density is directly proportional to atmospheric pressure and similarly reduces with increasing
altitude. Another factor, which affects the atmosphere, is temperature, which also steadily
decreases with increasing altitude up to the Tropopause (36090 feet ISA), and thereafter
remains constant.
Relative to altitude, these variables are difficult to continuously measure and compensate for, so
the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) formulated a table in which the values of
pressure, temperature and density vary at a prescribed rate (with altitude). This table was
accepted internationally as a reference (datum) and is known as the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA), against which aeroplane performance can be compared, and air data
instruments calibrated. The following table shows how pressure, temperature and density vary
with increasing altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere. (ISA).
Altitude
(metres) (feet)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000

0
6562
13124
19686
26248
32810
39372
45934
52496

Pressure
(hPa)

Temperature
(C)

Density
(Kg/m3)

1013.25
795
612
472
357
265
194
142
104

15
2
-11
-24
-37
-50
-56.5
-56.5
-56.5

1.225
1.007
0.819
0.660
0.526
0.414
0.312
0.288
0.166

Pressure altimeters or aneroid barometers make use of the fact that the pressure in the
atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude, and are thus calibrated in terms of ISA to show
altitude instead of barometric pressure.
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude above the standard datum 1013.25 hPa or mbs (29.92 inch of
mercury).
Density Altitude
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for temperature. Pressure and density are the
same when conditions are standard. As the temperature rises above standard, the density of
the air will decrease and the density altitude will increase.

1-3-1

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

The Simple Altimeter
The altimeter is an instrument that is designed to measure static pressure and, using the
conditions of the standard atmosphere, convert that pressure into a value of altitude, eg. if the
pressure measured is 472 hPa, then a calibrated altimeter will indicate 19686 feet.
A simple or non-sensitive altimeter comprises of a partially evacuated barometric (Aneroid)
capsule, a leaf spring, a mechanical linkage and a pointer, as shown below.

STATIC
PRESSURE
FROM
STATIC VENT

POINTER

LEAF
SPRING
GRADUATED
CARD

GLASS
FACE

ANEROID
CAPSULE
DIAL
SETTING
KNOB
LINKAGE

These components are all housed in a container, which is supplied with static pressure from the
static vent system. As an aeroplane climbs the static pressure will decrease, which will cause
the capsule to expand and drive the pointer to indicate a higher altitude. As an aeroplane
descends, the capsule will compress due to the increasing static pressure, and the pointer will
indicate a lower altitude. The leaf spring in the instrument is designed to prevent the capsule
from collapsing and acts as a balance between the capsule and the static pressure. The
altimeter is normally calibrated at ISA +15C and 1013.2mb (hPa) until it reads zero, although
the datum can be adjusted via the sub-scale dial setting knob. This allows the instrument to be
adjusted for different values of mean sea level (msl), and heights above an aerodrome at which
the altimeter will read zero.
Datum Sub-scale Settings
The setting of altimeters to datum barometric pressures forms part of the flight operating
procedures, and is essential for maintaining adequate separation between aeroplanes and
terrain clearance during take-off and landing. These settings have been adopted universally and

1-3-2

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

form part of the ICAO "Q" code of communication, which consists of three-letter groups, each
having "Q" as the first letter. The codes normally used in relation to altimeter settings are:QFE. The pressure prevailing at an airfield, the setting of which on the altimeter subscale will cause the altimeter to read zero on landing and take-off.
QNE. Setting the standard mean sea level pressure of 1013.25 hPa to make the
altimeter read the airfield elevation, ie. the equivalent height in ISA above the 1013.25
hPa pressure level. When QNE is set, the altimeter will indicate the pressure altitude,
which is the reported flight level. Flight levels occur at 500 ft intervals and are
calculated by dividing the pressure altitude by 100, eg. a pressure altitude of 10,000 ft
will equate to FL 100.
QNH. This is the actual msl pressure. Setting the pressure scale will cause the
altimeter to read the airfield altitude above sea level on landing and take-off. This
setting is also handy for checking the height above terrain or a radio mast.

2610'

CONSTANT
LEVEL

1020

3210'

1013

3000'

1000

HEIGHT ABOVE QFE LEVEL

PRESS ALTITUDE

ALTITUDE
ABOVE M.S.L.

1000 MBS AIRFIELD QFE

ABOVE 1013 MBS SAS

1020 MBS QNH

1 MB = 30 FEET APPROXIMATELY

If the aeroplane remains at the same altitude winding on hecto Pascals or millibars will wind on
more height and vice versa
The Sensitive Altimeter
The sensitive altimeter is essentially the same as the simple altimeter but employs a minimum
of two aneroid capsules. This provides for a more accurate measurement of pressure and also
provides more power to drive the mechanical linkage.

1-3-3

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

The capsules are stacked together with one face fastened down, which permits movement due
to pressure changes at the other end. The movement of the capsules in response to changes in
altitude (pressure) is transmitted via a suitable mechanical linkage to three pointers that display
(against a graduated instrument scale) the aeroplane altitude in tens, hundreds and thousands
of feet. The whole assembly is encased in a container, which is fed with static pressure, but is
otherwise completely airtight. Within the mechanical linkage a bi-metallic insert is fitted to
compensate for temperature changes that could affect the movement. As the aeroplane climbs
and air pressure falls, the capsules will expand; similarly, as the aeroplane descends, the static
pressure will increase and the capsules will contract. Since it is necessary to allow for different
values of mean sea level pressure and also to allow the altimeter to be used for indicating
altitude above the aerodrome, the altimeter is similarly provided with a means of adjusting the
level at which it will indicate zero feet. This is done via a barometric subscale mechanism, which
adjusts the mechanical linkage and operates a set of digital counters, or calibrated dial. This is
displayed in a window in the face of the altimeter, and is the datum pressure setting above
which the instrument is now displaying altitude. The desired setting is again made using the
knurled knob at the bottom of the instrument.
Altimeter Displays
A number of different types of pressure altimeter are manufactured; however, they differ in
detail depending on the altitude band covered, the accuracy of the instrument, and the method
by which the altitude is displayed. Types of display vary from multi-needle to needle plus digital
counters, with accuracy varying from 100 feet at 0 feet to 1,000 feet at 35,000 feet in early
models, to 35 feet at 0 feet to 600 feet at 60,000 feet in later models.

1-3-4

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

A selection of typical displays is shown above; including an instrument face showing a sector
flag, barber pole display or low altitude warning sector. The sector flag, which has stripes in
black and white, appears in a window when the altitude is 16,000 feet or lower, giving the flight
crew a clear warning of approaching low altitudes during rapid descents.
The control of aeroplanes along the many air-routes in the vicinity of modern airports requires
that an aeroplanes lateral and vertical position be constantly and accurately monitored if
potentially hazardous air traffic situations are to be avoided. To provide an automated
transmission of altitude (flight level), two digitisers are normally fitted to modern altimeters. The
digitisers are fitted inside the instrument case, as illustrated in the diagram on the next page,
and are connected by a common gearing to the main shaft.

1-3-5

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

The angular position taken up by the rotors of each digitiser relative to its stator determines the
value of a pulsed digital signal, which is produced by the assembly. The digital pulses are fed to
a code converter where any ambiguity is resolved, and the total reply pulse is modified into a
coded response suitable for use by an SSR transponder. The digitised altitude signal is not
affected by changes to the hecto Pascals, (millibars) counter setting, as it is always referenced
to a datum pressure of 1013.25 hPa.
Modern altimeters are also fitted with a vibrator assembly, which is designed to reduce the initial
opposition to motion of the moving parts, and also to reduce any frictional lag in the system. The
electrical supply additionally energises a warning flag solenoid in the digitiser circuit code
converter, which in the event of a power supply failure, will be de-energised, and will allow a
power failure warning flag to appear in an aperture on the dial. At the same time the code
converter will also revert to a recognised fail-safe position of "ALL Zeros".

Design Errors
Altimeters suffer from the following errors:-

1-3-6

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Instrument Error. Since capsule movements must be greatly magnified, it is
impossible to ignore the effect of small irregularities in the mechanism. Certain
manufacturers' tolerances thus have to be accepted, and errors generally increase with
altitude.
Pressure Error. Pressure errors arise because the true external static pressure is not
accurately transmitted to the instrument. A false static pressure arises because of
disturbed airflow in the vicinity of the pressure head or static vent. Pressure error is
negligible at low altitudes and speeds, but becomes more significant with increasing
airspeed. Correction for pressure error takes the form of a correction, which has to be
applied to the indicated altitude, and must be determined by calibration. Air Data
Computers are designed to compensate for this type of error.
Time Lag. Because the response of the capsule and linkage is not instantaneous, the
altimeter needle will tend to lag behind whenever the altitude changes. Subsequent
over-indication during descent could be dangerous, but should be allowed for in rapid
descents. Time lag is virtually eliminated in the servo-assisted altimeter.
Hysterisis Error. The capsules suffer from hysterisis, which can cause a lag in the
instrument reading during a climb or descent.
Errors due to Calibration
The calibration of the altimeter, ie. the conversion of ambient (barometric) pressure to readings
in feet, is normally based on ISA conditions. If the real atmosphere however differs, the
altimeter will not indicate the true vertical distance above the sub-scale datum. The most
significant errors are:Barometric Error. Barometric error occurs when the actual datum level pressure
differs from that to which the subscale has been set. It is caused by the changing
ambient barometric pressure experienced during transit and with the passage of time. If
the aeroplane flies from an area of high pressure into an area of low pressure it will
descend even though the altimeter reading will remain constant.
9

3000FT

3
6

3
6

600FT

4
7

3
6

2000FT
3000FT
2400FT

1000FT
3000FT
MSL

HIGH 1030MB

LOW 1010MB
EFFECTIVE LEVEL OF 1030MB SETTING

The figure above illustrates the effect if the subscale is set to 1030 hPa. A subscale
error of 1 hPa is equivalent to an indicated altitude error of 28 to 30 feet. The QNH has
reduced to 1010 hPa, which will represent a altitude change of approximately 600 feet.
The subscale datum will now be at a point that is effectively 600 feet below sea level,
and this is the level from which the altimeter is measuring.

1-3-7

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Flying into areas of low pressure is therefore potentially dangerous since the altimeter
will over-read, which will result in the flight crew over estimating their clearance from
obstacles. Conversely if the aeroplane flies from a low-pressure area into a highpressure area the altimeter will under-read. When flying at low altitude it is thus good
practice to periodically reset the altimeter to minimise the barometric error.
Ornographic Error. Differences from standard may occur when air is forced to
rise/descend over hills or mountains. Low pressure tends to occur in the lee of
mountains with high pressure on the windward side. Additionally, vertical movement of
air can result in change of temperature from ISA, which will tend to induce further errors
into the altimeter readings.
Temperature Error. Temperature error arises whenever the mean atmospheric
conditions below the aeroplane differ from the standard atmosphere. If the actual
temperature lapse rate differs from the assumed one, then the indicated altitude will be
incorrect. In general, if the air below the aeroplane is warmer than standard, the air will
be less dense (low pressure) and the aeroplane will be higher than indicated.
Conversely if the air is colder than standard, it will be more dense (high pressure), and
the aeroplane will be lower than standard.

The diagram above illustrates the effect of flying from a warm atmosphere into a cold
atmosphere, whilst the surface pressure or subscale setting remains constant. The
correct altitude may be obtained from that indicated by using the navigation computer.
For rule of thumb work, a temperature difference of 10C, from standard, will result in
an error of approximately 4% of the indicated altitude.
Blockages and Leakages
If the static tube or vents become blocked, the pressure within the instrument case will remain
constant and the altimeter will continue to indicate the altitude of the aeroplane when the
blockage occurred, as shown on the next page.
Leaks can also take place either inside or outside the pressure cabin. Within the pressure cabin
the cabin pressure altitude will be shown rather than the true altitude. In some aeroplanes, an
emergency source inside the fuselage is available. The static pressure inside an aeroplane is
however normally different from that external to the fuselage, since it is influenced by blowers,
ventilation, etc, so that a different correction for pressure error is necessary. This is normally
given in the Aeroplane Flight Manual.

1-3-8

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

NO CHANGE OF
STATIC PRESSURE

STATIC
PRESSURE
BLOCKAGE

UNDERREAD

NO CHANGE OF
STATIC PRESSURE

SUB
SCALE
SET
1013
QNH
QFE

OVERREAD

CLIMB

BLOCKAGE

DESCENT

BLOCKAGE

Servo Altimeters
Servo-assisted altimeters use the same basic principles as sensitive altimeters, whereby
pressure changes are measured using the expansion and contraction of evacuated capsules.
The instrument however uses an electrical servomotor to transmit the movement of
conventional aneroid capsules to the instrument display. A digital counter system and a single
pointer indicate the altitude. The counters are visible through four windows and show (reading
from left to right) the altitude in tens of thousands, thousands, hundreds and units of feet. The
pointer moves around the dial, which is calibrated in 50-foot divisions from 0-1,000 feet, and the
combined system indicates altitudes up to 100,000 feet.

The barometric subscale is a conventional drum counter type and is set by a knob on the front
of the instrument. The presentation can be in millibars or inches of mercury, but in some types
both settings are displayed. In this case the displays are interconnected so that any change in
millibars will produce an equivalent change in inches of mercury and vice versa.
Operation of a Servo-Altimeter
The mechanism of a typical servo-altimeter is shown schematically below.

1-3-9

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

In this instrument the pressure sensing capsules are coupled mechanically to an electrical E
and I pick-off assembly, and any movement of the aneroid capsules is transmitted through a
linkage to the "I" bar of the E and I inductive pick-up (transducer). The amplitude of the AC
voltage output from the secondary windings depends on the degree of deflection of the "I" bar,
which is a function of pressure change. When the two air gaps become unequal, the reluctance
of each circuit changes and an electrical output is generated. The actual polarity of the output
signal will depend on whether the capsules expand or contract. The output signal is then
amplified and used to drive a motor whose speed and direction of rotation will depend on the
amplitude and phase of the signal. The motor drives the gear train, which then rotates the
altitude digital counters and the pointer. The motor also drives through a gearing arrangement
and a cam which imparts an angular movement to a cam follower, to which the "E" bar of the
inductive pick-off is attached. Movement of the "E" bar is such that it is driven until it reaches a
position where the air gaps between the "E" and "I" bars once again become equal, thus
completing the servo-loop. The system is very sensitive to small changes in pressure, and
through the motor assembly, provides adequate torque to drive the indicating system.
The datum pressure setting knob is linked to the cam via a gear train and worm shaft, as
shown. Rotation of the knob causes the worm shaft to slide forwards or backwards and rotates
the cam. Angular movement of the cam also alters the relationship between the 'E' and 'I' bars,
resulting in an electrical output which will cause the counters to rotate, and will also drive the
inductive pick-off back to its neutral position. The hPa sub-scale displays the value of the datum
pressure set.
Servo-Altimeter Power Failure
In the event of power failure the servo-altimeter will not function, and warning flags will
immediately be displayed on the dial, indicating that the AC power supply has failed. A standard
sensitive altimeter must thus be provided as a standby instrument.
Altitude Encoding
The servo-altimeter has an altitude encoder (digitiser) incorporated in it to provide a coded
height output, which when transmitted to a remote transponder (SSR) will enable the height
sensed by the capsules to be monitored on the ground, as pressure altitude. The transmitted
pressure altitude is always referenced to 1013.25 mb irrespective of the actual sub-scale setting

1-3-10

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Advantages of Servo-Altimeters
Servo-altimeters have the following advantages over simple and sensitive altimeters:

At high altitude very little pressure change takes place for a given change of
altitude, with the result that capsule movement is considerably less than for the
same change of altitude at lower levels. This factor reduces the efficiency of
ordinary altimeters at high levels, whereas the servomechanism will pick up a
capsule movement as small as 0.0002 inches per thousand feet.

Power transmission gives greater accuracy.

There is practically no time lag between the arrival of a new pressure in the
instrument, and the positioning of the counters.

Being an electrical system, correction for pressure error can be made, and an
altitude-alerting device may be incorporated in the system.

Although conventional altimeters now employ digital presentation, it is generally

more common with servo-altimeters. The digital presentation reduces the possibility
of misreading.

A pointer is still available on the servo-altimeter for use at low level in assessing the
rate of change of altitude.

1-3-11

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Intentionally Left Blank

1-3-12